STIA Midterm == Cry

major issues with big data

changes the definition of knowledge, claims to objectivity and accuracy are misleading, taken out of context it is misleading, not always ethically collected, creates digital divides

primary health care

combination of primary and public health care that is accessible to individuals and families in a community and provided at an affordable cost; access to basic care, equitable distribution of resources, local participation, achieve levels of health that enable productive lives

epistemic community

community of experts and technical specialists who share a set of beliefs and a way to approach problems

comprehensive primary health care vs selective primary health care

comprehensive is oriented toward goal of global health equity and emphasizes systems building, selective is more a top-down approach

4th industrial revolution

current digital revolution that blurs the lines of physical, digital, and biological spheres

stabilization in global health context

cutting government spending and restoring balance to the economy

PEPFAR is an example of _____ approach

diagonal: vertical in funding, horizontal in global health effect

Halfdan Mahler

director-general of the WHO who shaped the Alma Ata Declaration

noncommunicable disease

disease that is NOT spread through contact (relies on genetic, physiological, and behavioral factors)

Pugwash manifesto

highlighted the dangers posed by nuclear weapons and called for world leaders to seek peaceful resolutions to international conflicts. Pioneered by Rotblat. Significance: demonstrates that science needs regulations and that there is a gap between regulation and innovation.

Alma-Ata conference supported (vertical/horizontal) approach

horizontal approach - basic needs met for ENTIRE population

HIV can only affect

human beings

planetary health

human health and civilization depend on the flourishing of natural systems and the environment. environmental threats pose dangers to human health.

Colonial Medicine -> International Health -> Global Health -> Planetary Health

in order of more conscious and well rounded definition of health

server

information provider

challenges of machine learning

insufficient quantity of data, non-representative training data, poor quality of data, irrelevant features, overfitting training data, under-fitting training data

IMF

international monetary fund: major financial agency of the UN

Pugwash conferences

international organization that brings together scholars and public to reduce danger of armed conflict

IPCC

international panel on climate change

how might we tackle issues of a "biased" algorithm

interview coders -> evaluate prior biases that might have gone into the algorithm and examine source code for issues

why did hydrogen as a power source not work in the past

it required fossil fuels or nuclear energy to make so it just wasn't efficient - then climate change came, and changed the agenda vastly

What is a high-level language

languages closer to human languages

What is a low level language

languages that are very close to computer binary code

three immediate areas of opportunity for science diplomacy

new scientific partnerships w/ Middle East and wider Islamic world, confidence building and nuclear disarmament, governance of international spaces

What was a crack in the development theory

not all countries experienced economic growth the same, skepticism about biomedicine, critiques about vertical programs, fears of population growth called for higher resolution of control and monitoring of the developing world

Syndemic

the combined effects on a population of more than one disease, the effects of which are exacerbated by poor nutrition, social instability, violence, or other stressful environmental factors. This combination is exacerbated by structural factors on the macro level. born out of medical anthropology, innovative theoretical approach to evaluating the social determinants of health.

MSF

Doctors without borders

big data

data sets too large and complex to work with typical database management tools

polylateralism

different non-state actors involved

ML as black box

difficult to identify algorithmic bias because the unsupervised machine learning and supervised machine learning methods are black boxes, meaning that they rules they use to produce their output cannot precisely be determined.

missionary medicine

direct contact with local populations; main source of information about the colonies; focus on individual treatment over population health; goal was to convert locals to Christianity

asilomar conference

lots of concern about recombinant DNA; 1975.- conference where scientists gathered to discuss risks of rDNA experiments. Significance: scientists at conference devised a risk classification system and imposed voluntary moratorium on the riskiest research

Cambridge Biotechnology Boom

lots of pharmaceutical and biotech companies clustered in one area where innovation really took off

sense of modular world

major change after WW2, what worked in the US would be applied easily

Horizontal Approach

making available general health services

The Russell-Einstein Manifesto

manifesto that states that in the future, when nuclear weapons will be used in wars, that states should be conscious of this and seek to find peaceful resolutions

tropical medicine

medicine between the tropics of capricorn and cancer, deals with common infections like HIV, tuberculosis, malaria and NEGLECTED diseases

social medicine

medicine considering social and economic factors

Asilomar Conference

meeting held on recombinant DNA experiments in 1975 which resulted in regulatory guidelines for experimental safety. Established standards for slowing the development of recombinant DNA. First formal conference where scientists stopped research due to worries about its risks. Significance: organized by international scientists on their own accord, first time scientists convened to debate ethics, public gains trust in science, developed effective safety regime.

