studie

Robert Owen

(1771-1858), manufacturer in Scotland, believed employing children under 10 was detrimental to them and did not benefit factory owners, organized the Grand National Consolidated Trades Union, collapsed

Pierre Joseph Proudhon

(1809-1865), wrote What is Property?, argued that property was profit stolen from the workers, considered an anarchist

William Gladstone

(1809-1898), Liberal prime minister, introduced bills to give Ireland self-government that failed to pass

Reform Bill of 1832

A major British political reform that increased the number of male voters by about 50 percent and gave political representation to new industrial areas.

Jacquerie

A massive uprising by the French peasants in 1358 protesting heavy taxation.

Louis- Philippe

King of France following Charles X. Abdicated the throne against threat of republican revolution (smelled his popularity was diminishing)

Frederick the Great

King of Prussia (1740-1786). Successful in the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) and the Seven Years' War (1756-1763), he brought Prussia great military prestige in Europe.

Frederick William IV

King of Prussia, agreed to abolish censorship, establish new constitution, and work for a united Germany.

Otto von Bismarck

Known for German unification.

August Comte

coined phrase "sociology"; believed in the scientific improvement of society and human condition

Cavour

The prime minister of Piedmont-Sardinia during the movement toward Italian unification. He is considered the architect of the Italian Unification.

Girondists

These were the liberals of France who did not want to execute Louis XVI, but The Mountain did anyway

Conciliarists

People who believed that the authority in the Roman Church should rest in a general council composed of clergy, theologians, and laypeople, rather than in the pope alone.

Positivism

Philosophy identified with French philosopher Auguste Comte. Insists on verifiable facts, avoidance of wishful thinking, questioning of all assumptions, dislike of improbable generalizations.

Neoliberalism

Philosophy of 1980s conservatives who argued for privatization of state-run industries and decreased government spending on social services.

Nativism

Policies and beliefs, often influenced by nationalism, scientific racism, and mass migration, that give preferential treatment to established inhabitants over immigrants.

Nonalignment

Policy of postcolonial governments to remain neutral in the Cold war and play both the United States and the Soviet Union for what they could get.

Magellan

Portuguese navigator in the service of Spain

Janissary Corps

The core of the sultan's army, composed of slave conscript from non-Muslim parts of the empire; after 1683 it became a volunteer force.

Imperialism

The desire of a country to take over and exploit foreign lands, usually inhabited by people of different ethnicity or religion. Economic motive is to acquire raw materials.

The decision made at Yalta was:

The division of Germany into the post war occupations

European Union (EU)

The economic, cultural and political alliance of twenty-seven European nations.

Mercantilism

A system of economic regulations aimed at increasing the power of the state based on the belief that a nation's international power was based on its wealth specifically its supply of gold and silver.

Millet System

A system used by the Ottomans whereby the subjects were divided into religious communities, with each millet (nation) enjoying autonomous self-government under its religious leaders.

Encomienda System

A system whereby the Spanish crown granted the conquerors the right to forcibly employ groups of Indians in exchange for providing food, shelter, and Christian teaching.

Jesuits

Also known as the Society of Jesus; founded by Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556) as a teaching and missionary order to resist the spread of Protestantism.

Truman Doctrine

America's policy geared to containing communism to those countries already under Soviet control.

War On Terror

American policy under President George W. Bush to fight global terrorism in all its forms.

Triple Entente

An alliance between Great Britain, France and Russia in the years before WWI.

Public Sphere

An idealized intellectual sphere that emerged in Europe during the Enlightenment, where the public came together to discuss important issues relating to society, economics, and politics.

Lamarck

French naturalist who proposed that evolution resulted from the inheritance of acquired characteristics (1744-1829)

Victor Hugo

French poet and novelist and dramatist

Clemenceau

French statesman who played a key role in negotiating the Treaty of Versailles (1841-1929)

Sartre

French writer and existentialist philosopher (1905-1980)

Montaigne

French writer regarded as the originator of the modern essay (1533-1592)

Dumas

French writer remembered for his swashbuckling historical tales (1802-1870) Three Musketeers

Voltaire

French, perhaps greatest Enlightenment thinker. Deist. Mixed glorification and reason with an appeal for better individuals and institutions. Wrote "Candide". Believed enlightened despot best form of government.

Voltaire

French, perhaps greatest Enlightenment thinker. Deist. Mixed glorification and reason with an appeal for better individuals and institutions. Wrote Candide. Believed enlightened despot best form of government.

Cameralism

View that monarchy was the best form of government, that all elements of society should serve the monarch, and that, in turn, the state should use its resources and authority to increase the public good.

Confraternities

Voluntary lay groups organized by occupation, devotional preference, neighborhood, or charitable acitivty.

1939

WWII begins, non agression pact between soviets and germans

2001

War in Afghanistan, 9'11. US war on terrotism

Louis- Napoleon

Was not only the first president of the French Republic (for two terms), but was also the last emperor. As emperor, he was called Napoleon III and he was the nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte.

Ivan the Terrible

(1533-1584) earned his nickname for his great acts of cruelty directed toward all those with whom he disagreed. He became the first ruler to assume the title Czar of all Russia.

Tycho Brahe

(1546-1601), established himself as Europe's leading astronomer, collected a mass of data, believed that all planets revolved around the sun and that system revolved around the earth-moon system

Miguel de Cervantes

(1547-1616), wrote Don Quixote, characterized 17th c. Spain

Francis Bacon

(1561-1626), argued that new knowledge had to be pursued through empirical, experimental research, formulated empirical method, claimed it would result in highly practical knowledge

William Shakespeare

(1564-1616), most famous playwright of all time, original characters, great understanding of human psychology, diverse plots, unexcelled gift for language, appreciated classical culture, individualism and humanism

James Watt

(1736-1819), invented a more efficient steam engine, added a separate condenser to improve the Newcomen engine, solved the crisis of energy for Britain

Jean Baptiste Lamarck

(1744-1829), believed all forms of life had arisen through a process of continuous adjustment to the environment, flawed-believed characteristics acquired by parents over the course of their lives could be inherited by their children

Edward Jenner

(1749-1823), collected data on the prevention of smallpox by cowpox, able to produce a vaccine for smallpox

Maximilien Robespierre

(1758-1794), head of the Committee of Public Safety, organized the Reign of Terror, executed by guillotine during Thermidorian Reaction

Mary Wollstonecraft

(1759-1797), wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Man and A Vindication of the Rights of Women, firm feminist, demanded education for women, advocated female participation in politics and an expansion of women's rights

Leo Tolstoy

(1828-1910), greatest Russian realist, probed deeply into the lives of his characters, fatalistic theory of history, regarded free will as an illusion

Paul Cezanne

(1839-1906), committed to form and ordered design, later work increasingly abstract and non-representational, moved toward 2-D plane

Emile Zola

(1840-1902), realist writer, violently criticized social situation, strict determinist, famous for animalistic view of working class life, sympathized with socialism

Frederich Nietzsche

(1844-1900), German philosopher, believed West overemphasized rationality and stifled passion and creativity, questioned all values, claimed Christianity glorified weakness, envy and mediocrity, believed pillars of conventional morality needed to be replaced

Karl Lueger

(1844-1910), mayor of Vienna, succeeded in winning support of the people, greatly influenced Hitler, showed him the enormous potential of anticapitalist and antiliberal propaganda

Georges Sorel

(1847-1922), believed socialism would come to power in a general strike of the workers, who would be controlled by a small revolutionary elite

Paul Ganguin

(1848-1903), pioneered expressionist techniques, used them to infuse his work with tranquility and mysticism, believed the painter should not try to represent objects as the eye saw them

Edward Bernstein

(1850-1932), revisionist, argued that Marx's predictions had proved false, suggested socialists should combine with progressive forces to win gradual evolutionary gains for workers through legislation, unions and further economic development

Sigmund Freud

(1856-1939), believed the human mind is basically irrational, controlled by id (irrational unconscious), ego (rationalizing conscious) and superego (ingrained moral values), mechanisms of traditional society and rationality restrain passion and sexual desires, received popular attention in 1918, undermined optimism about rational nature of human mind

Teresa of Avilla

-symbolized renewal of intense faith -spanish -founded her own order of nuns that live in isolation, eat/sleep very little, dedicated life to prayer and meditation -canonized: recognized as saint

Johan Tetzel

1517 AD. Sold indulgences to help pay for St. Peter's Basilica. "Whenever a coin in the coffers rings, a soul from Purgatory springs."

The Directory

1785-1799. Five man group. Passed a new constitution in 1795 that was much more conservative. Corrupt and did not help the poor, but remained in power because of military strength. By 1797 it was a dictatorship.

Frankfurt Assembly

1807-82; personified the romantic revolutionary nationalism. Attempted to unify Germany.

Winston Churchill

1874 to 1965; greatest wartime leader; rallied the British with his speeches, infectious confidence, and bulldog determination; known for his "iron curtain" speech; led the British during World War II; agreed Hitler should be conquered; was thrown out by his own people.

Boxer Rebellion

1899 rebellion in Beijing, China started by a secret society of Chinese who opposed the "foreign devils". The rebellion was ended by British troops

Liberalism

19th century political philosophy supported mostly by business and professional men. They support only limited suffrage. They favor freedom for the individual, so they fear the "mob."strong emphasis on the rights of property., Generally they favored laissez-faire economics, especially at the beginning of the 19th century - keep the government out of the economy and let each individual have as much freedom as possibly to improve himself. Advocated free trade (so they opposed mercantilism). Generally they opposed militarism. Favors constitutionalism "stake in society" theory, and nationalism, because of the idea that people should be governed with their own consent.

Balfour Declaration

A 1917 British mandate that declared British support of a National Home for the Jewish People in Palestine.

Lateran Agreement

A 1929 agreement that recognized the Vatican as a tiny independent state, with Mussolini agreeing to give the church heavy financial support. In turn, the pope expressed his satisfaction and urged Italians to support Mussolinis government.

New Left

A 1960s counterculture movement that embraced updated forms of Marxism to challenge both Western capitalism and Soviet-style communism.

Napoleon

A French general, political leader, and emperor of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Bonaparte rose swiftly through the ranks of army and government during and after the French Revolution and crowned himself emperor in 1804. He conquered much of Europe but lost two-thirds of his army in a disastrous invasion of Russia. After his final loss to Britain and Prussia at the Battle of Waterloo, he was exiled to the island of St. Helena in the south Atlantic Ocean.

Robespierre

A French political leader of the eighteenth century. A Jacobin, he was one of the most radical leaders of the French Revolution. He was in charge of the government during the Reign of Terror, when thousands of persons were executed without trial. After a public reaction against his extreme policies, he was executed without trial.

Renaissance

A French word meaning "rebirth", used to describe the rebirth of the culture of classical antiquity in Italy during the fourteenth to sixteenth centuries.

Bauhaus

A German interdisciplinary school of fine and applied arts that brought together many leading modern architects, designers, and theatrical innovators.

German Socialist Democratic Party (SPD)

A German working-class political party founded int he 1870's, the SPD championed Marxism but in practice turned away from Marxist revolution and worked instead for social and workplace reforms in the German parliament.

Dreyfus Affair

A Jewish captain was falsely accused and convicted of comitting treason, really done by Catholic. Family and leading intellectual individuals and republicans like Zola wanted to reopen the case. Split in two, first army who are antisemetic and Catholic, and other side the civil libertarians and more radical republicans. Result is government severed all ties with church, no longer priests in state schools, catholicism loses a lot of power of indoctrination.

