Sociology Terms
role strain
experience when there are contradictory expectations within one single role
interviews
face-to-face information-seeking conversations to gather qualitative data directly from research subjects
Thomas Theorem
if people define situations as real, they are real in their consequences
Objectivity
impartiality; the ability to allow the facts to speak for themselves
total institutions
institutions in which individuals are cut off from the rest of society so that they can be controlled and regulated for the purpose of systematically stripping away previous roles and identities in order to create new ones
mores
norms that carry a greater moral significance and are more closely related to the core values of a cultural group
literature review
A thorough search through previously published studies relevant to a particular topic
Differential Association Theory
Asserts that we learn to be deviant through our interactions with others who break the rules
Labeling Theory
Deviance is not inherent in any act, belief, or condition, but determined by the social context
iron cage
Max Weber's pessimistic description of modern life, in which we are caught in bureaucratic structures that control our lives through rigid rules and rationalization
Research Ethics
Standards of conduct that investigators are ethically bound to honor to protect their research participants from physical or psychological harm
Mead's theory of self
The development of the self unfolds in several stages as we move through childhood
Asch Experiment
Three straight lines and match the fourth one; almost all participants were greatly distressed by the discrepancy between their own perceptions and those of the other participants
Deviance
a behavior, trait, or belief that departs from a norm and generates a negative reaction in a particular group
operational definition
a clear and precise definition of a variable that facilitates its measurement
group
a collection of at least two people who not only share some attribute but also identify with one another and have ongoing social relations
criminal justice system
a collection of social institutions that creates and enforces laws
Critical Theory
a contemporary form of conflict theory that criticizes many different systems and ideologies of domination and oppression
Secondary deviance
a deviant identity or career
in-group
a group a member identifies with and feels loyalty toward
society
a group of people who shape their lives in aggregated and patterned ways that distinguish their group from others
Population
a group that is the focus of their study
reference group
a group that provides standards by which a person evaluates their own personal attributes
out-group
a group toward which an individual feels opposition, rivalry, or hostility
subculture
a group within society that is differentiated by its distinctive values, norms, and lifestyle
counterculture
a group within society that openly rejects or actively opposes society's values and norms
content analysis
a method in which researchers identify and study specific variables or themes that appear in a text, image, or media message
participant observation
a methodology associated with ethnography whereby the researcher both observes and becomes a member in a social setting
Ethnography
a naturalistic method based on studying people in their own environment in order to understand the meanings they attribute to their activities
taboo
a norm ingrained so deeply that even thinking about violating it evokes strong feelings of disgust, horror, or revulsion
Structural Functionalism (functionalist theory)
a paradigm based on the assumption that society is a unified whole that functions because of the contributions of its separate structures
anomie
a sense of disconnections brought about by the changing conditions of modern life
culture shock
a sense of disorientation that occurs when entering a radically new social or cultural environment
paradigm
a set of assumptions, theories, and perspectives that makes up a way of understanding social reality
role conflict
a situation in which two or more roles have contradictory expectations
Sample
a smaller group that is representative of the larger population
queer theory
a social theory about gender and sexual identity; emphasizes the importance of difference and rejects ideas of innate identities or restrictive categories
structural
a stable, ordered system made up of interrelated parts
acheived status
a status earned through individual efforts or acquired in some other way
embodied status
a status generated by physical characteristics (such as beauty or disability)
master status
a status that seems to override all others in our identities
language
a system of communication using vocal sounds, gestures, or written symbols; the basis of nonmaterial culture and the primary means through which we communicate with one another and perpetuate our culture
crowd
a temporary gathering of people in a public place; don't necessarily have a sense of common identity
Feminist Theory
a theoretical approach that looks at gender inequities in society and the way that gender structures the social world
Hypothesis
a theoretical statement that they think will explain the relationship between two phenomena
social identity theory
a theory of group formation and maintenance that stresses the need of individual members to feel a sense of belonging
intervening variable
a third variable, sometimes overlooked, that explains the relationship between two other variables
social network analysis
a tool for measuring and visualizing the structure of social relationships between two or more people
crime
a violation of a norm that has bee codified into law, for which you could be arrested and imprisoned
sociological perspective
a way of looking at the world through a sociological lens
Theories
abstract propositions about how things are and how they should be
deterrence
an approach to punishment that relies on the threat of harsh penalties to discourage people from committing crimes
Uniform Crime Report (UCR)
an official measure of crime in the United States
material culture
any physical object to which we give social meanin
stigma
any physical or social attribute that devalues a person or group's identity and that may exclude those who are devalued from normal social interaction