Miasma theory vs germ theory

miasma theory = just air is the spread of disease while germ says other factors are applicable too (water, food, other mediums)

in terms of HIV/AIDS, prevention is more/less cost effective than HAART

more

endemic

native and restricted to a certain place

Lancet Commission

need for imagination (empathy failures + over-reliance on GDP for health) trans-disciplinary thinking ( knowledge failures, overlooked what drives poor health + recognizing environmental needs) governance (implementation failures)

what are the five pitfalls of global health

prevention vs care, absence of specialists, weak infrastructure, fixed high costs, untallied cost of inaction

declaration of alma ata

resolution supporting primary health care for all people; health as a human right --> govts need to build national plans for primary health care (support basic needs of entire populations) includes communities in program designs (significance). criticism: too idealistic.

liberalization in global health context

reversing "price distortions"

are we automating racism?

robots are not sentient beings and there is a lack of concern for how the past shapes the present, so yes

Asmivo's three laws of robotics

robots cannot be designed to harm people/ cannot harm people through their actions

Significance of Cleanup at Fukushima

robots couldnt handle rubble and irregular/uneven terrain -> robot technology still has a long ways to go

where was focus turned to in the 1970s for global health

root social determinants of health such as socioeconomic status, race, etc.

global health security vs global health diplomacy vs global health equity

security is more about building a system that is resilient to things, diplomacy is more about the actual process of maintaining global health through various ways, and global health equity is about ensuring that there is an equality of access to health care services such that everyone can attain the highest level of health possible

privatization in global health context

selling state assets so fewer facilities in high-burden areas

Rudolf Virchow was associated with ____ medicine

social medicine

SIPRI

stockholm international peace research institute

HIV attacks your

t cells and uses them to make copies of itself

horizontal approach

tackle overall health problems on a wide basis by creating general health services and permanent institutions - strategy that emphasized the control and containment, as opposed to the eradication, of malaria

colonial medicine

take into account the effects of colonialism and medicine is used as a lens to view colonialism

public interest technologies

technologies that keep the public interest in mind

What is Common But differentiated responsibilities?

that acknowledges the different capabilities and differing responsibilities of individual countries in addressing climate change

global health in the 1980s meant the decline of which international health body and the rise of which international health body

the WHO, UNICEF

Syndemic

the combined effects on a population of more than one disease, the effects of which are exacerbated by poor nutrition, social instability, violence, or other stressful environmental factors

germ theory

the idea that disease was caused by the spread of living organisms that could be controlled

Carbon sequestration

the process of capturing and storing atmospheric CO2

why wouldn't something like the asilomar conference work today

the public is too involved and they are too informed, too many corporate and entrepreneurial sponsorship into scientific enterprise

multilateralism

three or more states work together

what were the main problems with Alma-Ata (2)

too broad and idealistic, unfeasible goals (they wanted health for all by 2000)

Soviets supported what type of healthcare model

top-down, vertical approach

what is a compiler

translates programming language's source code into machine code, written in high-level language (ex. Java or C++)

what is assembly language

translates programming language's source code into machine code, written in low-level language (non-readable)

anitretroviral therapy

treatment for HIV that uses different types of medication to keep it from growing and multiplying

Science Diplomacy

use of scientific interactions between nations to address the common problems facing humanity and to build constructive, knowledge-based international partnerships; significance: recognizes a need for equitable access in health care. Demonstrates that there is a lack of scientific understanding in political decisions.

Neoliberalism implications on health

user fees, which mean less utilization and sicker patients

What major innovations were sparked by the global pandemic

videoconferencing, telemedicine, digital payments, messenger rna technique behind vaccines

VCT

voluntary counseling and testing for HIV

marshall plan

A United States program of economic aid for the reconstruction of Europe (1948-1952) after WWII

Ebola

A contagious viral disease originating in Africa. It is transmitted by blood and body fluids and causes body organs and vessels to leak blood, usually resulting in death

Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation

A nonprofit fighting poverty, disease, and inequity across the world

Marshall Plan

A plan that the US came up with to revive war-torn economies of Europe. This plan offered $13 billion in aid to western and Southern Europe

Lazarus effect

Anti-viral therapy can save lives and return them to a non-fragile state

Examples of Low-level languages

Assembly Code and Machine Code

pitfalls of global health

prevention versus care, absence of specialists, weak infrastructure, fixed high costs, untamed costs of inaction

Biggest S&T achievements of the last decade

CRISPR and fusion-powered technology

Examples of High-level languages

C__, scratch, Java, Python

structural adjustment

Economic policies imposed on less developed countries by international agencies to create conditions encouraging international trade, such as raising taxes, reducing government spending, controlling inflation, selling publicly owned utilities to private corporations, and charging citizens more for services. (IMF/World bank)

World Bank

Founded by Bretton Woods treaty 1945; bank for development projects; funded by shareholders and bonds sold on market; provides technical assistance for reconstruction and development

GAVI

Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunization

UNICEF's selective primary health care strategy - GOBI-FFF - what does it stand for?

Growth monitoring, oral rehydration, breastfeeding, immunizations, food supplementation, female literacy, family planning and child spacing

Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation

Guided by the belief that every life has equal value, this foundation works to help all people lead healthy, productive lives. In developing countries, it focuses on improving people's health and lifting them out of hunger and extreme poverty.

What is the history of STIA?