Louis Blanc

A Paris journalist, editor of Revue de Progres and author of Organization of Work. Proposed social workshops/state supported manufacturing centers as a way to deal with the problems of industrialization(recognized the developing hostility toward the owning class/bourgeoisie).

Pietism

A Protestant revival movement in early 18th century Germany and Scandinavia that emphasized a warm and emotional religion, the priesthood of all believers, and the power of Christian rebirth in everyday affairs.

Anabaptists

A Protestant sect that believed only adults could make a free choice regarding religion; they also advocated pacifism, separation of church and state, and democratic church organization.

Socialism

A backlash against the emergence of individualism and the fragmentation of industrial society, and a move toward cooperation and a sense of community; the key ideas were economic planning, greater social equality, and state regulation of property.

Economic Liberalism

A belief in free trade and competition based on Adam Smith's argument that the invisible hand of free competition would benefit all individuals, rich and poor

Continental System

A blockade imposed by Napoleon to halt all trade between continental Europe and Britain, thereby weakening the British economy and military.

Social Darwinism

A body of thought drawn from the ideas of Charles Darwin that applied the theory of biological evolution to human affairs and saw the human race as driven by an unending economic struggle that would determine the survival of the fittest.

Thermodynamics

A branch of physics built on Newton's laws of mechanics that investigated the relationship between heat and mechanical energy.

Steam Engines

A breakthrough invention by Thomas Savery in 1698 and Thomas Newcomen in 1705 that burned coal to produce steam, which was then used to operate a pump; the early models were super seded by James Watt's more efficient steam engine, patented in 1769.

Rococo

A popular style in Europe in the 18th century, known for its soft pastels, ornate interiors, sentimental portraits, and starry-eyed lovers protected by hovering cupids.

World Trade Organization (WTO)

A powerful supranational financial institution that sets trade and tariff agreements for over 150 member countries and so helps manage a large percentage of the world's import-export policies. Like the IMF and the World Bank, the WTO promotes neoliberal policies around the world.

Black Shirts

A private army under Mussolini who destroyed socialist newspapers, union halls, and Socialist party headquarters, eventually pushing Socialists out of the city governments of Northern Italy.

Humanism

A program of study designed by Italians that emphasized the critical study of Latin and Greek literature with the goal of understanding human nature.

Olympe de Gouges

A proponent of democracy, she demanded the same rights for French women that French men were demanding for themselves. In her Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen (1791), she challenged the practice of male authority and the notion of male-female inequality. She lost her life to the guillotine due to her revolutionary ideas.

Companionate Marriage

A proposed form of marriage in which legalized birth control would be practiced, the divorce of childless couples by mutual consent would be permitted, and neither party would have any financial or economic claim on the other

Eugenics

A pseudo scientific doctrine that maintains that the selective breeding of human beings can improve the general characteristics of a national population, which helped inspire Nazi ideas about "race and space" and ultimately contributed to the Holocaust.

Politiques

Catholic and Protestant moderates who held that only a strong monarchy could save France from total collapse.

Mary Queen of Scots

Catholic relative to Protestant Queen Elizabeth I of England. She allegedly plotted with Spain's Philip II to overthrow Elizabeth and reassert Catholicism in England. Elizabeth had her beheaded.

Climate Change

Changes in long-standing weather patterns caused primarily by carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels.

Colonialism

Closely related to imperialism. the idea that countries should settle their own people (establish colonies) in lands they conquer to manage the economic exploitation of the area and to govern it.

1968

Cold War. Prague Spring, ussr grows into other counrties, beginning of 5th republic in spain. With paris revolts beginning it. Space race begins

Colbert

Created mercantilism and was able to connect France through industries and trade routes

Henry VIII

Creator of the Church of England, he married 6 wives and divorced or had them killed since none could produce a male heir.

Vaclav Havel

Czech dramatist and statesman whose plays opposed totalitarianism and who served as president of Czechoslovakia from 1989 to 1992 and president of the Czech Republic since 1993 (born in 1936)

Debate about Women

Debated among writers and thinkers in the Renaissance about women's qualities and proper role in society.

Giovanni Bocaccio

Decameron, Federigo's Falcon, timelessness and university, 1300s, Humanism

Charivari

Degrading public rituals used by village communities to police personal behavior and maintain moral standards.

Representative Assemblies

Deliberative meetings of lords and wealthy urban residents that flourished in many European countries between 1250 and 1450.

Cartesian Dualism

Descartes's view that all of reality could ultimately be reduced to mind and matter.

Afrikaners

Descendants of the Dutch in the Cape Colony.

Popolo

Disenfranchised common people in Italian cities who resented their exclusion from power.

Erasmus

Dutch humanist and theologian who was the leading Renaissance scholar of northern Europe

Desiderius Erasmus

Dutch humanist and theologian who was the leading Renaissance scholar of northern Europe, Dutch humanist and theologian who was the leading Renaissance scholar of northern Europe although his criticisms of the Church led to the Reformation, he opposed violence and condemned Martin Luther. he wrote The Praise of Folly, worked for Frobein and translated the New Testament from Greek to Latin(1466-1536)

Boers

Dutch settlers in South Africa

Cubism

Early 20th century art movement, practiced by Picasso and others.

Patronage

Financial support of writers and artists by cities, groups, and individuals, often to produce specific works or works in specific styles.

Jan Van Eyck

Flemish painter who was a founder of the Flemish school of painting and who pioneered modern techniques of oil painting (1390-1441)

Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA)

Formed in 1998 by frustrated Kosovar militants who sought to fight for their independence.

ignatius Loyola

Founded the Society of Jesus, resisted the spread of Protestantism, wrote Spiritual Exercises.

1871

Franco Prussian War, German Empire declared at Versailles, Modernization of Paris begins

Cossacks

Free groups and outlaw armies originally comprising runaway peasants living on the borders of Russian territory from the 14th century onward. By the end of the 16th century they had formed an alliance with the Russian state.

Huguenots

French Calvinists.

1789

French Revolution

Impressionism

French art movement started around 1871 with Monet's "Impression of the Sunrise" at Salon des Refuses in Paris.

Louis Pasteur

French chemist and biologist whose discovery that fermentation is caused by microorganisms resulted in the process of pasteurization (1822-1895)

Napoleonic Code

French civil code promulgated in 1804 that reasserted the 1789 principles of the equality of all male citizens before the law and the absolute security of wealth and private property, as well as restricting rights accorded to women by previous revolutionary laws.

Charles de Gaulle

French general and statesman who became very popular during World War II as the leader of the Free French forces in exile (1890-1970)

Republicanism

French idea that a republican form of government is best. Opposed to the monarchists who were scared of the excesses of the Jacobins and their ancestors. Unlike liberals they favor universal suffrage. They are opposed to monarchy of any variety and they are opposed to the catholic church since they think it is the enemy of reason and liberty.

Id, Ego, And Superego

Freudian terms to describe human behavior, which Freud saw as basically irrational.

Second Revolution

From 1792 to 1795, the second phase of French revolution during which the fall of the French Monarchy introduced a rapid radicalization of politics.

Northern Realism

Genre or everday scenes exhibit mathematical and geometric values of seventeenth centruy science. Middle class Dutch patrons commissioned secular works, portaits, still lives, landscapes, and genre paintings. Values: Quiet opulence, +comfortable domesticity, and relaism.

Hitler

German Nazi dictator during World War II (1889-1945)

Robert Koch

German bacteriologist who isolated the anthrax bacillus and the tubercle bacillus and the cholera bacillus (1843-1910)

Wagner

German composer of operas and inventor of the music drama in which drama and spectacle and music are fused (1813-1883)

Thomas a' Kempis

German ecclesiastic (1380-1471), author of "the imitation of christ"; early northern christian writer who challenged individuals to live a godly life rather than focus just on knowledge, summarized philosophy of Brothers of the Common Life in 'Imitation of Life', died in 1471, associated with Brethren of the Common Life, He was the leader of the mystic group known as Modern Devotion

Ostpolitik

German for "Eastern policy"; West Germany's attempt in the 1970s to ease diplomatic tensions with Easy Germany, exemplifying the policies of detente.

Heinrich von Treitschke

German nationalist historian, works reflected the growing aggressiveness of European imperialism

Karl Marx

German philosopher, economist, and revolutionary. With the help and support of Friedrich Engels he wrote The Communist Manifesto (1848) and Das Kapital (1867-1894). These works explain historical development in terms of the interaction of contradictory economic forces, form the basis of all communist theory, and have had a profound influence on the social sciences.

Ostalgie

German term referring to nostalgia for the lifestyles and culture of the vanished East Bloc.

1688

Glorious REvolution in England

Signori

Government by one-man rule in Italian cities such as Milan; also refers to these rulers.

Guest Worker Programs

Government-run programs in western Europe designed to recruit labor for the booming postwar economy.

1929

Great Depression

Luddites

Group of handicraft workers who attacked factories in northern England in 1811 and later, smashing the new machines that they believed were putting them out of work.

Red Shirts

Guerrilla army of Giuseppe Garibaldi who invaded Sicily in 1860 in an attempt to liberate it and won the hearts of the Sicilian peasantry.

Jerome Bosch

He was a Flemish painter whose works display the confusion and anguish of the end of the Middle Ages. Jerome Bosch frequently used religious themes, colorful imagery, and grotesque fantasies in his works of art. (p.439)

John Knox

He was a man who dominated the reform movement in Scotland. He was a passionate preacher who set to work reforming the Church of Scotland. He persuaded parliament to banish church authority; he then established the Presbyterian Church of Scotland. (p.473)

Charles II

King of England, Scotland, and Ireland (1660-1685) who reigned during the Restoration, a period of expanding trade and colonization as well as strong opposition to Catholicism

Philip II

King of Spain during the Spanish Armada. Married to Mary who was Henry VIII's daughter whose nickname was Bloody Mary because she killed so many protestants when she came to the throne in England.

Martin Luther

Known by many as the creater or the reformation, he broke away from the Catholic Church and then later began to question the popes role in the church and the sale of indulgences.

Lady Montagu

Lady who was sympathetic of Islamic women and wrote "Turkish Embassy Letters "on Islamic Women

Nicholas II

Last tsar of Russia, he went to the frontlines in WWI to try to rally the troops, but was forced to abdicate after his wife made horrible decisions under the influence of Rasputin.

Five-year Plan

Launched by Stalin and termed revolution from above, the ultimate goal of the plans was to generate new attitudes, new loyalties, and a new socialist humanity.

Hundred Days Of Reform

Launched in 1898 by the Chinese government in an attempt to meet foreign challenge.

Statues of Kilkenny

Law issued in 1366 that discriminated against the Irish, forbidding marriage between the English and the Irish, requiring the use of the English language, and denying the Irish access to ecclesiastical offices.

Conquistador

Spanish for "conqueror"; Spanish soldier-explorers, such as Hernando Cortes and Francisco Pizarro, who sought to conquer the New World for the Spanish Crown.

Kulturkampf

Struggle for civilization, Bismarck's attack on the Catholic church resulting from Pius IXs declaration of papal infallibility in 1870.

Leon Trotsky

Supporter of Lenin who helped in the takeover of Petrograd and the Bolshevik revolution

Frederich the Wise of Saxony

Supporter of Marthin Luther, he hid him from the Catholic Church when he refused to repent.

John Calvin

Swiss theologian (born in France) whose tenets (predestination and the irresistibility of grace and justification by faith) defined Presbyterianism (1509-1564)

Communes

Sworn associations of free men in Italian cities led by merchant guilds that sought political and economic independence from local nobles.