traditional authority
authority based in custom, birthright, or divine right
legal-rational authority
authority based in laws, rules, and procedures, not in the heredity or personality of any individual leader
charismatic authority
authority based in the perception of remarkable personal qualities in a leader
empirical
based on observation or experiment
cooling the mark out
behaviors that help others save face or avoid embarrassment, often referred to as civility or tact
ascribed status
one we are born with that is unlikely to change (such as our gender or race)
strong ties
peer group and kinship contacts which are quantitatively small but qualitatively powerful
aggregates
people who happen to find themselves together in a particular physical location; no lasting social relations
category
people who share one or more attributes but who lack a sense of common identity or belonging
sanction
positive or negative reactions to the ways that people follow or disobey norms, including rewards for conformity and punishments for violations
stereotype promise
positive stereotypes lead to positive performance outcomes
coercive power
power that is backed by the threat of force
passing
presenting yourself as a member of a different group than the stigmatized group you belong
deviance avowal
process by which an individual self-identifies as deviant and initiates their own labeling process
Surveys
questionnaires that are administered to a sample of respondents selected from a target population
Quantitative Research
research that translates the social world into numbers that can be treated mathematically; this type of research often tries to find cause and effect relationships
Qualitative Research
research that works with nonnumerical data; often tries to understand how people make sense of their world
weak ties
social connections that are personally superficial but are large in number and provide connections to a wide range of other individuals
agents of socialization
social groups, institutions, and individuals that provide structured situations in which socialization takes place
dramaturgy
social life is analyzed in terms of its relation to theatrical performance
agency
the ability of the individual to act freely and independently
power
the ability to control the actions of others
Replicability
the ability to repeat or replicate the research
Validity
the accuracy of a question or measurement tool
spurious correlation
the appearance of causation produced by an intervening variable
Social Darwinism
the application of the theory of evolution and the notion of "survival of the fittest" to the study of society
Solidarity
the degree of integration or unity within a particular society
social sciences
the disciplines that use the scientific method to examine the social world
cultural diffusion
the dissemination of material and nonmaterial culture (tools and technology, beliefs, and behavior) from one group to another
impression management
the effort to control the impressions we make on others so that they form a desired view of us and the situation; the use of self-presentation and performance tactics
Alienation
the experience of isolation and misery resulting from powerlessness
dependent variable
the factor that is changed (or not) by the independent variable
independent variable
the factor that is predicted to cause change
stereotype threat
the fear of performing poorly could unintentionally confirm a negative stereotype about their social group, and then actually performing poorly
social control
the formal and informal mechanisms used to elicit conformity to values and norms and thus promote social cohesion
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
the idea that language structures thought and that ways of looking at the world are embedded in language
symbolic culture
the ideas associated with a cultural group, including ways of thinking (beliefs, values, and assumptions) and ways of behaving (norms, interactions, and communication)
cultural imperialism
the imposition of one culture's beliefs and practices on another culture through media and consumer products rather than by military force
self
the individual's conscious, reflexive experience of a personal identity separate and distinct from others
Primary deviance
the initial act that gets them labeled in the first placed
group dynamics
the patterns of interaction between groups and individuals
generalized other
the perspectives and expectations of a network of others that children learn and then take into account when shaping their own behavior
backstage
the places where we prepare or rehearse for our performances
cultural relativism
the principle of understanding other cultures on their own terms, rather than judging or evaluating according to one's own culture
Ethnocentrism
the principle of using one's own culture as a means or standard by which to evaluate another group or individual, leading to the view that cultures other than one's own are abnormal or inferior
social construction
the process by which a concept or practice is created and maintained by participants who collectively agree that it exists
socialization
the process by which a society teaches individuals to become functioning members and the process by which individuals learn and internalize the values and norms of the group
emotional labor
the process of evoking, suppressing, or otherwise managing feelings to create a publicly observable display of emotion
resocialization
the process of replacing previously learned norms and values with new ones as part of a transition in life
civil inattention
the process whereby individuals in the same physical setting demonstrate to one another that they are aware of each other's presence
sacred
the quality of being holy, worthy of respect and reverence
norms
the rules and guidelines regarding what kinds of behavior are acceptable; develops directly out of a culture's value system
role
the set of behaviors expected from a particular status position
Values
the set of shared beliefs that a group of people considers to be worthwhile or desirable in life
frontstage
the setting that helps establish a particular meaning
Hawthorne effect
the specific desired effect is the result not of the independent variable but of the research itself
McDonaldization