Historical foundations of STIA Thomas Schelling (1960) The Retarded Science of International Strategy Mutual Deterrence For Schelling, vague. No literature, no theoretical structure, yet a part of diplomatic strategy No academics Military unsuited But need to understand to restrain enemy's behavior Game Theory necessary to mitigate deterrence Side Note: "The success of deterrence theory is not matched, however, by the equivalent development of strategy and diplomacy in other areas of science, technology, and international affairs." Game Theory: Situations of conflict and distrust; who will take risks and why Mathematical model of conflict and cooperation Study of rational decision-making in difficult circumstances The Three E's: Science diplomacy expresses national power or influence Science diplomacy equips policy makers with the technical information to support policy Science diplomacy enhances bilateral and multilateral relations All require a strategy, and strategy is grounded in national interests

What was the result of AIDS epidemic on global health systems

MUCH more funding in global health, global health became a fundamental part of development, the diagonal approach to addressing AIDS became central, rise of individual and international organizations (including GAVI alliance)

What are manifestations of STIA in the Cold War?

Manifestations of STIA in the Cold War Cold War: one of the first instances of science + diplomacy in conjunction Nuclear scientists were brought on as advisors in diplomacy (but only in the area of nuclear whatever) 4. How technology can have "politics" 5. How scientific results are politicized

NOT/AND/OR gates

NOT inverts the value, AND returns 1 when both values are 1, OR returns 1 when either values are 1

What did Bazilian say?

Natural shale gas "revolution" provides tremendous opportunities but our scientific understanding of this transition and its potential near and long term social, economic and environmental impacts lags behind the rapid pace of change, investors, policy makers and other stakeholders need greater clarity to make robust decisions in today's natural gas sector. A comprehensive interdisciplinary research agenda can help inform these decisions.

GOBI-FFF strategy is part of

SPHC (selective primary health care)

database languages examples (2)

SQL, oracle

OSRD

Office of Scientific Research and Development: US organization in 1900's whose main goal was mobilization of applied research - manhattan project, vaccines, microwave communications

big p Politics

Politics at state level

PEPFAR

President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (Bush)

What was o STIA by 1750-1850 like?

S and T embedded in state apparatus S and T division of White House Drives competition between states arms race Use theory to improve technological developments Necessitate international agreements new regulations Unforseen consequences (people lose their job efficiency led to water table not being refilled in Pakistan but also on border with Mexico Competition enhances structure

What is STIA's role?

STIA's Role: Solving problems: essential to the most important problems facing the globe today Maintaining peace and security: Human development is the basis of security Evidence-based decision-making and policy development for good governance Scientific collaboration for enhancing TRUST, including through treaties and agreements

atlantic charter

affirmed solidarity between US and UK against axis powers - marked beginning of end for European imperialism

colonial medicine

The form of Western medicine practiced in the colonies, which increased the power and authority of the colonizers. Colonization changed the population densities in ways that made indigenous people vulnerable to epidemics brought by Europeans. Public health served extraction needs of colonists.

What did Wascow & Morgan say?

While the Paris Agreement is not enough by itself to solve the problem, it places us clearly on the path to a truly global solution. The Paris Agreement will maintain and accelerate that momentum. It offers clear direction with: long-term goals and signals, a commitment to return regularly to make climate action stronger, a response to the impact of extreme climate events on the most vulnerable, the transparency needed to ensure action takes place and finance, capacity building and technology to enable real change. But the Agreement does even more: it marks a new type of international cooperation where developed and developing countries are united in a common framework, and all are involved, engaged contributors. It reflects the growing recognition that climate action offers tremendous opportunities and benefits, and that climate impacts can be tackled effectively, with the unity of purpose that has brought us to this moment. Key provisions • Long-Term Mitigation Goals • Five-Year Cycles of Action to change emission goals • Five-Year Comprehensive Global Stocktake • Adaptation o Support will be provided to developing countries for planning, implementation and communication of adaptation activities. • Loss and Damage

12. What were the responses to definitive scientific evidence concerning ozone? Consider both Dupont and the Montreal Protocol

With greater evidence, Response to Definitive Scientific Evidence • Dupont agrees to stop CFC manufacture • Dupont could have profited from stonewalling but elected to honor its previous commitment • They also realized that CFC substitutes would be a business opportunity

World Bank - what does it stand for, led by who, funded by what

World Bank, led by executive director, funded by government contributions and fundraising

WHO - what does it stand for, led by who, funded by what

World Health Organization, led by director general, funded by dues from member states and private donations

Alma-Ata conference

World assembly of nations in 1978 that declared Health for All a policy of the World Health Organization, wanted Health for All by 2000

where did they airlift cats to get rid of rodents to fix malaria

bornia

Ebola V Covid

both politicized and influenced by media; but different death rate sand severity of symptoms

vaccine nationalism

economic strategy to hoard vaccinations from manufacturers and increase supply in one country

What did Merchants of Doubt say?

elaborate on the unwillingness of many businesses to accept the negative implications of ozone findings on the attractiveness of their products. While certain industries did accept the findings and eventually the Protocol in order to remain globally competitive, many businesses continued to advocate against these constraints through publishing articles with the aim of casting doubt on the issue and deterring greater restrictions. other inhibitors to the success of the Montreal Protocol such as: some industries' unwillingness to accept the restrictions of the Protocol and the ability of the media to influence public opinion

Paris Accord

emphasizes multilateralism and connects different sectors to work together

1990 AIDS pivot

escalation of HIV/AIDs, activism in US emphasized medical innovation, treatment innovation, politics of access, and donors