Enlightened Absolutism

Term coined by historians to describe the rules of the 18th century monarchs who, without renouncing their own absolute authority, adopted Enlightenment ideals of rationalism, progress, and tolerance.

Stagflation

Term coined in the early 1980s to describe the combination of low growth and high inflation that led to a worldwide recession.

Economic Miracle

Term contemporaries used to describe rapid economic growth, often based on the consumer sector, in post-WWII western Eruope.

During the industrial revolution the leading industry was

Textiles

Treaty of Tordesillas

The 1494 agreement giving Spain everything to the west of an imaginary line drawn down the Atlantic and giving Portugal everything to the east.

Utilitarianism

The idea of Jeremy Bentham that social policies should promote the "greatest good for the greatest number."

White Man's Burden

The idea that Europeans could and should civilize more primitive, nonwhite peoples and that nonwhites would eventually receive the benefits of modern economics, cities, advanced medicine, and higher standards of living.

Zionism

The idea that Jews should have a nation in the land of Israel. First articulated by Theodor Herzl in 1896, in response to anti-Semitism, unleashed by the Dreyfus case.

Pan-Slavism

The idea that Slavic peoples should identify with each other and have their own nation. Heavily promoted by Russia at the end of the 19th century as a way to promote her own imperialistic aspirations in the Balkans.

Cultural Relativism

The idea that all cultures have the same problems and solve them in different ways that fit their special geographical and historical conditions. No on culture is better than another; they are just "different."

Conservatism

The idea that change should come slowly, if at all.

Nationalism

The idea that each people had its own genius and specific identity that manisfested itself especially in a common language and history, and often led to the desire for an independent political state.

Social Darwinism

The idea that life is a struggle and only the fittest groups of people can survive.

Materialism

The idea that only what is tangible is real. "Everything mental, spiritual or ideal is an outgrowth of physical or physiological forces." Karl Marx and Thomas Hobbes believed in this.

Nationalism

The idea that people of the same language, religion, ethnicity, or heritage should have their own government on their own land.

Just Price

The idea that prices should be fair, protecting both consumers and producers, and that they should be imposed by the government decree if necessary.

Individualism

The idea that the individual is more important than the state or any other group.

Copernican Hypothesis

The idea that the sun, not the earth, was the center of the universe.

Relativism

The idea that truth is not absolute, but rather is subjective. It maintains that the basis for judgement depends on the events, people, or circumstances surrounding a given situation.

Evolution

The idea, applied by thinkers in many fields, that stresses gradual change and continuous adjustment.

Germ Theory

The idea, contrary to miasmatic theory, that disease was spread through filth and not caused by it.

Enlightenment

The influential intellectual and cultural movement of the late 17th and 18th centuries that introduced a new worldview based on the use of reason, the scientific method, and progress.

Humanism

The intellectual and culture movement that grew out of the study of Greek and Roman literature at the end of the Middle Ages. It was an important factor in the rise of the Renaissance. Characterized by an emphasis on human interests and characteristics rather than the natural world or religion.

Sans-culottes

The laboring poor of Paris, so called because the men wore trousers instead of the knee breeches of the aristocracy and middle class: the word came to refer to the militant radicals of the city.

Sultan

The ruler of the Ottoman Empire; he owned all the agricultural land of the empire and was served by an army and bureaucracy composed of highly trained slaves.

Privatization

The sale of state-managed industries such as transportation and communication networks to private owners, a key policy of neoliberalism meant to control government spending, increase private profits, and foster economic growth, which was implemented in western Europe in response to the economic crisis of the 1970s.

Illegitimacy Explosion

The sharp increase in out-of-wedlock births that occurred in Europe between 1750 and 1850, caused by low wages and breakdown of community controls.

Industrious Revolution

The shift that occurred as families in northwestern Europe focused on earning wages instead of producing goods for household consumption; this reduced their economic self-sufficiency, but increased their ability to purchase consumer goods.

Scholasticism

The system of logic, philosophy and theology of medieval university scholars includes the idea of reason and faith can be reconciled. the most famous practicitioner is St. Thomas Aquinas. It is based on the writings of Aristotle and the early Christian fathers.

Holocaust

The systematic effort of the Nazi state to exterminate all European Jews and other groups deemed racially inferior during the Second World War.

Predestination

The teaching that God has determined the salvation or damnation of individuals based on his will and purpose, not on their merit or works.

Estates

The three legal categories, or orders, of France's inhabitants: the clergy, the nobility, and everyone else.

Proletarianization

The transformation of large numbers of small peasant farmers into landless rural wage earners.

Reading Revolution

The transition in Europe from a society where literacy consisted of patriarchal and communal reading of religious texts to a society where literacy was commonplace and reading material was broad and diverse.

Treaty of Paris

The treaty that ended the Seven Years' War in Europe and the colonies in 1763, and ratified British victory on all colonial fronts.

Gunboat Diplomacy

The use or threat of military force to coerce a government into economic or political agreements.

Inca Empire

The vast and sophisticated Peruvian empire centered at the capital city of Cuzco that was at its peak from 1438 until 1532.

Consumer Revolution

The wide-ranging growth in consumption and new attitudes toward consumer goods that emerged in the cities of northwestern Europe in the second half of the 18th century.

Anne Bolyn

The women King Henry secretly married. The king had her beheaded for not giving him a son.

Iron Law of Wages

Theory proposed by English economist David Ricardo suggesting that the pressure of population growth prevents wages from rising above the subsistence level.

Kepler

This astronomer stated that the orbits of planets around the sun were elliptical, the planets do not orbit at a constant speed, and that an orbit is related to its distance from the sun

Ludwig Van Beethoven

This pianist was considered the master of Romanticism music

Second Industrial Revolution

This term refers to the second wave of the late 18th century industrial movement which was generally focused in the United States and Germany. This second wave, with the movement from domestic systems of production to factory systems, involved heavy industry and innovations such as mass production.

The Mountain

This was a political party within the National Convention named because the people that made up this party sat on the highest benches in the assembly hall. These people were the activists within the Convention. The Mountain worried that the Girondists would become conservative because of their already moderate beliefs. Although they were in competition with each other, the Mountain eventually won due to their alliance with the Sans-Culottes, resulting in a more radical group of people. The mountains believed in equal outcome.

Charles V

This was the Holy Roman Emperor that called for the Diet of Worms. He was a supporter of Catholicism and tried to crush the Reformation by use of the Counter-Reformation

Holy Alliance

This was the alliance between Austria Prussia and Russia on the crusade against the ideas and politics of the dual revolution.

Maria Theresa

This was the queen of Austria as a result of the Pragmatic Sanction. She limited the papacy's political influence in Austria, strengthened her central bureaucracy and cautiously reduced the power that nobles had over their serfs

Joseph II

This was the ruler of the Habsburgs that controlled the Catholic Church closely, granted religious toleration and civic rights to Protestants and Jews, and abolished serfdom

Aryan women

Treated more favorably than in later India. Widows could remarry and weren't given in child-marriage. In epics (Ramayana) women portrayed as forceful and able to achieve goals. (Aryan Society)

Treaty Of Versailles

Treaty by which Germany's army was limited to 100,000 men and Germany was declared responsible for the war and had therefore to pay reparations equal to all civilian damages caused by the war.

Muhammed ALi

Turkish ruler of Egypt who one effective independence of Egypt from the Ottomans in early 1800s

Opium Wars

Two mid-19th century conflicts between China and Great Britain over the British trade in opium, which was designed to "open" China to European free trade. In defeat, China gave European traders and missionaries increased protection and concessions.

Kruschev

USSR( second leader, berlin wall, secret speech, cuban missiles)communist reformer, a leader of soviet union and communism. responsible for the partial de-Stalinization of the Soviet Union. (1953-64)

February Revolution

Unplanned uprisings accompanied by violent street demonstrations begun in March 1917 (old calendar February) in Petrograd, Russia, that lead to the abdication of the tsar and the establishment of a provisional government.

1917

Us enters the war, Russian Revolution and civil war

1989- 91

Velvet Revolution, revolts in Eastern Europe, Berlin Wall goes down in 89'. Ussr destoryed in 91

Mussolini

founded fascism and ruled Italy for almost 21 years, most of that time as dictator. He dreamed of building Italy into a great empire, but he led his nation to defeat in World War II (1939-1945) and was executed by his own people.

Lenin

founded the Communist Party in Russia and set up the world's first Communist Party dictatorship. He led the October Revolution of 1917, in which the Communists seized power in Russia. He then ruled the country until his death in 1924.

Hernando Cortes

(1485-1547), conquered the Aztec Empire, subjugated northern Mexico

Henry VIII

(1491-1547) King of England from 1509 to 1547; his desire to annul his marriage led to a conflict with the pope, England's break with the Roman Catholic Church, and its embrace of Protestantism. Henry established the Church of England in 1532.

Ignatius Loyola

(1491-1556) founded the Jesuit order, goal to help souls, spread Christian ideals through education

John Knox

(1505-1572), dominated movement for reform, persuaded Scottish parliament to enact legislation ending papal authority

Giorgio Vasari

(1511-1574), art historian

Michel de Montaigne

(1533-1592), introduced early modern skepticism, developed the essay to express his thoughts and ideas

Fascism

"Nationalism on steroids." Also a hierarchical economic system not unlike feudalism except that everyone is working at the behest of and for the benefit of the state.

Petrarch

(1304-1374) Father of the Renaissance. He believed the first two centuries of the Roman Empire to represent the peak in the development of human civilization. Father of humanism.

Petrarch

(1304-1374) thought he was living at the start of a new era, new age of intellectual achievement, father of humanism

Donatello

(1386-1466) statues express an appreciation for the variety of human nature, revived classical figure

Prince Henry "the Navigator"

(1394-1460) established a school for the study of geography, sent expeditions down the coast of Africa

Lorenzo Valla

(1406-1457) humanist, defended pleasures of senses as the highest good, proved church documents false

Leonardo da Vinci

(1452-1519) contributed to modern concept of artist as an original thinker, saw art from a scientific POV and science from an artistic POV, true "Renaissance man"

Wilson

28th President of the United States

1618- 1648

30 years war, austrian stasge, swedish intervened, Battle of White Mountain

1756- 63

7 years war

Trotsky

A brilliant strategist who served as commander of the victorious Reds in the civil war and Lenin's advisor until Lenin's death. He was very persuasive and had charisma; he was very good at propaganda. He fought Stalin for the head job after Lenin's death in 1924, but lost.

Crimean War

A conflict fought between 1853 and 1856 over Russian desires to expand into Ottoman territory; Russia was defeated by France, Britain, and the Ottomans, underscoring the need for reform in the Russian Empire.

Totalitarianism

A dictatorship that exercises unprecedented control over the masses and seeks to mobilize them for action.

Dreyfus Affair

A divisive case in which Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish captain in the French army was falsely accused and convicted of treason. The Catholic Church sided with the anti-semites against Dreyfus; because of this, the French government severed all ties between the state and church.

Laissez Faire

A doctrine of economic liberalism that calls for unrestricted private enterprise and no government interference in the economy.

Edict of Nantes

A document issued by Henry IV of France in 1598, granting liberty of conscience and of public worship to Calvinists, which helped restore peace in France.

Indulgence

A document issued by the Catholic Church lessening penance or time in purgatory, widely believed to bring forgiveness of all sins.

Communism

A form of government and a way to manage the economy that puts all power in the hands of the Communist Party, ostensibly to manage the country for the good of the "people." "From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs."

Fascism

A movement characterized by extreme, often expansionist nationalism, and anti-socialism aimed at destroying working-class movements, alliances with powerful capitalists and landowners, a dynamic and violent leader, and glorification of war and the military.

