Sociology of the Family Exam 2
is marriage good for you?
better health (life expectancy, self-rated health, and psychological distress) either marriage causes people to feel better and live longer, or mentally and physically healthier people are more likely to get married
teenage pregnancy
birthrate for teen girls is at an all time low (since stats were taken in the 40s) however, now teens aren't married non-marital birth ratio has increased for teens, even though their birthrate has declined
consequences for teenage mothers
complete less schooling, lower pay, etc. is this due to having a kid or from being poorer in the first place? selection effect- the principle that whenever individuals sort/select themselves into a group nonrandomly, some of the differences among the groups reflect preexisting differences among the individuals some studies show that these women are still more likely to be worse off due to having a child much variation in how their lives turn out
TA lecture reading
demographic changes: later first age of marriage, rise of cohabitation, increase in divorce and instability of unions, delayed childbearing and increase in childlessness; differences in marriage and childbearing by education, and more overlap between work and caregiving demands Time Use time reallocation- domestic work + housework, now add work -> decrease in sleep and leisure time mothers spend less time on domestic work, but similar time on childrearing; fathers spend more time on childcare. Childcare has become more intensive (concerted cultivation) consequences: devotion to family competes with devotion to work zero-sum game: rebalancing time and/or multitasking; working women cut back on leisure and sleep, mothers scale back when childrearing time is most intense (consequences for their career and gender equity in labor market), working parents spend less time together or socializing/civically engaged
hookups
double standard sex in relationships is better for women however, cost of bad hookup is less than the cost of a bad relationship (abusive)
sexuality in committed relationships
extramarital sex- sexual activity by a married person with someone other than their spouse monogamy is the rule disagreement in extramarital sex has increased serial monogamy- a succession of serious monogamous relationships having kids influences the amount of sex someone has
why do people still marry?
fewer are, but most still do reasons: marriage as capstone experience wedding as a status symbol marriage as investment (commitment device; enforceable trust)
Nelson reading part 1
old package deal- men only know how to be fathers indirectly, and if marriage breaks up, these indirect ties with kids are also broken new package deal- radical redefinition of family life that privileges the father-child bond while relegating the father-mother bond to the periphery; staying with mother is ideal but not necessary, father-child bond is direct courtship- language reflected no commitment or exclusivity, proceed quickly to sex and pregnancy, little partner search, happenstance -> conception (not planned), most begin with birth control and then stop; UNPLANNED BUT NOT ACCIDENTAL conception responses- more positive than negative precarious circumstances: 1. unstable relationships- usually just a few months old 2. low human capital- men's economic situations are precarious and have low prospects 3. troubled- often already involved in some form of crime and/or struggling with substance abuse
What is the nature of the teenage pregnancy "problem"?
over the past half-century, the proportion of teenage births that occur outside of marriage has risen sharply because of a decline in marriage among teenagers. Bearing a child as a teenager somewhat reduces a woman's chances of leading an economically successful adult life. Yet some of the disadvantages observed in these cases occur because teenager mothers tend to come from disadvantaged families, not solely because they had a child at a young age.
social constructionist perspective
the belief that human sexual identities are entirely socially constructed evidence: unclear gender boundaries in heterosexual model deep "friendships" of women in older days ancient Greeks and Romans were expected to be bisexual sexual identities vary culture to culture Kinsey Report- stated half of all men would consider having gay sex; concluded that sexuality was a spectrum NSFG- measured sexuality, women more likely to be bi than gay, men equal no clear dividing line between different sexualities
the integrative perspective
the belief that human sexual identities are formed through both biological and social factors evidence: genetic studies with links of specific genes to orientation twin studies; identical twins much more likely to have same sexuality than fraternal still suggest some social factors; half of the identical twins had different! main disagreement- does society completely determine sexual identities?