the spread of bureaucratic rationalization and the accompanying increases in efficiency and dehumanization
Social control theory
the stronger one's social bonds the less likely one is to commit crime
criminology
the study of crime, criminals, and the criminal justice system
Critical Race Theory
the study of the relationship among race, racism, and power
Sociology
the systemic or scientific study of human society and social behavior, from large-scale institutions and mass culture to small groups and individual interactions
Positivism
the theory that sense perceptions are the only valid source of knowledge
organic solidarity
the type of social bonds present in modern societies, based on difference, interdependence, and individual rights
mechanical solidarity
the type of social bonds present in premodern, agrarian societies, in which shared traditions and beliefs created a sense of social cohesion
social inequality
the unequal distribution of wealth, power, or prestige among members of a society
dominant culture
the values, norms, and practices of the most powerful groups
gestures
the ways in which people use their bodies to communicate without words; actions that have symbolic meaning
Reactivity
the ways that people and events respond to being studies
social network
the web of direct and indirect ties connecting an individual to other people who may also affect the individual
Variables
two or more phenomena that a researcher believes are related; examined in the experiment
laws
types of norms that are formally codified to provide an explicit statement about what is permissible or forbidden, legal or illegal in a given society
Verstehen (Weber)
understanding social behavior by putting yourself in the place of others
hidden curriculum
values or behaviors that students learn indirectly over the course of their schooling
Representativeness
whether a particular study can apply to something larger
postive deviance
situations in which norms are broken in the name of the good
Bureaucracy
A large, complex organization composed of appointed officials
Bias
A personal preference or point of view
Modernism
a paradigm that places trust in the power of science and technology to create progress, solve problems, and improve life
Symbolic Interactionism
a paradigm that sees interaction and meaning as central to society and assumes that meanings are not inherent but are created through interaction
Conflict Theory
a paradigm that sees social conflict as the basis of society and social change and that emphasizes a materialist view of society, a critical view of the status quo, and a dynamic model of historical change
Postmodernism
a paradigm that suggests that social reality is diverse, pluralistic, and constantly in flux
status
a position in a social hierarchy that comes with a set of expectations
saturated self
a postmodern idea that the self is no developed by multiple influences chosen from a wide range of media sources
Scientific Method
a procedure for acquiring knowledge that emphasizes collecting concrete data through observation and experimentation
sociological imagination
a quality of mind that allows us to understand the relationship between our individual circumstances and larger social forces
open-ended questions
a question asked of a respondent that allows the answer to take whatever form the respondent chooses
closed-ended questions
a question asked of a respondent that imposes a limit on the possible responses
Causation
a relationship between two variables in which a change in one directly produces a change in the other
Correlation
a relationship between variables in which they change together and may or may not be casual
definition of the situation
an agreement with others about what is going on in a given circumstance
rehabilitation
an approach to punishment that attempts to reform criminals as part of their penalty
Merton's typology of deviance
conformists, innovators, ritualists, retreatists, rebels
social ties
connections between individuals
experiment
formal tests of specific variables and effects, performed in a setting where all aspects of the situation can be controlled
social influence
group impact on others' decisions
primary groups
groups composed of people who are most important to our sense of self
secondary groups
groups that are larger and less intimate than primary groups; relationships are usually organized and temporary
groupthink
highly cohesive groups may demand absolute conformity and punish those who threaten to undermine the consensus
Reflexivity
how the identity and activities of the researcher influence what is going on in the field setting
expressive leadership
leadership concerned with maintaining harmony within the group
instrumental leadership
leadership that is task or goal oriented
rationalization
logical procedures are the focus, rules and regulations are paramount, and an individual's unique personal qualities are unimportant
folkways
loosely enforced norms involving common customs, practices, or procedures that ensure smooth social interaction and acceptance
Tertiary deviance
redefining the stigma associated with a deviant label as a positive phenomenon
in-group orientation
reject the standards that mark them as deviant and may even actively propose new standards in which their special identities are well within the normal range
Pragmatism
seeking the truth of an idea by evaluating its usefulness in every day life; if it works, its true
profane
showing contempt toward sacred things
signs
symbols that stand for or convey an idea
authority
the legitimate right to wield power
latent functions
the less obvious, unintended functions
Microsociology
the level of analysis that studies face-to-face and small-group interactions in order to understand how they affect the larger patterns and structures of society
Macrosociology
the level of analysis that studies large-scale social structures in order to determine how they affect the lives of groups and individuals
real culture
the norms and values that actually exist within a society
ideal culture
the norms and values that members of a society believe should be observed in principle
retribution
the notion that society has the right to get even
looking-glass self
the notion that the self develops through our perception of others' evaluations and appraisals of us
manifest functions
the obvious, intended functions of a social structure