Suffrage Movement

A movement that started in the 19th century with the goal of extending the right to vote to women of age.

Structuralism

An intellectual movement from France in the 1960's. It asserted that phenomena of human life do no make sense except through their inter-relations.

League Of Nations

An organization of nations formed after World War I to promote cooperation and peace.

Joseph Stalin

Bolshevik revolutionary, head of the Soviet Communists after 1924, and dictator of the Soviet Union from 1928 to 1953. He led the Soviet Union with an iron fist, using Five-Year Plans to increase industrial production and terror to crush opposition

Cecil Rhodes

Born in 1853, played a major political and economic role in colonial South Africa. He was a financier, statesman, and empire builder with a philosophy of mystical imperialism.

Test Act

Legislation passed by the English Parliament in 1673 to secure the position of the Anglican Church by stripping Puritans, Catholics, and other dissenters of the right to vote, preach, assemble, hold public office, and teach at or attend the universities.

New Economic Policy (NEP)

Lenin's policy to re-establish limited economic freedom in an attempt to rebuild agriculture and industry in the face of economic disintegration.

Law of Universal Gravitation

Newton's law that all object are attracted to one another and that the force of attraction is proportional to the object's quantity of matter and inversely proportional to the square of distance between them.

Zollverein

Prussian economic union, removed tariff barriers between German states, in step toward political unity

Diderot

Published work of many philosphes in his Encyclopedia. He hoped it would help people think more rationally and critically.

Adam Smith

Scottish political economist and philosopher. His Wealth of Nations (1776) laid the foundations of classical free-market economic theory, government should not interfere with economics. Advocates Laissez Faire and founder of "invisible hand"

Marshall Plan

Secretary of State George C. Marshall's plan of economic aid to Europe to help it rebuild, which Stalin refused for all of Eastern Europe.

Rasputin

Self-proclaimed holy man who claimed to heal the sick and have prophecy. He had much influence over Tsarina Alexandra and she often went to him for advise on political issues. He was believed to be having a sexual affair with Tsarina Alexandra and was assassinated by three members of the higher aristocracy; Tsarina Alexandra was very distraught and depressed due to his death (coincidence? I think not). (905)

Spanish Armada

The fleets sent by Philip II of Spain in 1588 against England as a religious crusade against Protestantism. Weather and the English fleet defeated it.

Dual Monarchy

The joining of Austria and Hungary under two different crowns

Liberalism

The principal ideas of this movement were equality and liberty; liberals demanded representative government and equality before the law as well as individual freedoms such as freedom of the press, freedom of speech, freedom of assembly, freedom of worship, and freedom from arbitrary arrest.

Functionalism

The principle that buildings, like industrial products, should serve as well as possible the purpose for which they were made.

Dawes Plan

The product of the reparations commission headed by Charles G. Dawes that was accepted by Germany, France, and Britain, and reduced Germany's yearly reparations, made payment dependant on German economic prosperity, and granted Germany large loans from the United States to promote recovery.

Détente

The progressive piecemeal relaxation of cold war tensions.

Virtu

The quality of being able to shape the world according to one's will.

Meiji Restoration

The restoration of the Japanese emperor to power in 1867, leading to the subsequent modernization of Japan.

U.S. Commodore Perry

took four ships to the Tokyo Harbor- the massive black wooden ships powered by steam astounded the Japanese, the ships' cannons also shocked them. The Tokugawa shogun realized he had no choice but to receive HIM and the letter HE had brought from U.S. president Fillmore

William of Orange

King of England and Scotland and Ireland

Girolamo Savonarola

(1452-1498) Dominican friar, attacked government of Florence (Lorenzo de' Medici), corruption of Pope Alexander VI, became religious leader of Florence, eventually excommunicated and executed by pope, shows that common people did not share worldly outlook of elite

Erasmus

(1466-1536), believed education was the means to reform, and that Christianity is Christ's life, humanist

Laura Cereta

(1469-1499) humanist, had to choose between marriage or a life of study

Niccolo Machiavelli

(1469-1527), wrote The Prince, showed how a ruler should gain, maintain and increase his power, concludes that humans are inherently selfish, combine qualities of fox and lion, two basic ideas: one permanent social order reflecting God's ideals cannot be established and politics has its own laws and ought to be a science

Francisco Pizarro

(1470-1541), conquered the Inca Empire in Peru, established the Spanish viceroyalty in Peru

Nicolaus Copernicus

(1473-1543), felt that Ptolemy's rules for the movement of the planets detracted from the majesty of a perfect universe, preferred the idea that the sun, not the Earth, was the center of the universe, suggested a universe of staggering size, destroyed idea of crystal spheres, attacked by religious leaders, events brought credibility to the Copernican hypothesis (new star, new comet)

Thomas More

(1478-1535), wrote Utopia, presents a revolutionary view of society, believed society's flawed institutions were responsible for corruption and war, necessary to reform social institutions that molded the individual

Ferdinand Magellan

(1480-1521), commissioned by Charles V to find a direct route to the spices of Molucca off the southeast coast of Asia, proved the earth was round and much larger than Columbus had estimated

Martin Luther

(1483-1546), articulated the widespread desire for reform of church and deep yearning for salvation, very conscientious friar, but doubted the value of the monastic life, troubled by sale of indulgences, writes 95 Theses and launches Protestant Reformation

Ulrich Zwingli

(1484-1531), introduced Protestant Reformation in Switzerland, convinced that Christian life rested on the Scriptures

Thomas Cromwell

(1485-1540) Became King Henry VII's close advisor following Cardinal Wolsey's dismissal. He and his contemporary THomas Cranmer convinced the king to break from Rome and made the Church of England increasingly more Protestant., (1485-1540) King Henry III's Chief Minister; he confiscated the wealth of the Catholic church and divided administration according to its functions by creating seperate departments of state

John Calvin

(1509-1564) developed Calvinism, believed in predestination-God selects certain people for salvation and condemns the rest, emphasized the absolute sovereignty and omnipotence of God and total weakness of humanity, held Genevans to a high standard of morality, emphasized aggressive, vigorous activism

Galileo Galilei

(1564-1642), challenged old ideas about motion, elaborated on and consolidated the experimental method, now people could conduct controlled experiments, formulated the law of inertia, which explained that an object continues in motion forever until stopped by an external force, applied experimental method to astronomy

Johannes Kepler

(1571-1630), made sense of Brahe's observations, formulated three laws of planetary motion: 1) orbits of planets are elliptical, 2) planets do not move at a uniform speed in their orbits, 3) the time a planet takes to complete its orbit is precisely related to its distance from the sun

William Laud

(1573-1645), archbishop of Canterbury, insisted on complete uniformity in church services, attempted to impose a new book of prayer on Scotland in 1637, the Scots revolted

Peter Paul Rubens

(1577-1640), representative of the baroque painters, colorful style characterized by animated figures, melodramatic contrasts and monumental size, enormously successful

Richelieu

(1585-1642), ruled as regent in place of Louis XIII, set in place the cornerstone of French absolutism, reshuffled royal council to curb the power of the nobility, established intendant system—intendants appointed directly by the monarch, solely responsible to him, enforced royal orders and weakened the power of the nobility, established French Academy to standardize language

Descartes

(1596-1650) French philosopher, discovered analytical geometry. Saw Algebra and Geometry have a direct relationship. Reduced everything to spiritual or physical.

Rene Descartes

(1596-1650), discovered analytic geometry, showed that geometric figures could be expressed as algebraic equations and vice versa, established Cartesian dualism, which reduced everything to physical and spiritual entities

Jean-Baptiste Colbert

(1619-1683), appointed minister of finance by Louis XIV, applied system of mercantilism to France, believed France should be self-sufficient, attempted to accomplish this through state support of industries, created a powerful merchant marine to transport French goods, hoped to make Canada part of a vast French empire

Moliere

(1622-1673), French playwright, plays that followed classical models but were based on careful social observation, made bourgeoisie the butt of his ridicule

John Locke

(1632-1704), wrote Second Treatise of Civil Government, maintained that people set up civil governments to protect life, liberty and property, a government that oversteps this is a tyranny and must be overthrown, also wrote Essay Concerning Human Understanding, put forth the tabula rasa theory, which suggests that all ideas are derived from experience

Jean Racine

(1639-1699), plays that analyzed the power of love, based on Greek and Roman legends, focused on the conflict of good and evil

Isaac Newton

(1642-1727), united experimental and theoretical/mathematical sides of science, created a set of mathematical laws to explain motion and mechanics, created the law of universal gravitation

Pierre Bayle

(1647-1706), skeptic, French Huguenot who found refuge in the Netherlands, examined religious persecutions and beliefs of the past in his Historical and Critical Dictionary, concluded that nothing can be known beyond all doubt, believed in open minded toleration

Bernard de Fontenelle

(1657-1757), sought to make science witty and entertaining to a borad non-scientific audience, helped bring science into conflict with religion, skeptical about absolute truth and the claims of organized religion

Peter the Great

(1672-1725) Russian tsar (r. 1689-1725). He enthusiastically introduced Western languages and technologies to the Russian elite, moving the capital from Moscow to the new city of St. Petersburg. (p. 552)

Jethro Tull

(1674-1741), tried to develop better methods of farming through empirical research, advocated using horses for plowing and sowing seed with drilling equipment

Montesquieu

(1689-1755), used wit as a weapon against cruelty and superstition, applied critical method to government in The Spirit of Laws, argued that despotism could be avoided through a separation of powers, believed a strong, independent upper class was very important

Voltaire

(1694-1778), struggled against legal injustice and unequal treatment before the law, shared Montesquieu's enthusiasm for English institutions, mixed glorification of science and reason with an appeal for better institutions and individuals, did not believe in social and economic equality in human affairs, challenged Christianity, believed in a deistic God (the great Clockmaker), hated all forms of religious intolerance

David Hume

(1711-1776), argued that the human mind is nothing but a bundle of impressions which originate in sense experiences, reason cannot tell us anything that cannot be verified by sense experiences, undermined the Enlightenment's faith in reason

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

(1712-1778), greatly influenced by Diderot and Voltaire, committed to individual freedom, felt civilization destroyed the individual, believed the general will reflected the common interests of the people, and that it must be interpreted by a small, far-seeing minority, called for greater love and tenderness towards children

Baron Paul d'Holbach

(1723-1789), argued that human beings were machines completely determined by outside forces, deeply hostile toward religion

Adam Smith

(1723-1790), established the basis for modern economics, opposed mercantilism, advocated free competition, believed the purpose of the government was for defense, maintenance of civil order and support of key social institutions, claimed market would be regulated by an "invisible hand"

Immanuel Kant

(1724-1804), greatest German philosopher of the age, believed in freedom of the press

Edmund Burke

(1729-1797), criticized French Revolution, defended privileges of the monarchy and aristocracy, felt the revolution would only lead to chaos and tyranny

Count Henri de Saint-Simon

(1760-1825), socialist, believed the parasites (aristocrats, lawyers, churchmen) of society must give way to the doers (scientists, engineers, industrialists), doers would carefully guide and plan the economy through public works projects

Thomas Malthus

(1766-1834), wrote Essay on the Principle of Population, argued that population would always outstrip the food supply, believed people should marry later in life to reduce population growth

Muhammad Ali

(1769-1849), appointed governor of Egypt by Turkish government, built his state on the strength of an army organized along European lines, reformed the government and improved communications, established a strong and virtually independent Egyptian state, encouraged the development of commercial agriculture

Ludwig van Beethoven

(1770-1827), composer, used contrasting themes and tones to create drama

Georg Hegel

(1770-1831), believed each age is characterized by a dominant set of ideas, giving history pattern and purpose

William Wordsworth

(1770-1850), literary romanticist, used language of ordinary speech, wrote poems about simple subjects, simplicity and love of nature

Walter Scott

(1771-1832), personified romantic movement's fascination with history, re-created the spirit of historical events

David Ricardo

(1772-1823), suggested the iron law of wages, which suggested that the pressure of population growth would always cause wages to sink to subsistence level

Charles Fourier

(1772-1837), advocated a socialist utopian made up of self-sufficient communities, supported the total emancipation of women, criticized marriage

Pugachev Revolt

(1774): He won the support of many peasants when he issued a manifest, which freed all peasants from oppressive taxes and military service. The peasants, encouraged by him to seize their landlords' estate, killed more than 1500 estate owners. Pugachev was captured, tortured, and executed.