Key differences in a 0.5 degree Celsius difference

extreme heat waves, rising sea levels, declining biodiversity, rising poverty, health impacts

COVAX

global initiative for covid-19 vaccine that the us has declined to join

What was the World Bank's influence on Global Health 1. Before 1980, 2. in 1980, and 3.after 1980

1. due to little competition in health sector because hospitals required large investments, healthcare was more a public utility than a private good, 2. cost is not a sound basis for choice, focus on social benefit of eradicating disease, 3. health care has to be affordable and effective

What are the Lancet Commission's 3 critiques

1. empathy failures are about overreliance on GDP as a measure of human progress, overlooking what drives poor health and not recognizing environmental needs prevents transdisciplinary thinking, and 3. governments and institutions ignore threats as well as possible solutions

The Medicines Act

1968 act by UK gov to regulate medicine

basic needs approach was part of which decade

1970s

epidemiological histories

1st transition - industrial (living with animals + cultivating foods created new spaces for intro of diseases) 2nd transition - after WWII (how we organized and produced food changed and altered our body functions. the intro of high fructose corn syrup and the increase in non-communicable disease and metabolic conditions in wealthier countries) 3rd - 1980s, emergence of infectious disease of HIV (radicalized how we thought of emergencies, global health, zoonotic disease)

Clinton Health Initiative

2000 - helped drop the prices of antiretroviral drugs; executive order to lower drug prices for sub-saharan countries

diagonal healthcare

AIDS combination of vertical and horizontal health care promotes basic healthcare needs along with specific funding towards a particular cause of vertical health care system

Pfizer

American multinational pharmaceutical and biotechnology company that introduced a vaccine of its own

UNICEF

An agency of the United Nations responsible for programs to aid education and the health of children and mothers in developing countries; founded in 1946'; funded by govt contributions and fundraising (the amount of money you give correlates w power); GOAL: provide humanitarian and development assistance to mothers and children

Cambridge Biotech Boom

Boston transformed into hub of biotech research. Represented intersection between industry and science, where there were investments made in the research that was being done. in 1977, the city council closely regulated the industry because of concerns about consequences of genetic experiments. significance: showed how to regulate science and tech

Atlantic Charter

British and American statement of goals for the world following WW2

Astro-Zeneca

British-Swedish multinational pharmaceutical and biotechnology company that introduced a vaccine of its own

Basic Needs Approach

Concept in which basic goods and services (food, shelter, clothing, health care) are given as aid to help development without a focus on the implications it has on human choices

basic needs approach

Concept in which basic goods and services (food, shelter, clothing, health care) are given as aid to help development without a focus on the implications it has on human choices; focus on root social determinants and attention to individual-level needs

what are the first three epidemiological transitions

First- age of pestilence and famine (high and fluctuality mortality rate, low life span), second - receding pandemics (decreasing mortality rates, population growth), third - mortality rates are low and birth rates begin to decline as well -> slowed population growth rate

AIDS response in different locations

In western world, very swift due to advocacy and people at high-classes being affected. Continued mortalities in South Africa

What does Competiting with the Soviets say?

Major Themes • Militarization and national security • Autonomy of science • Relationship between politics and science • Similarities and differences between nuclear technology and other Science and technology during cold war o Look at chapter 3 • Formative period of atomic age o Cooperation between scientists at scale never seen before Elevating level of science in American policy o As war continues, S ant T becomes source of tech and prestige for US Chapter 7 and 8 o Leads to friction as scientists begin to question nuclear weapons o Even though dominated by defense, 70s and 80s there is a break and focus on biotech-> becomes increasingly dependent on patents and outside investors o Key questions for understanding book.... What is military, industrial complex? Provide examples What was higher education's role in cold war? What was relationship between cold war politics and scientific research? • Impact of sputnik and US reacted o Movement in shift of who scientists work for How did American political and scientific community respond to Soviet Sputnik in 1957? How hard is it to maintain this balance between basic vs. technical/big research? Rise of instrumentalism expensive instruments and study of instrument only i.e. particle accelerator and instrument-based facilities help or hinder scientific advancement? How did it fit into Big Science? • Potential constraints of using capital-intensive research to use instrument avoiding basic research How America's space program fit into its efforts during Cold War? What was role of scientific cooperation? (Chapter 2) What did it achieve and what were its limits? How did American perceptions of development in early cold war differ from today's perceptions of development? What is Iron triangle? What was its role in SDI?

16. What climate modelling tells us and why climate models fall short. Be able to define, explain, and recognize climate forcing; climate feedback effects; fingerprinting o Why climate models can fall short?

Non-linearities Catastrophes and major disruptions can't be as easily explained (Projections Underestimate Change) Can isolate the forcing effects of various components (natural and anthropogenic) through "fingerprinting" But it's more complicated than just measuring how a simple forcing effects the climate Forcings effect atmospheric, geologic, oceanographic, biological, chemical and social processes, which then have "feedback effects" o Climate forcing/radiative forcing: The rate at which something alters absorbed solar or outgoing infrared energy o Climate feedback effects= o Fingerprinting= ice cores and etc.