3 eras of attitudes towards sexuality and love in the US
1. pre 1890- love and attraction not base for picking a spouse, chose for practicality and sex was in moderation 2. 1890-1960- love and attraction viewed as necessary criteria, sexuality identity became important, but sexual expression outside of marriage still criticized 3. 1960s onwards- positive value to sexual expression and gratification has increased, sexual activity viewed as even more private (sex= individual fulfillment)
individualistic marriage
1. self development 2. roles should be flexible and negotiable 3. communication and openness in confronting problems are essential transition- married women get paid jobs, could think about their own fulfillment also increasing standards of living
second shift
1. gap between women and men has narrowed 2. most of the narrowing is because women spent less time, not because men spent more 3. stopped narrowing in late 90s, even widened since buy childcare; dads don't increase amount of time with kids when wives are employed, but the time they do spend is more focused on routine care current state: 40/60 women have less leisure time
changing sexual behavior
1. having sexual intercourse prior to marriage became common 2. age at which half of all first marriages rose by 5 years adolescent sexual activity increased, but has been decreasing since the 90s difference between men and women is decreasing, same for class and race (but still more common for poor and African Americans) still more widespread -> teenage pregnancy
independent living
1950s number of people living on their own dramatically increased standards of living increased, became expected for people to keep their wages women working out of the home coupled with expressive individualism
from single earner to dual earner marriages
1950s- mothers of young kids 10% in, older kids had 25%, now at more normal levels (62 and 73%) reasons: service sector jobs expanded (demand increased -> increased wages for those) population shift to cities -> have less kids (don't need their help on the farm), mothers have less to do at home decline of wages for non-college-educated men -> need for wives to help support family high divorce rate (women need their own income) change was less wild in minority and poorer families (as women had already been working in those families) now the norm rather than the exception
Is a stable, gender-egalitarian style of marriage emerging?
A more stable, gender-egalitarian marriage may be emerging among college-educated young adults. In this model of marriage, the spouses share domestic work more equitable than in the past. Because the double burden of housework and paid work is eased for wives, marriages are more harmonious and the risk of divorce falls. But egalitarian marriages only succeed if the man has steady earnings. Consequently, they may not emerge among less-educated young adults, whose employment opportunities are restricted by globalization and automation.
courtship
a publicly visible process with rules and restrictions through which young men and women find a partner to marry decline due to great social and economic changes: migration from rural areas to cities (number of potential partners and places to meet increased -> more difficult for parents to oversee) rise of industrial capitalism higher standards of living lengthening of adolescence dating shifted power from parents to kids and from women to men dating is falling now; online dating, stage of "talking", etc.
living apart relationships
a relationship in which two people define themselves as a couple but do not live together some freely chosen (want to be independent), some not (jobs in different places, etc.)
What is marriage like today?
Although Americans now have more choices about their personal lives, most still marry. Marriage still provides some benefits that cohabitation does not, such as greater trust in one's partner's commitment. However, people also see marriage as a symbol of achieving a successful adult life. They build up to marriage, postponing it until they have all the prerequisites in place. They use religious wedding ceremonies (rather than courthouse weddings) to display their personal achievements to friends and relatives. In 2015 the Supreme Court extended that same right to same-sex couples.
What are the main goals in socializing children and how do parents differ in the way they fulfill their role?
By socializing their children, parents equip them to function well in society. Among other things, parents teach children norms and values. Parents provide both material and emotional support to their children and exercise control over them. A combination of high levels of emotional support and consistent, moderate discipline, called an authoritative parenting style, seems to produce children who are the most socially competent, although it may be less applicable to minority-group families
How has the well-being of American children changed over time?
Comparisons between the "average" child today and the "average" child a few decades ago can be misleading. Economic inequality has increased since the early 1970s: the percentage of children at both the bottom and the top of the income ladder has risen, whereas the middle group has decreased in size. The growing proportion of children who live in relatively wealthy settings tend to be doing well. At the other extreme, the growing proportion of children in the poorest families are doing worse. Children in the shrinking middle group may have suffered a moderate reduction in well-being over the past few decades.
What are the patterns of sexual activity in committed relationships and outside of relationships?
During the 20th century, the positive value placed on sexual expression in marriage increased. Despite increases in premarital sexual activity, most people still believe that one should be sexually monogamous during marriage; and cohabitating couples are largely monogamous, too. Many people therefore go through a series of committed relationships in which they have only one sexual partner, a pattern called serial monogamy. Sexual activity complete outside the context of a relationship, as in hooking up, has become common. The hookup culture can be seen as a way to manage the long stage between sexual maturity and marriage. But it seems to retain the sexual double standard that favors men over women.
How does the socialization of children vary by ethnicity, class, gender, and sexual orientation of the parents?