Joseph M. W. Turner

(1775-1851), notable English romantic painter, depicted nature's power and terror

John Constable

(1776-1821), English romantic painter, painted gentle landscapes in which human beings were at peace with their environments

Frederich List

(1789-1846), believed the growth of modern industry was of utmost importance, improved people's well-being and reduced poverty, believed promoting industry ensured national security, supported formation of the Zollverein among the German states, advocated a high protective tariff to protect domestic industry

Auguste Comte

(1798-1857), French philosopher, wrote System of Positive Philosophy, postulated that all intellectual activity passes through predictable stages, developed positivist method, a discipline of sociology

Eugene Delacroix

(1798-1863), greatest romantic painter in France, painted dramatic, colorful scenes that stirred the emotions

Honore de Balzac

(1799-1850), wrote a panorama of post-revolutionary French life, characterize society is grasping, amoral, brutal, Darwinian struggle for wealth and power

Victor Hugo

(1802-1885), wrote lyric poetry, amazing range of rhythm, language and image, equated freedom in literature with social and political liberty

Benjamin Disraeli

(1804-1881), extended the vote to all middle class males, aimed to broaden the Conservative party's traditional base of aristocratic and landed support

Giuseppe Garibaldi

(1807-1882), personified the romantic, revolutionary nationalism of Mazzini, aimed to "liberate" the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, his Red Shirts roused the peasants and conquered Sicily

Charles Darwin

(1809-1882), all life had evolved from a constant struggle for survival, believed that chance differences among members of a certain species allowed them to survive, variations eventually spread to entire species

Georges Haussmann

(1809-1884), appointed by Napoleon III to reorganize Paris, razed buildings to create wide boulevards (prevent easy construction of barricades), demolished slums, created parks and open spaces, improved water supply system

Louis Blanc

(1811-1882), emphasized practical improvements, believed the state should set up workshops to reduce unemployment

Louis XVIII

(1814-1824) Restored Bourbon throne after the Revoltion. He accepted Napoleon's Civil Code (principle of equality before the law), honored the property rights of those who had purchased confiscated land and establish a bicameral (two-house) legislature consisting of the Chamber of Peers (chosen by king) and the Chamber of Deputies (chosen by an electorate).

Bismarck

(1815-1898) Prussian chancellor who engineered the unification of Germany under his rule. Delivers "blood and iron" speech.

Karl Marx

(1818-1883), published The Communist Manifesto with Friedrich Engels, believed the interests of the proletariat and the bourgeoisie were inevitably opposed, proletariat would triumph in a violent revolution

Friedrich Engels

(1820-1895), wrote The Condition of the Working Class in England, claimed industrial capitalism had caused a dramatic increase in poverty, later the colleague of Karl Marx, wrote The Communist Manifesto

Herbert Spencer

(1820-1903), Social Darwinist, saw the human race as driven toward ever greater specialization in the brutal economic struggle

Gustave Flaubert

(1821-1880), accuracy of psychological insight, portrays provincial middle class as petty, smug and hypocritical

Louis Pasteur

(1822-1895), developed the germ theory of disease, found that the growth of bacteria could be suppressed by heat (pasteurization)

Joseph Lister

(1827-1912), found connection between aerial bacteria and wound contamination, developed anti-septic principle

J. A. Hobson

(1858-1940), criticized imperialism, felt it was caused by the needs of unregulated capitalism, argued that imperial possessions did not benefit the country as a whole, believed it diverted attention away from domestic reform, morally condemned whites ruling nonwhites

Max Planck

(1858-1947), showed that atomic energy is emitted in uneven spurts called "quanta", called into question distinction between matter and energy

Henri Bergson

(1859-1941), French philosophy professor, believed immediate experience and intuition were as important as rational and scientific thinking

Ramsay MacDonald

(1866-1937)-governed England in 1924 and 1929, part of Labour party, supported by smaller Liberal party

Marie Curie

(1867-1934), discovered that radium constantly emits subatomic particles and thus does not have a constant atomic weight

Stanley Baldwin

(1867-1947), led the Conservative party in GB, showed same compromising spirit on social issues

Gandhi

(1869-1948), built a mass movement preaching nonviolent "noncooperation" with the British, received a constitution in 1935, practically a blueprint for independence

Karl Liebknecht

(1871-1919), radical socialist leader, holds a demonstration in Berlin, arrested and imprisoned

Ernest Rutherford

(1871-1937), split the atom, identified the neutron as a subatomic particle, along with seven others

Gustav Stresemann

(1878-1929), assumed control of German government in August 1923, called off passive resistance in the Ruhr and asked for a re-examination of reparations

Albert Einstein

(1879-1955), undermined Newtonian physics, theory of space relativity postulated that time and space are relative to the viewpoint of the observer, only the speed of light is constant for all frames of reference, stated that matter and energy are interchangeable, greatly expanded the world of physics

Oswald Spengler

(1880-1936), believed every culture experienced a life cycle of growth and decline, believed Asians would conquer Western civilization

James Joyce

(1882-1941), used stream-of-consciousness technique, language of bewildering confusion intended to mirror modern life itself

Virginia Woolf

(1882-1941), used stream-of-consciousness technique, series of internal monologues with ideas and emotions from varying time periods

John Maynard Keynes

(1883-1946), English economist, believed harsh reparations would impoverish Germany and increase economic hardship in all other European countries, only a complete revision of the treaty could save Europe, advocated the use of large-scale deficits to stimulate the economy

Karl Barth

(1886-1968), Swiss Protestant theologian, sought to re-create religious intensity of Reformation, felt humans were imperfect, sinful creatures, God's grace makes religious truth known to human beings

Gabriel Mercel

(1887-1973), leading existential Christian thinker, found in the Catholic Church an answer to the "broken" post-war world, denounced anti-Semitism and sought closer ties with non-Catholics

TS Eliot

(1888-1965), portrayed a world of growing desolation but eventually hoped cautiously for humanity's salvation

Ludwig Wittgenstein

(1889-1951), Austrian philosopher, argued that philosophy is only the clarification of thoughts, great philosophical issues are a waste of time because conclusions reflect the opinions of individuals

Charlie Chaplin

(1889-1978), king of the silver screen, symbolized spirit of laughter in an uncertain world, showed how film could combine mass entertainment and artistic accomplishment

Joseph Broz Tito

(1892-1980), resistance leader and communist chief of Yugoslavia, able to resist Soviet domination successfully, allowed greater personal freedom

William Faulkner

(1897-1962), used stream-of-consciousness technique

Werner Heisenberg

(1901-1976), German physicist, formulated principle of uncertainty, impossible to know both the speed and location of an individual electron at the same time

Leni Riefenstahl

(1902-2003), directed a powerful documentary of Germany's "Nazi Rebirth"

George Orwell

(1903-1950), predicted a totalitarian utopian world, believed "absolute power corrupts absolutely"

Simone de Beauvoir

(1908-1986), feminist, wrote The Second Sex, analyzed position of women through framework of existentialist thought, women trapped by limiting and inflexible conditions, must use courageous action and self-assertive creativity to break free

Nicolae Ceausescu

(1918-1989), Communist dictator in Romania, combined Stalinist brutality with independence from Moscow, defeated by protestors

Alexander Dubcek

(1921-1992), launched dramatic reforms in Czechslovakia, believed he could reconcile socialism with personal freedom and internal party democracy, relaxed controls and censorship, Russian troops invaded, forced to obey Soviet demands

Betty Friedan

(1924-), reopened discussion of women's issues in US, founded NOW

Lech Walesa

(1943-), leader of Solidarity Movement in Poland, settled for minor government concessions, refused to use force to challenge directly Communist monopoly of power, elected president of Poland in 1989, made a clean break with state planning and moved quickly to market mechanisms and private property

John Wycliffe

(c.1328-1384) Forerunner to the Reformation. Created English Lollardy. Attacked the corruption of the clergy, and questioned the power of the pope.

Alexander II

(r. 1855-1881) Emperor of Russia; advocated moderate reforms for Russia; emancipated the serfs; he was assassinated.

Constitutionalism

A form of government in which power is limited by law and balanced between authority and power of the government, on one hand, and the rights and liberties of the subjects or citizens on the other hand; could include constitutional monarchies or republics.

Absolutism

A form of government in which the king has complete control

Republicanism

A form of government in which there is no monarch and power rests in the hands of the people as exercised through elected representatives.

Debt Peonage

A form of serfdom that allowed a planter or rancher to keep his workers or slaves in perpetual debt bondage, by periodically advancing food, shelter, and a little money.

Separate Spheres

A gender division of labor with the wife at home as mother and homemaker and the husband as wage earner.

Tariff Protection

A government's way of supporting and aiding its own economy by laying high taxes on imported goods from other countries, as when the French responded to cheaper British goods flooding their country by imposing high tariffs on some imported products.

Philosophes

A group of French intellectuals who proclaimed that they were bringing the light of knowledge to their fellow humans in the Age of Enlightenment.

Feudalism

A hierarchical system of government and agriculture based on private contract. Land, worked by serfs attached to it, was held by vassals in exchange for military service and other duties to lords.

Existentialism

A highly diverse and even contradictory system of thought that was loosely united in a courageous search for moral values in a world of terror and uncertainty.

Petrograd Soviet

A huge, fluctuating mass meeting of two thousand to three thousand workers, soldiers and socialist intellectuals, modeled on the revolutionary soviets of 1905.

Modernism

A label given to the artistic and cultural movements of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, which were typified by radical experimentation that challenged traditional forms of artistic expression.

Estates General

A legislative body in prerevolutionary France made up of representatives of each of the three classes, or estates. It was called into session in 1789 for the first time since 1614.

Emmanuel Sieyes

A liberal member of the clergy, supporter of the Third Estate, and author of the fiery 1789 pamphlet "What Is the Third Estate?" Sieyès was one of the primary leaders of the Third Estate's effort at political and economic reform in France.

Greater Germany

A liberal plan for German national unification that included the German-speaking parts of the Austrian Empire, put forth at the national parliament in 1848 but rejected by Austrian rulers.

Second Vatican Council

A meeting of Catholic leaders convened from 1962 to 1965 that initiated a number of reforms, including the replacement of Latin with local languages in church services, designed to democratize the church and renew its appeal.

Congress of Vienna

A meeting of the Quadruple Alliance- Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Great Britain- restoration France, and smaller European states to fashion a general peace settlement that began after the defeat of Napoleon's France in 1814.

Girondins

A moderate group that fought for control of the French National Convention in 1793.

National Socialism

A movement and political party driven by extreme nationalism and racism, led by Adolf Hitler; its adherents ruled Germany from 1933 to 1945 and forced Europe into WWII.