26. Evidence behind anthropogenic climate change including the role of models; be able to discuss the strengths and weaknesses of climate models (e.g., catastrophic, non-linear climate impacts

Non-linearities Catastrophes and major disruptions can't be as easily explained (Projections Underestimate Changes

What is the precautionary principle?

The Precautionary Principle • If an action or policy has a suspected risk of causing harm to the public or to the environment, in the absence of scientific consensus that the action or policy is not harmful, the burden of proof that it is not harmful falls on those taking an action. • Don't wait for firm scientific proof before considering action to forestall risk • Scientific uncertainty should not be used as a justification for delayed action. CBDR

social medicine

The view that health and illness are consequences of the social structural organization Addressing social inequalities can improve the health of the population. implement health care through an understanding how social and economic conditions impact health

What did Desombre say>

This paved the way for the Montreal Protocol's status as the first true international precautionary approach to a global environmental danger Argues for the benefits of the Montreal Protocol's adjustment process and use of industrial incentives in preventing the innate uncertainty of science from inhibiting policy changes. She acknowledges the inability to properly predict the ultimate success of the Protocol, due to continued uncertainties regarding the participation of Article 5 countries and the growing black market for ozone depleting substances.

WHO

UN charter; member states in world health assembly, funded by dues from member states and private donations. Due are based off of GDP (US wanted to leave bc of this); goal - attainment of all peoples of highest possible levels of health

PEPFAR

US President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief; 2003; bush committed to providing 110$ billion to global HIV/AIDS prevention and treatment. PEPFAR initially bought from US companies (most humanitarian money went to US companies)

UNICEF - what does it stand for, led by who, funded by what

United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund, led by president, funded by shareholders and bonds sold on markets

Act Up

political movement to fight AIDS (drug companies were profiting off of AIDS, making medications super expensive)

PReP and microbicides

prevention for HIV/AIDS

potential security risks with Big Data

can be manipulated, hacked, crucial information can be discovered and used, people in power have power over the powerless

climate change

a change in climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere

Miasma

a noxious or poisonous atmosphere; "bad air"' was believed to be the cause of disease up until the acceptance of germ theory (miasma debunked by John Snow during Cholera epidemic)

Sir Joseph Rotblat

a polish physicist who focused his research on nuclear medicine and arms control

precautionary principle

a principle based on the belief that if an invention's consequences are known to be bad or unclear, then it should not be pursued (ex. Asilomar meeting in terms of gene combination from different species)

what is health as defined by the WHO

a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity

health

a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or injury according to the WHO. Health is a fundamental human right. This is a significant term because health has been politicized and does not represent equitable access.

Epidemic

a widespread occurrence of an infectious disease in a community at a particular time.

Why is HIV/AIDS epidemic such a major turning point for global health

activism in the US was important to it actually being addressed, medical and treatment innovation methods, politics of access, donors

selective primary health care

an approach to health care that focuses on using specific interventions to target specific health problems. facilitates support from donors; top-down approach. little engagement between health sectors, but delivered measurable, fast results.

zoonotic

animal to human transmission

ART

antiretroviral therapy; treatment for AIDs

little p politics

arrangement of power and authority in society

Politics can be broadly defined as

arrangements of power and authority in human associations

precautionary principle

don't wait for definitive scientific proof before considering action to forestall risk. scientific uncertainty should not be used to justify delayed action

development theory

everything that works in the US will work in the developing countries (cracks: not all countries experiencing same economic growth, ignores social factors, economic growth does not always solve political instability, vertical programs)

six methodological approaches to algorithmic bias

examining source code, reflexively producing code, reverse engineer, interviews+ ethnographies of coders, unpacking socio-technical process, algorithms in real world (surveys, analysis, gossip)

James Grant

executive director of UNICEF, pushed for vaccines and ORT (oral rehydration therapy)

John Snow

father of epidemiology, believed that water was a source of infection and marked water pumps for cholera

Three reasons think the great stagnation is ending

flurry of recent discoveries, booming investment in technology, rapid adoption of new technologies

Selective primary health care

focuses on prevention or treatment of only a few diseases that cause the most mortality and morbidity and for which they are effective interventions

comprehensive primary health care

focuses on the broader social determinants of health, such as poverty and economic inequality, gender inequality, environment, and community development. political mobilization = very challenging. Oriented toward goal of global health equity. avoided problems of verticals programs. emphasized systems building.

binary

fundamental form of programming data that is directly interpreted by computer, string of 0's and 1's

post-aids

funding invested in global health; global health became fundamental part of development. some states lost power over health systems, AIDS diagonal approach became central, rise of individual power and international orgs

Hydrogen power

generates electrical power in a fuel cell, emitting only water vapor and warm air

GAVI Alliance

group of international orgs created to improve access to new and underused vaccines for children living in world's poorest countries

Asilomar meeting

group of scientists came together in 1978 to discuss how to prevent undue risks going forward with new tech. like RECOMBINANT DNA, was considered a success bc scientists recognized and regulated their own work

Epistemic community

groups of experts with a common policy goal that results from their shared knowledge. Significance: help policy makers identify, measure, and find solutions to problems involving expert opinions; demonstrates global nature of health; fosters environment for collaboration and disucssion.