In racial and ethnic groups such as African Americans and Asian Americans, parents rely more on strong discipline than white parents. Working-class parents stress obedience and conformity more than middle-class parents; conversely, middle-class parents stress autonomy and self-direction more than working-class parents. Members of each social class emphasize values that are consistent with the kinds of jobs they perform. Parents also socialize boys and girls differently, so that any preexisting differences are exaggerated in childhood and adult behavior. Evidence on children who grow up with lesbian parents from birth suggest that they do not differ much from children with heterosexual parents
toward a family-responsive workplace?
a work setting in which job conditions are designed to allow employees to meet their family responsibilities more easily argue it will help workers be more productive if they're not worrying about their families flextime- a policy that allows employees to choose, within limits, when they will begin and end their working hours parental leave (want paid) telecommuting (mixed blessing; can't work and focus on kid at same time, then they're always accessible by boss) need to take them- people fear being a good worker and a good parent are mutually exclusive, but that's not true
What is the role of cohabitation in the American family system?
Prior to 1970, cohabitation was found largely among the poor. Since then the practice has expanded greatly among all income levels. In the US today, a majority of marriages are now preceded by a period of cohabitation. These unions tend to lead within a few years to either marriage or a breakup. Cohabitation is a diverse phenomenon that includes not only childless young adults, but also couples with children. A majority of children who are officially born outside of marriage are actually born to two cohabiting parents. The nature of cohabitation varies by social class. For college-educated young adults, cohabitation is often a stage in the marriage process. For the non-college-educated, cohabitation is not as closely linked to marriage.
Is "sexual identity" still a useful way to think about people's sexuality?
Queer theorists question whether stable, fixed sexual identities really exist and whether they are useful concepts for understanding social change. They point to the multiple forms that each "identity" takes. They charge that current social norms restrict sexual behavior and force people into arbitrary marriages. Those who disagree say that the categories we commonly use have important consequences for the lives of Americans and should be used to study topics such as parenthood, marriage, and other contested issues
How has marriage changed over the past century?
The institutional marriage was held together by community pressure and the authority of the family head. But by the mid-twentieth century, it had been eclipsed by the companionship marriage, which was held together more by mutual affection and intimacy. The ideal type of companionate marriage was the single-earner breadwinner-homemaker family that flourished in the 1950s. Beginning in the late 1960s, this model was overtaken by individualistic marriage, in which both spouses were increasingly concerned with personal growth and self-fulfillment. In the individualistic marriage, the relationship between spouses tends to be seen as an ongoing project that is open to negotiation and change.
How does the marriage market work?
The marriage market- a model that is widely used by social scientists- consists of individuals who are searching for a spouse in a particular geographic area, who have a set of preferences concerning the type of person they wish to find and a set of resources to offer in return. The predominant marriage bargain at mid-twentieth century, based on the specialization model of marriage, involves a husband who traded his earnings in return for child care and housework by his wife. This model of marriage no longer fits the present-day marriage market. In particular, evidence suggests that both men and women now prefer partners with good earnings potential.
How much time do parents and children spend together?
While it seems as though parents should be spending less time with their children because so many mothers have entered the workforce, parents are spending nearly as much time with their children as they did several decades ago. They accomplish this feat in several ways including doing less housework and cutting back on leisure time.
What are some of the strains working parents can experience?
Work can interfere with family life through the amount of work to be done, which may intrude into family time, or from the stress of the workplace. One increasingly common way for dual-earner couples to manage child care is to work split shifts, a practice that provides children with parental care but can strain a marriage to the point of divorce.
How is the workplace responding to the needs of working parents?