Community Controls

A pattern of cooperation and common action in a traditional village that sought to uphold the economic, social, and moral stability of the closely knit community.

League Of Nations

A permanent international organization established during the peace conference in Paris in January 1919, designed to protect member states from aggression and avert future wars.

Logical Positivism

A philosophy that sees meaning in only those beliefs that can be empirically proven, and that therefore rejects most of the concerns of traditional philosophy, from the existence of God to the meaning of happiness, as nonsense.

Jacobin Club

A political club in revolutionary France whose members were well-educated radical republicans.

Anarchism

A political theory favoring the abolition of governments

Boyars

The highest ranking members of the Prussian nobility.

Romanticism

A reaction against the "cold and unfeeling": reasons for the enlightenment, and against the destruction of nature resulting from the industrial revolution. Stress is on liht, color and self expression, in opposition to the emphasis on lne and firm modeling typical of neoclassical art. Values: emotion, feeling, morbidity, exocitism, mystery.

Thermidorian Reaction

A reaction to the violence of the Reign of Terror in 1794, resulting in the execution of Robespierre and the loosening of economic controls.

Sans- culottes

A reference to Parisian workers who wore loose-fitting trousers rather than the tight-fitting breeches worn by aristocratic men.

June Days

A revolt during the month of June as a result of the abolishment of national workshops. This event ended the liberal capitalist and the radical socialists tension ending in victory for liberalism and Capitalism.-Also with the June Days it led to having a new constitution demanding a strong executive, which led to the rise of Louis Napoleon.

Ptolemy's Geography

A second-century-C.E. work that synthesized the classical knowledge of geography and introduced the concepts of longitude and latitude. Reintroduced to Europeans about 1410 by Arab scholars, its ideas allowed cartographers to create more accurate maps.

Jansenism

A sect of Catholicism originating with Cornelius Jansen that emphasized the heavy weight of original sin and accepted the doctrine of predestination: it was outlawed as heresy by the pope.

Rationalism

A secular, critical way of thinking in which nothing was to be accepted on faith, and everything was to be submitted to reason.

Navigation Acts

A series of English laws that controlled the import of goods to Britain and British colonies.

Hundred Years' War

A series of conflicts waged from 1337 to 1453 by England and France for control of France. One of the most notable conflicts of the Middle Ages.

Great Famine

A series of famines across Europe from 1315-1322 that caused millions of deaths and marked an end of the growth and prosperity of the 11th to 13th centuries.

Arab Spring

A series of popular revolts in several countries that sought an end to authoritarian, often Western-supported regimes.

Peace of Utrecht

A series of treaties, from 1713 to 1715, that ended the War of the Spanish Succession, ended French expansion in Europe, and marked the rise of the British Empire.

Fronde

A series of violent uprisings during the early reign of Louis XIV triggered by growing royal control and increased taxation.

Tanzimat

A set of reforms designed to remake the Ottoman Empire on a western European model.

Popular Front

A short-lived New Deal-inspired alliance in France lead by Leon Blum that encouraged the union movement and launched a far-reaching program of social reform.

Spinning Jenny

A simple, inexpensive, hand-powered spinning machine created by James Hargreaves in 1765.

Caravel

A small, maneuverable, three-mast sailing ship developed by the Portuguese in the fifteenth century that gave the Portuguese a distinct advantage in exploration and trade.

Postindustrial Society

A society that relies on high-tech and service-oriented jobs for economic growth rather than heavy industry and manufacturing jobs.

Water Frame

A spinning machine created by Richard Arkwright that had a capacity of several hundred spindles and used waterpower; it therefore required a larger and more specialized mill- a factory.

Cottage Industry

A stage of industrial development in which rural workers used hand tools in their homes to manufacture goods on a large scale for sale in a market.

Orientalism

A term coined by literary scholar Edward Said to describe the way Westerners misunderstood and described colonial subjects and cultures.

Industrial Revolution

A term first coined in 1799 to describe the burst of major inventions and economics expansion that began in Britain in the late 18th century.

New Christians

A term for Jews and Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula who accepted Christianity; in many cases they included Christians whose families had converted centuries earlier.

Developed Socialism

A term used by Communist leaders to describe the socialist accomplishments of their societies, such as nationalized industry, collective agriculture, and extensive social welfare programs.

Empiricism

A theory of inductive reasoning that calls for acquiring evidence through observation and experimentation rather than deductive reasoning and speculation.

Maastricht Treaty

A treaty created in 1991 that set strict financial criteria for joining the proposed monetary union, with it single currency and set 1999 as the start date for its establishment.

Wet-nursing

A widespread and flourishing business in the 18th century in which women were paid to breast-feed other women's babies.

Great Depression

A world-wide economic depression from 1929-1933, unique in its severity and duration and with slow and uneven recovery.

Enlightened Despotism

Absolute rule justifies not on grounds of heredity or divine right. Secular in outlook and justification, as in Frederick the Great's self-description as "the first servant of the state." Used to rationalize and organize the state from the top down during the Age of the Enlightenment. Other example is Joseph II of Austria

Enabling Act

Act pushed through the Reichstag by the Nazis which gave Hitler absolute dictatorial power for four years.

1776

Adam Smith "Welath of Nations" American Revolution

Theory Of Special Relativity

Albert Einstein's theory that time and space are relative to the observer and that only the speed of light remains constant.

Triple Entente

Alliance of Great Britain, and France, and Russia in the First World War.

Mexica Empire

Also known as the Aztec Empire, a large and complex Native American civilization in modern Mexico and Central America that possessed advanced mathematical, astronomical, and engineerign technology.

Grand Alliance

An alliance between the English, Dutch, Austrians, and Prussians against the expansionist wars of Louis XIV.

Holy Alliance

An alliance formed by the conservative rulers of Austria, Prussia, and Russia in September 1815 that became a symbol of the repression of liberal and revolutionary movements all over Europe.

Renaissance Art

An art of line and edges, figures from the bible,classical history, and mythology, commisioned portraits, use of perspective, chiarascuro (light and dark) to achieve rounded effect, secular backgrounds and material splendor. Values: secularism, individualism, virtu, balance, order, passivity and calm.

"War Guilt Clause"

An article in the Treaty of Versailles that declared that Germany (with Austria) was solely responsible for the war and had to pay reparations equal to all civilian damages caused by the fighting.

Romanticism

An artistic movement at its height from about 1790 to the 1840s that was in part a revolt against classicism and the Enlightenment, characterized by a belief in emotional exuberance, unrestrained imagination, and spontaneity in both art and personal life.

Impressionism

An attempt to portray the fleeting and stransitory world of sense impressions based on scientific stuides of light, forms are bathed in light and atmosphere. colors are juxtaposed for the eye to fuse form a distance, short, choppy brush strokesto catch the vibrating quality of the light. Values: immediate, accidental, and transitory.

Natural Philosophy

An early modern term for the study of the nature of the universe, its purpose, and how it functioned; it encompassed what we would call "science" today.

Jean Baptiste Colbert

An economic advisor to Louis XIV; he supported mercantilism and tried to make France economically self-sufficient. Brought prosperity to France.

Council For Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON)

An economic organization of Communist states meant to help rebuild East Bloc countries under soviet auspices.

Mercantilism

An economic policy under which nations sought to increase their wealth and power by obtaining large amounts of gold and silver and by favoring exporting rather than importing.

Revisionism

An effort by various socialists to update Marxian doctrines to reflect the realities of the time.

The Black Death

An epidemic of bubonic plague in the 1350's that wiped out 30%-50% of Europe's population. It originated in Asia, then spread to Europe through Genoese sailors from the Crimea.

Marxism

An influential political program based on the socialist ideas of German radical Karl Marx, which called for a working-class revolution to overthrow capitalist society and establish a Communist state.

Cavour

Architect of Italian unification in 1858; formed an alliance with France to attack Austrian control of northern Italy; resulted in creation of constitutional monarchy under Piedmonteste king.

Realism

Art and literature movement that followed Romanticism. Closely allied with realpolitik in government. as a philosophy it is a "kind of unrealistic faith in the constructive value struggle and a tough-minded rejection of ideas and ideals."

Rococo

Art of the french aristocracy portraying nobility in sylcan settings or ornate interiros, venusues and cupids above ladies in sillk along with finely dressed cavaliers. Values: ornamentation, elegance, sweetness.

Barouque

Art that is florid, more colorful, richer in texture and decoration, more light and shade- apparently less control. Scenes embody mystery and drama, violence and spectacle, suggesting a deliberate striving after effect. The Catholic church commissions artists to stir religious emotions and win back defectors. Values: sensualsim, dynaism, emotion.

Dadaism

Artistic movement of the 1920s and 1930s that attacked all accepted standards of art and behavior and delighted in outrageous conduct.

Socialist Realism

Artistic movement that followed the dictates of Communist ideals, enforced by state control in the Soviet Union and East Bloc countries in the 1950s and 1960s.

Pope John Paul II

Assumed Papacy 1979, Conservative Pope, against strengthening women's position in church, more staunch on birth control

1945

Atomic bomb dropped on Japan, WWII ends.

Schlieffen plan

Attack plan by Germans, proposed by Schliffen, lightning quick attack against France. Proposed to go through Belgium then attack France, Belgium resisted, other countries took up their aid, long fight, used trench warfare.

After Franz Ferdinands death what unfolded?

Austria invaded Serbia as ordered by the german kaiser.

Metternich

Austrian foreign minister who basically controlled the Congress of Vienna. Wanted to promote peace, conservatism, and the repression of libaral nationalism throughout Europe.

Class-consciousness

Awareness of belonging to a distinct social and economic class whose interests might conflict with those of other classes.

1914

Beginning of WWI

John Locke

Believed people were born like blank slates and the environment shapes development, (tabula rasa). Wrote Essay Concerning Human Understanding, and Second Treatise of Government.

Kulaks

Better-off peasants who were stripped under Stalin of land and livestock. They were generally not permitted to join the collective farms and many of them starved or were deported to force-labor camps for re-education.

Adolf Hitler

Born in Austria, Hitler became a radical German nationalist during World War I. He led the National Socialist German Workers' Party-the Nazi Party-in the 1920s and became dictator of Germany in 1933. He led Europe into World War II. (p. 786)

Aldous Huxley

Brave New World

Corn Laws

British laws governing the import and export of grain, which were revised in 1815 to prohibit the importation of foreign grain unless the price at home rose to improbable levels, thus benefitting the aristocracy but making food prices higher for working people.

Combination Acts

British laws passed in 1799 that outlawed unions and strikes, favoring capitalist business people over skilled artisans. Bitterly resented and widely disregarded by many craft guilds, the acts were repealed by Parliament in 1824.

Rutherford

British physicist (born in New Zealand) who discovered the atomic nucleus and proposed a nuclear model of the atom (1871-1937)

Appeasement

British policy that granted Hitler everything he could reasonably want (and more) in order to avoid war.

The Institutes of the Christian Religion

Calvin's formulation of Christian doctrine, which became a systematic theology for Protestantism.

Perestroika

Economic restructuring reform implemented by Gorbachev that permitted an easing of government price controls on some goods, more independence for state enterprises, and the setting up of profit-seeking private cooperatives to provide personal services for consumers.

Capitalism

Economic system in which capital is controlled my individuals, not by the state. The economy grows through the efforts of each individual to make the most profit. Possession of the property is the foundation for personal independence and political liberty.

1598

Edict of Nantes

Diasporas

Enclaves of ethnic groups settled outside of their homelands.

1713

End of Spanish Civil war, peace of utrecht, pragmatic sanction

1918

End of WWI with treaty of versailles.