11. What was DuPont's reaction to CFCs?

o Announces that it will stop making CFCs only if they are proven harmful to human health - and organizes an opposition campaign o Organizes Alliance for Responsible CFC Policy, an industry non-governmental organization (NGO) which opposes further CFC limits o In 1986, after the Vienna Convention is signed and negotiations for the Montreal Protocol are underway, research on substitutes recommences o Former CEO Heckert (research chemist, worked on Manhattan project) insisted up until 1988 that a ban on CFC production was "more drastic than scientific evidence justifies..." then 3 weeks later announced they would abandon the CFC business

10. What is the greenhouse effect?

o Atmosphere allows most shortwave through to the surface, but absorbs terrestrial radiation o Atmosphere warms and emits radiation, some of which returns to the surface

14. How do we know that Climate Change is occurring?

o Basic understandings of how energy interacts with the atmosphere and how water and carbon cycles work o Temperature readings over 125 years and measurements of other climate variables o Records of earlier climates from tree rings, corals, ocean sediments and ice cores o Complex computer models of the atmosphere

15. Why are CFCs still a problem?

o Continue to persist in the atmosphere o Smuggling of CFCs is highly profitable o Delay of phase-out in developing countries created a black market for ODS o China and India have begun rapid economic growth in economy and in production of HCFCs and HFCs (substitutes for CFCs but are just as bad) o It's hot and people want refrigerators and air conditioners o An unintended consequence of replacing CFCs was the creation of large amounts of HFCs - a byproduct of HCFC production - are a very potent greenhouse gas! o So solving one problem created a new one...

18. Why are the climate negotiations in Copenhagen (2009) significant?

o General expectation for Copenhagen was a legally binding agreement o An unrealistic goal that virtually assured Copenhagen's "failure" (meaning it failed to produce a universal, legally binding agreement) o But it did achieve many "firsts" in the climate negotiations Mitigation Pledges

21. Why is the Paris Agreement (2015) significant?

o Long-term mitigation goals (2 degrees C or maybe 1.5) o Five-year cycles of action (to submit new/updated targets and plans) o Five-year comprehensive global stocktake (to see how we are doing in meeting our goals) o Adaptation (cycle of action, with support) and Loss & Damage (Warsaw International Mechanism on L&D, task force on displacement) o Transparency (better data and accountability for ALL countries) o Climate Finance (for mitigation and adaptation in developing countries) o Capacity Building (Paris Cmts on Capacity Bldg to identify needs) o Legal Form (Universal, legal agreement under the UNFCCC) o Building off of expected success of discussions made in Copenhagen o Why did it succeed? Bottom up approach (INDCs) US-China in a better place The negotiation process was handled very well by the French Expectations were more realistic Clean energy landscape is changing Among other reasons...

What is the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (1987)?

o Montreal Protocol Widely called the most successful global environmental treaty to date Signed in 1987, entered into force in 1989 Has since been revised 7 times Currently ratified by 197 countries (including South Sudan) - nearly universal ratification 50% cut in CFC production and consumption from 1986 levels 50% is a political compromise with no scientific justification Each CFC is Weighted by its 'Ozone Depletion Potential': A New 'Interface Concept' Linking Science to Policy Restricts trade with non-parties GATT (& now WTO) permits some limits on trade linked to environmental goals • Special Concessions made to Developing Countries o Foresight to know that while consumption of ODS by these countries was miniscule and production negligible, both these figures were likely to grow significantly o Chlorofluorocarbons had been essential in the process of industrialization for the countries of the North, and others at early stages of development were likely to use these cheap, safe chemicals in their process of industrialization as well o Resolution: Developing countries are allowed 10 extra years to comply, and the developed countries will help pay for the transition (Multilateral Fund) • Response to Definitive Scientific Evidence o Dupont agrees to stop CFC manufacture o Dupont could have profited from stonewalling but elected to honor its previous commitment o They also realized that CFC substitutes would be a business opportunity o Montreal Protocol Revised o London Amendments (1990) speed CFC phase-out, plus halons, CCl4, CH3CCl3 by 2000 o Copenhagen Amendments (1992): accelerate phase-outs to 1996, phase out HCFCs by 2030 o Montreal Amendments: Phase out methyl bromide by 2010 o The Montreal Protocol worked NOAA studies suggest that concentrations of CFCs in the atmosphere are declining, but will remain in the atmosphere for decades to come o And the phase-out was cheaper than expected o Industry claimed that a phase-out would cause "very large" costs leading to redesign of large sectors of vital industry, smaller firms going out of business... and an effect on inflation and employment nationally and internationally o Also claimed that there were no alternatives and that none would become available in the foreseeable future o In 1995, the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel of the Montreal Protocol concluded that virtually all of the global reduction of CFC use had come at little or no cost to consumers, minimal cost to industry o Montreal Protocol (1987) "Parties to this protocol...determined to protect the ozone layer by taking precautionary measures to control equitably total global emissions of substances that deplete it." o UNFCCC (1992)"Parties should take precautionary measures... Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty should not be used as a reason for postponing such measures..." o "particularly remarkable, and remarkably particular"?