Workers are concerned about meshing their jobs with family responsibilities, and corporations and government are responding. Large corporations are increasingly providing assistance such as caregiving leave and flexible hours. So far, these and other reforms have benefited college-educated workers and employees of large corporations more than high school educated workers and employees of small corporations. To be effective, family-friendly reforms will require a more flexible culture in the workplace
toward the egalitarian marriage?
a marriage in which both spouses share the housework and childcare much more equitably than in the past working on it, but not there yet
companionate marriage
a marriage in which the emphasis is on affection, friendship, and sexual gratification single-earner, breadwinner-homemaker able to focus less on functionality due to increasing economy, etc. transition due to industrializing and urbanizing economy; before needed to work all together on a farm (dad ran it like a business), but then dad left home and it became separate sphere influence, and parents had less influence over partners because they were away also increasing standards of living
institutional marriage
a marriage in which the emphasis is on male authority, duty, and conformity to social norms guided by law and custom; parents kept close watch, father was head of family, family subsistence is the most important
caring work
activity in which one person meets the needs of spouses, partners, children, parents, or others who cannot fully care for themselves 1. separation between what goes on in families and in the world of work is artificial and should be abolished 2. often underpaid, undervalued, and even demeaning; considered women's and minority's work, creates public goods so it's underpaid, and people desire to help others so much that the wages can be driven down and they'll still work the job 3. urge the "ethic of care" in society so people will care more for others rather than themselves
the marriage market
an analogy to the labor market in which single individuals (or their parents) search for others who will marry them (or their children) supply of men/women, preferences, and resources (what someone may have than a partner might want) specialization model- a model of the marriage market in which women specialize in housework and childcare and men specialize in work outside of the home income-pooling model- a model of the marriage market in which both spouses work for pay and pool their incomes
parents socializing children (2 things and styles)
emotional support and control 1. authoritative- warm and controlling, best kids 2. permissive- warm and not controlling 3. authoritarian- not warm and controlling 4. absent- not warm and not controlling teaching norms and values norms- widely accepted rules about how kids should behave values- goals and principles that are held in high esteem in society religion- conservative protestants combine discipline and emotional work parents can support financially and also support the mother adoption and transnational adoption gay parenthood: adoption, donor insemination, and surrogacy
sexual activity outside of relationships
hooking up- begun in 80s, became common in 2000s; a sexual encounter with no expectation of further involvement positive side- rational response to emerging adulthood negative side- retains double standard; women are more satisfied with sex in a relationship, stigmatized as sexually loose
sexuality and family life
impacts family life gay couples, premarital sex, etc. gay people used to still marry heterosexually in order to avoid the shame and stigma
How has the process by which young adults find intimate partners changed?
in the US and other Western nations, for centuries young adults went about finding a spouse through the publicly visible process of courtship. The practice declined in the US after 1900 due to migration to large cities, growing affluence, and the emergence of adolescence as a protected time between childhood and adulthood. The rise of dating after 1900 placed courtship on an economic basis and transferred power from young women (and their parents) to young men. The heydey of dating was probably 1945 to 1965; toward the end of the century it declined. In recent decades, young adults have increasingly lived independently. Some enter into living apart relationships that can be short-term or long-term
How has married women's work changed over the past half-century?
in the second half of the twentieth century, married women entered the workforce in large numbers. A majority of married women with young children are now employed outside the home. The rise of the service sector and the long-term decline in fertility are two important reasons for women's increase in labor force participation. In the 2000s, married women's labor force participation declined slightly but remains at a high level
beginning of identity
late 19th century, homosexuality defined as a disease not just acts, but people who do those acts (having an illness or disorder)
Nelson reading part 2
men try to "get it together" for the sake of the baby; 80% succeed for a time, will be together for a while at kids' birth decrease in marriage rates after: at kids birth 1. non-romantic, 2. romantic, 3. cohabiting troubles: personal trouble, couple's kind, pervasive trust of women, her changing view of him and his reaction (as her standards rise) -> low commitment and relational ruin new parental relationships: after breakup, over half have 1, 2, 3, 4+ relationships by the time the kid turns 5 family complexity- # of half-siblings by 5th birthday increase, 60% have at least one as years since parents' relationship ends go on, the father-child contact decreases rapidly. Which child are you most involved with? more have one! one that they're seeing weekly or daily
How does our society treat the labor of caring for others?
much of the caring labor in families was provided by wives in the home. It was not considered "work" because it was unpaid and consisted of caring for people. As women have moved into the paid labor force, the value of the caring they provided has become evident and has proven difficult to replace. Some authors suggest that we must place a higher value on caring labor- paid and unpaid.