Jethro Tull

English inventor advocated the use of horses instead of oxen. Developed the seed drill and selective breeding.

Mines Act of 1842

English law prohibited underground work for all women and girls as well as for boys under 10.

Factory Acts

English laws passed from 1802-1833 that limited the work day of child laborers and set minimum hygiene and safety requirements.

Newton

English mathematician and physicist

Oliver Cromwell

English military, political, and religious figure who led the Parliamentarian victory in the English Civil War (1642-1649) and called for the execution of Charles I. As lord protector of England (1653-1658) he ruled as a virtual dictator

Radicalism

English movement of philosophers who wanted to "deduce the right form of institutions from the very nature of and psychology of man himself." Favored universal manhood suffrage and reform of Parliament.

Charles Darwin

English natural scientist who formulated a theory of evolution by natural selection (1809-1882)

Darwin

English natural scientist who formulated a theory of evolution by natural selection (1809-1882)

Hobbes

English philosopher and political theorist best known for his book Leviathan (1651), in which he argues that the only way to secure civil society is through universal submission to the absolute authority of a sovereign.

Bacon

English scientist and Franciscan monk who stressed the importance of experimentation

Thomas More

English statesman who opposed Henry VIII's divorce from Catherine of Aragon and was imprisoned and beheaded, He was a English humanist that contributed to the world today by revealing the complexities of man. He wrote Utopia, a book that represented a revolutionary view of society. (p.437)

Mary Wollstonecraft

English writer and early feminist who denied male supremacy and advocated equal education for women

Blood Sports

Events such as bull baiting and cock fighting that involved inflicting violence and blooodshed on animals that were popular with the 18th century European masses.

Schlieffen Plan

Failed German plan calling for a lightning attack through neutral Belgium and a quick defeat of France before turning on Russia.

Young Turks

Fervent patriots who seized power in a 1908 coup in the Ottoman Empire, forcing the conservative sultan to implement reforms.

Trench Warfare

Fighting behind rows of trenches, mines and barbed wire, the cost in lives was staggering and the gains in territory minimal.

Berlin Conference

Held in 1884 and 1885 in order to lay down some basic rules for imperialist competition in sub-Saharan Africa, it established the principle that European claims to African territory had to rest on effective occupation in order to be recognized by other states.

Henry IV

Henry of Navarre- 1st Bourbon King. ended french civil wars- Edict of Nantes- some religious protection of Huguenots ( French Potestants). Assassinated in 1610

Labor Aristocracy

Highly skilled workers who made up about 15% of the working classes at the turn of the 20 th Century.

New Monarchies

Historians' term for the monarchies in France, England, and Spain from 1450 to 1600. The centralization of royal power was increasing within more or less fixed territorial limits. (p. 414)

1933

Hitler elected, and new deal, enabling act in germany

New Order

Hitler's program based on the guiding principle of racial imperialism, which gave preferential treatment to the Nordic peoples. The French, an inferior Latin people, occupied a middle position. Slavs in the conquered territories to the east were treated with harsh hatred as subhumans.

John Calvin

INSTITUTES OF THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION: emphasized predestination and he rejected the medieval Church. he believed that the church and state should be united under the Calvinist faith

Utilitarianism

Idea of Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) that the object of conduct and legislation is to achieve, "the greatest good for the greatest number." There is a strong relativist component since the morality of an action is defined by its utility: does it cause pleasure or pain? Bentham defines "good" as that which gives pleasure or stops pain and "bad" as that which gives pain.

Socialism

Idea that the government should manage the economy, or aspects of the economy for the good of the people. These people in the 19th century agreed that workers were unfairly treated, opposed competition as a principle of economic behaviors, rejected laissez-faire, and questioned the validity of the concept of private property.

Jansenism

Ideas of 17th century French Catholics who favored Calvinist interpretation of Christianity just the same.

Nihilism

Ideas of disgruntled intellectuals in 1860s Russia. They believed in "nothing" except science.

Post-modernism

In culture it is associated with surfaces and superficial style including self-conscious parody and quotation. It is a reaction to the naive confidence in progress and also confidence in objective of scientific truth.

Total War

In each country during the First World War, a government of national unity which began to plan and control economic and social life in order to make the greatest possible military effort.

Expresionaism

Indebted to Freud, art tries to penetrate the facade of bourgeoise superficilaity and probe the psyche, that which lurks benath an individuals calm and artificial posture. Values: subliminal anxiety, dissonance in color and perspective, pictorial violence- manifest and latent.

Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs)

Independent organizations with specific agendas, such as humanitarian aid or environmental protection, that conduct international programs and activities.

Muslim Brotherhood

Islamic social and political reform group founded in Egypt in 1928 that called for national liberation from European control and a return to shari'a law (based on Muslim legal codes), and demanded land reform, extensive social welfare programs, and economic independence.

Carlsbad Decrees

Issued in 1819, these decrees were designed to uphold Metternich's conservatism, requiring the German states to root out subversive ideas and squelch any liberal organizations.

Benthamite

It is a term used to describe a follower of Jeremy Bentham, a radical philosopher that taught that public problems could be solved using a rational, scientific basis. (p.792)

Galileo

Italian astronomer and mathematician who was the first to use a telescope to study the stars

Galileo

Italian astronomer and mathematician who was the first to use a telescope to study the stars; demonstrated that different weights descend at the same rate; perfected the refracting telescope that enabled him to make many discoveries (1564-1642)

Giuseppe Garibaldi

Italian nationalist whose "Red Shirts" freed Sicily and southern Italy and then united it with northern Italy.

Mazzini

Italian nationalist whose writings spurred the movement for a unified and independent Italy (1805-1872)

Columbus

Italian navigator who discovered the New World in the service of Spain while looking for a route to China (1451-1506)

Raphael

Italian painter whose works, including religious subjects, portraits, and frescoes, exemplify the ideals of the High Renaissance.

Leonardo Da Vinci

Italian painter, engineer, musician, and scientist. The most versatile genius of the Renaissance, Leonardo filled notebooks with engineering and scientific observations that were in some cases centuries ahead of their time. As a painter Leonardo is best known for The Last Supper (c. 1495) and Mona Lisa (c. 1503).

Garibaldi

Italian patriot whose conquest of Sicily and Naples led to the formation of the Italian state (1807-1882)

Walter Rathenau

Jewish industrialist that sets up Germany's War Raw Materials Board, rations and distributes raw materials, produced substitutes essential to blockaded German war machine

1492

Jews got kicked out of Spain, and COlumbus sails the ocean blue

Cardinal Richelieu

King Louis XIII was a weak ruler and Richelieu filled the void, more or less running the empire via his advice to the king. A clever politician and strategist, Richelieu expanded royal power, punished dissent harshly, and built France into a great European power

Zwingli

Leader of Swiss Reformation. Agreed to disagree with Luther about communion. He thought it was only a symbol, and that it wasn't Christ's body or blood untill it touched your mouth, only symbolic. Found on the battlefield of the Swiss Civil War wounded and the Lutherans found him, cut him up into little pieces, then burn them and scattered the ashes over the land. Luther said Zwingli got what he deserved.

Solidarity

Led by Lech Walesa, this group of workers organized their free and democratic trade union and quickly became the union of a nation with a full-time staff of 40,000 and 9.5 million union members by March 1981.

The Mountain

Led by Robespierre, the French National Convention's radical faction, which seized legislative power in 1793.

Bolsheviks

Led by Vladimir Lenin it was the Russian communist party that took over the Russian goverment during WWI

Leon Blum

Leon Blum, who began as a literary critic, became active in politics as a result of the Dreyfuss Affair. In 1919, he was elected to the French Chamber of Deputies. In 1925, he became the head of the Socialist Party and, in May 1936, he became France's first socialist Prime Minister since 1870. During his one year in office, he instituted a number of important social reforms, including the 40-hour work week. He used the Popular Front very successfully and it was used the workers and lower middle class. Revolutions by conservatives and inflation ruined the Popular Front and because of this Blum was forced to resign in June 1937.

Naturalism

Literary movement following realism in literature. Demonstrates the determination of human character by the natural and social environment.

Realism

Literary movement which stressed that literature should depict life exactly as it was.

Stream-of-consciousness Writing

Literary technique, used by James Joyce and others, using interior monologue to explore the human psyche.

Courts

Magnificent households and palaces where signori and other rulers lived, conducted business, and supported the arts.

Bolsheviks

Majority group, Lenin's camp of the Russian party of Marxian socialism.

Lafayette

Marquis de Lafayette was a French major general who aided the colonies during the Revolutionary War. He and Baron von Steuben (a Prussian general) were the two major foreign military experts who helped train the colonial armies.

1517

Martin Luther- 95 Theses on granting indulgences

1848

Marx and Engles, communist manifesto, France, Austria and Prussian revolution (all failed) Louis Napoleon Elected.

Bloody Sunday

Massacre of peaceful protesters at Winters Square in St. Petersburg in 1905 that turned ordinary workers against the tsar and produced a wave of general indignation.

Karl Lueger

Mayor of Vienna whom Hitler idolized

Puritans

Members of a 16th and 17th century reform movement within the Church of England that advocated that purifying it of Roman Catholic Church elements, like bishops, elaborate ceremonials, and wedding rings.

Methodists

Members of a Protestant revival movement started by John Wesley, so called because they were so methodical in their devotion.

Jesuits

Members of the Society of Jesus, founded by Ignatius Loyola, whose goal was the spread of the Roman Catholic faith.

Romanticism

Movement in art, music and literature that was a reaction against the classical period. Themes included emotion, supernatural, nationalism, historical themes, nature, true love (often unrequited) and death.

Zionism

Movement toward Jewish political nationhood, started by Theodor Herzl.

1800

Napoleon era begins

Haussmann

Napoleon placed in charge of Paris. With other urban planners, he destroyed old buildings to cut broad, straight, tree-lined boulevards through both the center of the city, as well as on the outskirts. This allowed for easier traffic flow, better housing, and sewers.

Napoleon III

Nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, and elected emperor of France from 1852-1870, he invaded Mexico when the Mexican government couldn't repay loans from French bankers. He sent in an army and set up a new government under Maximillian. He refused Lincoln's request that France withdraw. After the Civil War, the U.S. sent an army to enforce the request and Napoleon withdrew.

Cubism

No one single point of view, no continuity or simulaniety of image contour, all possible views of the subject are compressed into one synthesizes view of top, sides, front and back. Picture becomes multifaceted view of objects with angular, interlocking planes. Value: a new way of seeing, a view of the world as a mosaic of multiple relationships, reality as interaction.

Abstract Expressionism

Nonrepresantational art, no climazes, flattened- out planes and values, the real appearance of forms in nature os subordinated to an aesthetic concept of from composed of shapes, lines and colors. Value: personal and subjective interpretation.

NATO

North Atlantic Treaty Organization, an anti-Soviet military alliance of Western governments.

NATO

North Atlantic Treaty Organization; an alliance made to defend one another if they were attacked by any other country; US, England, France, Canada, Western European countries

Christian Humanists

Northern humanists who interpreted Italian ideas about and attitudes toward classical antiquity and humanism in terms if their own religious traditions.

Michaelangelo

One of the great Italian artists. He was known as a master. He not only painted portraits, but also designed buildings, wrote poetry, and painted murals on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican.

Glasnost

Openness, part of Gorbachev's campaign to tell it like it is marked a break from the past were long banned writers sold millions of copies of their works, and denunciations of Stalin and his terror were standard public discourse.

Anticlericalism

Opposition to the clergy.