6. How is the ozone hole (discovered 1985) a model for international diplomacy under scientific uncertainty?

o More realistic goals US-China relations better renewables bottom-up approach (INDC--Intended Nationally Determined Contribution) French deal w/ it well o 3 New Concepts Illustrated by the Ozone Story Sustainable Development • Development should NOT take place at the expense of future (human) generations The Precautionary Principle • If an action or policy has a suspected risk of causing harm to the public or to the environment, in the absence of scientific consensus that the action or policy is not harmful, the burden of proof that it is not harmful falls on those taking an action. • Don't wait for firm scientific proof before considering action to forestall risk • Scientific uncertainty should not be used as a justification for delayed action. CBDR

7. How and why in the absence of clear scientific results were key players able to negotiate an ozone policy?

o Negotiations in 1970s and early 1980s are inconclusive and complicated by scientific controversy o Still no measurement of global ozone loss; Predictions of world-wide ozone depletion bounce up and down as models improve o Disagreement over the right approach: o Industry: Act when the science is proven o Environmentalists: Take proactive measures in case the danger turns out to be real o Even so, NGO and Scandinavian pressure leads to an agreement called the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer in 1985 o Oregon and other states ban "non-essential" uses of CFCs (aerosol propellants) o Ted Hallock, A powerful, irascible and legendarily profane Oregon State Senator, championed Oregon laws through the legislative process. No one dared oppose him. o Federal EPA follows a few years later (October 1978) o After the Montreal Protocol is Negotiated, The Ozone Hole is Explained, And the response is quick

9. How CFCs destroy O3; how O3 is both good and bad; what is the ozone-oxygen cycle?

o O3 in the stratosphere good Absorbs low wavelength (high energy) ultraviolet photons that would (if they reached the surface of the earth) damage DNA, causing skin cancer and cataracts and disrupting marine eco-systems Essentially, oxygen and ozone convert UV light to heat in an exothermic reaction. Together, ozone and oxygen gas are effective at absorbing about 98 percent of the harmful UV light o How CFCs Destroy O3? But long after their invention, scientists discover that all CFCs end up in the stratosphere, where they remain for 100 years! CFCs are heavier than air and hence don't float. They travel upward on air currents

13. How negotiating ozone and climate treaties are alike, but also different?

o Ozone vs. Climate: Similarities Global-scale, atmospheric externalities Century-scale characteristic times Effects theorized before observed Agreed developed countries should take the lead in reducing emissions Precautionary language in both major agreements o But that's where the similarities end! Few CFC producers (firms and countries) vs. many greenhouse gas producers CFC producers could produce substitutes. And the same companies that produced ODS produced them O3 depletion directly threatens human health (esp. in the North); climate change primarily threatens poor developing countries and ecosystems (health link indirect) Ozone hole was something we could see... CFCs small share of economy, firm profits; Energy is at the core of our economy, and thus a huge (and costly?) transition to a low-carbon energy system required o Climate change unfolds differently Huge corporate counter-attack, inventing or exaggerating scientific uncertainty in order to forestall action (Seen in Merchants of Doubt) US government ignores scientific consensus; some countries & US states establish carbon policies, low carbon plans major disagreement on objectives blocks UN action

23. Energy transitions - what are they and what have they been; discuss energy transitions in US history; define, explain, and discuss factors that need to be taken into consideration in energy transitions, such as the reduction of carbon (availability, accessibility, security, efficiency, cost, environmental impact, equity, and sustainability)

o Past transitions: o Industrial revolution (wood to coal) o The hydrocarbon age (cars, middle east security) o Future transitions? o Shale o Efficiency o "Clean" Coal o Nuclear o Renewables o Smart grids/distributed generation Over time the electricity mix gradually shifts to lower-carbon options, led by growth in renewables and gas-fired generation o Availability? (total resources?) Definition: resources that are known to exist and to be economically recoverable Changes with new technology, new markets, new prices It costs money to prove resources and to pay taxes on them: hence no need for too much Undiscovered resources are hard to estimate except by rules of thumb. So be wary of predictions that we will run out of any given resource any time soon. Estimates - even if wrong - affect markets/policy decisions o Accessibility? (economic/political cost to access?) i.e. need to use an oil rig fairly difficult Access to land transportation Construction infrastructure Accessibility of terrain (or water depth if offshore) Competing uses o Security? (domestic? reliable?) Or do we have to depend greatly on imports? o Efficiency? (thermodynamic definition) How much energy is wasted? How does it compare with the best available technology? o Cost? (LCOE? Life cycle?) i.e. radiation will last a long time Upfront cost vs. energy payback time? o Environmental impact? (local? global?) o Equity? (who has them/who needs them?) o Sustainability? (meet present needs without reducing capacity to meet future needs?) Patterns of economic, environmental and social progress that meet the needs of the present day without reducing the capacity to meet future needs. Sustainable Energy • Patterns of energy production and use that can support society's present and fusture needs with the least economic, environmental and social costs. o Each of these relies on a different set of metrics for comparison - definitions are frequently interchanged but are not the same o If you only look at one factor - you may miss something very important