overworked and underworked Americans
professional/managerial jobs increase hours (salary basis, employers pushing them to work more), part time low education workers decreasing (company doesn't want to pay them as much) task size- the sheer size and scope of the job; difficulties brought on for upper class people in manager jobs task stress- emotional stress brought on by jobs, more in lower-class with low job security or dangerous work, or don't know hours (nonstandard hours -> poorer academic or emotional development for kids, tend to watch kids in shifts and parents rarely see each other)
determinants of sexuality
social constructionist perspective integrative perspective
What determines people's sexual identities?
social constructionists believe that sexual identities, such as heterosexual and gay, are entirely created by the way that society is organized- the dominant norms and values, the legal privileges and restrictions, and so forth. They note the different ways in which sexual identities have been expressed in other societies cross-culturally and historically. They cite surveys which suggest a continuum, rather than a sharp line, between heterosexuality and homosexuality. Other social scientists think that there is a biological component to sexual identities. They cite evidence from behavioral genetic and twin studies
sexual acts
socially approved- sex during marriage, in moderation, and in order to have children not socially approved- all other activities 19th century -> emergence of an identity rather than just action, not as central in identity as later but became enough of an identifier for persecution
sexual identity
the formation in people's minds of an identity such as heterosexual, gay, lesbian, or bisexual based on romantic and sexual attraction
When did the idea of a sexual identity develop?
the idea that individuals have a coherent sexual identity involving a preference for either opposite-sex or same-sex partners did not exist until the 19th century. Before then, though religious doctrine and civil law forbade numerous sexual practices, a person who broke those laws was not thought to have a different personality from people who displayed conventional sexual behavior
union formation
the process of beginning to live with a partner through cohabitation or marriage changes include when sexual relations begin, what happens when premarital pregnancies occur, who cohabits, who marries and when, what is the economic bargain, and what is the cultural expectation marriage becomes an ongoing project through adulthood, since you are always working on yourself
cohabitation
the sharing of a household by unmarried persons who have a sexual relationship pre 1960s, just poor, but now expanded college educated: more likely to wait for marriage to have a kid, usually a testing ground moderately educated: less tied to marriage (may not think it's possible) tend to drift towards living together without conversations of what their relationship will become, eventually think of marriage and have high standards least educated: serial cohabitation, say they will marry when they're financially stable, etc. but rarely happens gays- forced cohabitation (no marriage)
queer theory
the view that sexual life is artificially organized into categories that reflect the power of heterosexual norms think sexuality is very fluid, categories support hetero-dominant idea "doing sexuality" as similar to "doing gender"
What barriers must parents overcome in socializing their children?
unemployment and poverty can affect the way parents act toward each other and toward their children. Job loss or low earnings can cause a parent to become depressed and angry; fathers in these situations are likely to have angry, explosive exchanges with their wives and children. Family instability could affect children because of exposure to types of household that may increase negative outcomes such as behavior problems or by exposure to the difficulties of adjusting to the frequent movements of parents and parents' partners into and out of the home. Mass incarceration is affecting parenting among African Americans. There is evidence of small long-term effects of non-parental child care.
preventing parents from what they can do
unemployment- change the way parents act towards each other, mothers more likely to smoke while carrying a baby, insecurity, etc. angry, explosive behaviors towards kids poverty- similar, but instead of explosion, they might threaten harsh punishment, impact on kids' school achievement family instability- divorcing, single parent (stable can be okay), and parent with cohabiting partner -> worse outcomes for kids sheer number of transitions- more stress multipartner fertility- having children with more than one partner during one's lifetime mass incarceration- parents who haven't graduated from high school have higher rate of this, mothers have to raise kids on their own and fathers are somewhat absent (can be visited), usually show more aggression, ambiguous loss
How has the division of labor in marriages changed?
wives have greatly reduced the amount of housework they do, while husbands have increased theirs. As a result, the relative amount of housework done by husbands and wives has become less unequal. Husbands take more responsibility for routine care of their children when their wives work. Wives, however, feel more pressure and do more multitasking. Overall, the total amount of housework being done has declined; couples are buying more services, such as restaurant meals, than they used to
TA lecture book
women's incentives to enter the workforce: -increase in service sector jobs -decrease in fertility -decrease in less educated men's wages -increase in divorce rate women overtook % of men getting a BA in 1990 employed women's median contribution to household earnings in 2012 were 37% as women's earnings increase, the more they can buy substitutes for childcare, etc.