17. What are the new concepts illustrated by the ozone story. Be able to define and use in an example: the precautionary principle, sustainable development, and CBDR (Common But Differentiated Responsibilities)

o Precautionary principle= If an action or policy has a suspected risk of causing harm to the public or to the environment, in the absence of scientific consensus that the action or policy is not harmful, the burden of proof that it is not harmful falls on those taking an action. Don't wait for firm scientific proof before considering action to forestall risk Scientific uncertainty should not be used as a justification for delayed action. o Sustainable development= Development should NOT take place at the expense of future (human) generations o Common but Differentiated Responsibilities= Future action may acknowledge that countries vary in their ability to act given the stage of development; although all countries may have responsibility to address this problem, this principle suggests their actions may vary in degree.

20. What is the Kyoto Protocol?

o The Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC (COP 3) o 1997, ratified by 192 countries, includes binding targets for 37 industrialized countries & the EU (was 193 but Canada withdrew) o The US never ratified it

25. How is climate change linked to energy transitions?

o The greater amount of greenhouse gases produced, the greater the increase in temperature

22. What are the 3 key messages of the IPCC AR5?

o The warming in the climate system is unequivocal based on observations and multiple lines of independent evidence o Human influence on the climate system is clear resulting from the combination of model system with the observed climate change o Continued greenhouse gas emissions cause further climate change and constitute a multi-century commitment in the future o Limiting climate change requires substantial and sustained reductions in GHG emissions

19. What is the UNFCC and why is it significant?

o UNFCC= UN Framework Convention on Climate Change o Negotiations on what became the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change were launched in December 1990 by the UN General Assembly. o The Convention was adopted on 9 May 1992, and opened for signature a month later at the UN Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil o United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) o Entered into force on 21 March 1994, after receiving the requisite 50 ratifications o Has now been ratified by 195 countries

8. What is the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer (1985)?

o Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer (1985) Adopted in 1985, entered into force in September 1988; in 2009 became the first Convention* ever to achieve universal ratification Agreement in principle that ozone destruction is a problem and that the parties will limit CFC production, but no specific actions required Broad framework agreement to be followed by specific protocols Sets pattern for future global environmental agreements Ozone hole looms in the background, but is not used as an explicit justification for action because of lack of proof that CFCs are its cause. *Convention = Treatyq

24. Decarbonization and energy intensity; what are stabilization wedges?

o You can do a variety of changes to energy type rather than one big change in energy usage/transition small steps to overcome climate change

HIV

one of the first infectious diseases that caused international orgs to respond; changed how global health institutions work and their agendas. AIDS is the late and highly fatal stage of HIV

what was a major change in global health after WW2

optimism and moral mandate, many newly independent african nations, increasingly popular use of census and statistics, sense of a modular world, belief in technical fixes to problems

HIV Equity Initiative & Resulting Lazarus Effect

the health of people in poorer countries got significantly better (almost like they were coming back from the dead)

science diplomacy

the intersection of science an policy in the context of interactions within the global sphere

anthropocene

the modern geological era during which humans have dramatically affected the environment and CLIMATE

The anthropocene

the modern geological era during which humans have dramatically affected the environment.

The singularity

the moment AI becomes so powerful it is uncontrollable

What did Chu and Majumdar say?

v If we are to mitigate climate risks in a timely manner, the speed of adoption of clean energy technology at a widely deployed commercial scale has to be accelerated Government policies are necessary to stimulate carbon free invention, innovation and align market forces Although full costs of mitigating and adapting to these changes have significant uncertainties, prudent risk doesn't equal uncertainty with inaction Cost of renewable energy is increasingly competitive. With engagement of scientific, financial and public policy communities and general public, we can accelerate this transition to sustainable energy that will power economic growth, and increase energy security and mitigate risks of climate change.

impact of climate change on health

weather extremes (allergies, vector born diseases, wealth inequality), rising sea levels (environmental refugees, food shortages, mental health, water and food supply, algal blooms) rising temps (heat stress + cardiovascular disease, severe weather, air pollution, asthma)

green washing

when a company pretends to be environmentally conscious for marketing purposes but actually isn't

Lancet commission

world-leading clinical oncology journal publishing high-quality, peer reviewed original research

pandemic

worldwide epidemic

What is Sustainable Development

• Development should NOT take place at the expense of future (human) generations

What are the foundational concepts of STIA?

• Foundational science o Interpretation, theoretical experimentation, induction, deduction, evidence, uncertainty, predictive, testable, sustained by institutions Think of how these play a role in institutions i.e. uncertainty

What are the 3 Es of Science Diplomacy?

• Science diplomacy EXPRESSES national power or influence • Science diplomacy equips policy makers with technology information to support policy • Science diplomacy enhances bilateral and multilateral relations o All are a strategy and strategy is grounded in national interests (like a treaty)

How has tech changed?

• Technology o Modification of what occurs naturally o Techne; craft; skill o Useful arts o Manufactured; made o Relationship to science? o Knowledge-based economy 17th/18th century How do we understand how technology has changed?