Napoleon Bonaparte

Overthrew French Directory in 1799 and became emperor of the French in 1804. Failed to defeat Great Britain and abdicated in 1814. Returned to power briefly in 1815 but was defeated and died in exile.

1555

Peace of Augsburg

1648

Peace of Westphalia

Treaty Of Brest-Litovsk

Peace treaty signed in March 1918 between the Central Powers and Russia that ended participation in WWI and ceded Russian territories containing a third of the Russian empire's population to the Central Powers.

Flagellants

People who believed that the plague was God's punishment for sin and sought to do penance by flagellating (whipping) themselves.

Freud

Personality; Concepts: Defense mechanisms, ego, displacement, sublimation, projection, repression, regression, etc.; Study Basics: "The ego and the mechanisms of defense."

Copernicus

Polish astronomer who produced a workable model of the solar system with the sun in the center (1473-1543)

Sweated Industries

Poorly paid handicraft production, often carried out by married women paid by the piece and working at home.

Vasco da Gama

Portuguese explorer. In 1497-1498 he led the first naval expedition from Europe to sail to India, opening an important commercial sea route.

Displaced Persons

Postwar refugees, including 13 million Germans, former Nazi prisoners and forced laborers, and orphaned children.

Christian Democrats

Powerful center to center-right political parties that evolved in the late 1940s in Europe from former Catholic parties of the pre-WWII period. Christian parties gained increasing support in the postwar era, winning elections in par because of their participation in wartime resistance. A vital component of postwar politics, these groups shifted from their decades-old emphasis on advocating church interests to welcoming non-Catholics among their ranks and focusing on democracy, anti-communism, and social reform.

Anti-semitism

Prejudice against Jews

Truman Doctrine

President Truman's policy of providing economic and military aid to any country threatened by communism or totalitarian ideology

David Llyod George

Prime minister of Great Britain, had won a decisive victory in elections in December of 1918. His platform was simple: make the Germans pay for this dreadful war.

Christian Democrats

Progressive Catholics and revitalized Catholic political parties that became influential after the Second World War.

People's Budget

Proposed after the liberal party came to power in England in 1906 and vetoed by the lords, it was designed to increase spending on social welfare issues.

Elizabeth I

Queen of England from 1558 to 1603, This queen of England chose a religion between the Puritans and Catholics and required her subjects to attend church or face a fine. She also required uniformity and conformity to the Church of England

Jacobins

Radical republicans during the French Revolution. They were led by Maximilien Robespierre from 1793 to 1794. (See also Robespierre, Maximilien.) (p. 588)

Salon

Regular social gathering held by talented and rich Parisians in their homes, where philosphes and their followers met to discuss literature, science, and philosophy.

Machiavelli

Renaissance writer; formerly a politician, wrote The Prince, a work on ethics and government, describing how rulers maintain power by methods that ignore right or wrong; accepted the philosophy that "the end justifies the means."

Homestead Act

Result of the American Civil War that gave western land to settlers, reinforcing the concept of free labor in a market economy.

Neoclassicm

Return to classical antiquity for inspiration, scenes are hisotircal and mythological, figures appear to be sculptued, appeal is to intellect, not heaty. emotions are restrained, and balance is achieved. Values: reason, order, balance, reverence for antiquity.

English Peasant's Revolt

Revolt by English peasants in 1381 in response to changing economic conditions.

Tsar Alexander I

Ruled Russia during Napoleonic Wars and wanted peace after Napoleon's armied continued winning victories. The young tsar and Napoleon negotiated and he ended up accepting Napoleon's reorganization of Western and Central Europe and promised to enforce Napoleon's economic blockade against British goods.

King Louis XIV

Ruled with an iron fist for 60 years, and always wanted war. Believed in Divine Right theory, in which God chose him to rule over the masses and that anyone who challenged him would be challenging God. Thought that an absolute monarchy was the best form of government, and that men couldn't be trusted to govern themselves. The Sun God.

Mendeleev

Russian chemist who developed a periodic table of the chemical elements and predicted the discovery of several new elements (1834-1907)

Stalin

Russian leader who succeeded Lenin as head of the Communist Party and created a totalitarian state by purging all opposition (1879-1953)

Sergei Witte

Russian minister of finance 1892-1903, believed industrial backwardness threatened Russia's power and greatness, encouraged building of railroads, established high protective tariffs to build domestic industry, put the country on the gold standard to strengthen Russia finances, used the West to catch up with the West

Rasputin

Russian monk. Known for his sinful indulgences, his ability to cure Czarevich Alexis' hemophilia gave him power over Czar Nicholas II. He was assassinated in 1916.

Duma

Russian national legislature

Kandinsky

Russian painter who was a pioneer of abstract art (1866-1944)

Duma

Russian parliament opened in 1906, elected indirectly by universal male suffrage but with absolute veto power from the tsar.

Adam Smith

Scottish economist who wrote the Wealth of Nations and designed modern Capitalism

Neo-Europes

Settler colonies with established populations of Europeans, such as North America, Australia, New Zealand, and Latin America, where Europe found outlets for population growth and its most profitable investment opportunities in the 19th century.

"modern Girl"

Somewhat stereotypical image of the modern and independent working woman popular in the 1920's.

Brezhnev

Soviet Dictator from 1964 to 1982; brought an end to the Dethawing of the Cold War, instituted his doctrine of intervention in Eastern Europe; invaded Afghanistan in 1979

Gorbachev

Soviet statesman whose foreign policy brought an end to the Cold War and whose domestic policy introduced major reforms (born in 1931)

Warsaw Pact

Soviet-backed military alliance of East Bloc Communist countries in Europe.

Great Rebellion

The 1857 and 1858 insurrection by Muslim and Hindu mercenaries in the British army which spread throughout northern and central India before finally being crushed, primarily by loyal native troops from southern India. Britain thereafter ruled India directly.

Putting-Out System

The 18th century system of rural industry in which a merchant loaned raw materials to cottage workers, who processed them and returned the finished products to the merchant.

OPEC

The Arab-led Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries.

Protectorate

The English military dictatorship (1653-1658) established by Oliver Cromwell following the execution of Charles I.

Common Market

The European Economic Community, created by the six nations of the Coal and Steel Community in 1957.

Haskalah

The Jewish Enlightenment of the 2nd half of the 18th century, led by the Prussian philosopher Moses Mendelssohn.

Triple Alliance

The alliance of Austria, Germany and Italy. Italy left the alliance when war broke out in 1914 on the grounds that Austria had launched a war of aggression.

Union of Utrecht

The alliance of seven northern provinces (led by Holland) that declared its independence from Spain and formed the United Provinces of the Netherlands

Social Darwinism

The application of ideas about evolution and "survival of the fittest" to human societies - particularly as a justification for their imperialist expansion.

War Communism

The application of the total war concept to a civil conflict, the Bolsheviks seized grain from peasants, introduced rationing, nationalized all banks and industry, and required everyone to work.

Law of inertia

The approach, pioneered by Galileo that state that motion, not rest, is the natural state of an object, and that an object continues in motion forever unless stopped by some external force.

Experimental Method

The approach, pioneered by Galileo, that the proper way to explore the workings of the universe was through repeatable experiments rather than speculation.

Battle of Peterloo

The army's violent suppression of a protest that took place at Saint Peter's field in Manchester in reaction to the revision of the Corn Laws.

Ethnic Cleansing

The attempt to establish ethnically homogeneous territories by intimidation, forced deportation, and killing.

Pantheism

The belief that God and the universe are identical, which denies the personality and transcendence of God.

Deism

The belief that God exists and created the world but thereafter assumed no control over it or over the lives of people; God is a "watch maker."

Three Estates

The clergy made up a very small percentage but owned 10% of the land; the nobles made up another small percentage but also owned most of the land; and the rest of the people made up 97% of France and owned very little land

Great Schism

The division, or split, in church leadership from 1378 to 1417 when there were two, then three, popes.

New Imperialism

The drive to create vast political empires abroad, recalling the old European colonial empires of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and contrasting with the economic penetration of non-Western territories between 1816 and 1880.

Globalization

The emergence of a freer global economy; it also refers to the exchange of cultural, political, and religious ideas throughout the world

Grand Empire

The empire over which Napoleon and his allies ruled, encompassing virtually all of Europe except Great Britain and Russia.

Columbian Exchange

The exchange of animals, plants, and diseases between the Old and the New Worlds.

Stadholder

The executive officer in each of the United Provinces of the Netherlands, a position often held by the princes of Orange.

Great Fear

The fear of noble reprisals against peasant uprisings that seized the French countryside and led to further revolt.

Carnival

The few days of revelry in Catholic countries that preceded Lent and that included drinking, masquerading, dancing, and rowdy spectacles that upset the established order.

National Assembly

The first French revolutionary legislative, made up primarily of representatives of the third estate and a few from the nobility and clergy, in session from 1789 to 1791.

James I

The first Stuart to be king of England and Ireland from 1603 to 1925 and king of Scotland from 1567 to 1625

Atlantic Slave Trade

The forced migration of Africans across the Atlantic for slave labor on plantations and in other industries; the trade reached its peack in the 18th century and ultimately involved more than 12 million Africans.

Collectivization Of Agriculture

The forcible consolidation of individual peasant farms into large, state-controlled enterprises.

Lech Walsea

The leader of the Polish anti-soviet resistance, and in 1990 he won the presidency in Poland's first free election in half a century. As an organizer of shipyard strikes in the mid-1970s, he lost his job in 1976 over his anti-communist political views, along with many others who dared to resist the Soviet influence. (http://www.answers.com)

De-Stalinization

The liberalization of the post-Stalin Soviet Union, led by reformer Nikita Khrushchev.

Crystal Palace

The location of the Great Exhibition in 1851 in London; an architectural masterpiece made entirely of glass and iron.

Global Mass Migration

The mass movement of people from Europe in the 19th century; one reason that the West's impact on the world was so powerful and many-sided.

Bourgeoisie

The middle-class minority who owned the means of production and, according to Marx, exploited the working-class proletariat.

Multiculturalism

The mixing of ehtnic styles in daily life and in cultural works such as film, music, art, and literature.

Proletariat

The modern working class.

Velvet Revolution

The moment when communism died in 1989 with an ousting of Communist bosses in only ten days; it grew out of popular demonstrations led by students, intellectuals and a dissident playwright.

Enclosure

The movement to fence in fields in order to farm more effectively, at the expense of poor peasant who relied on common fields for farming and pasture.

Viceroyalties

The name for the four administrative units of Spanish possessions in the Americas: New Spain, Peru, New Granada, and La Plata.

Rocket

The name given to George Stephenson's effective locomotive that was first tested in 1829 on the Liverpool and Machester Railway at 24 miles per hour.

Peace of Westphalia

The name of a series of treaties that concluded the Thirty Years' War in 1648 and marked the end of large scale religious violence in Europe.

Protestant

The name originally given to followers of Luther, which came to mean all non-Catholic Western Christian groups.

Junkers

The nobility of Brandenburg and Prussia, they were reluctant allies of Frederick William in his consolidation of the Prussian state.

National Self-determination

The notion that peoples should be able to choose their own national governments through democratic majority-rule elections and live free from outside interference in nation-states with clearly defined borders.

Holy Office

The official Roman Catholic agency founded in 1542 to combat international doctrinal heresy.

Totalitarianism

The organization of a state that has complete control over every aspect of the individual's life and in which the goal of the individual is to serve the state.

Guild System

The organization of artisanal production into trade-based associations, or guilds, each of which recieved a monopoly over its trade and the right to train apprentices and hire workers.

Cold War

The period after World War II during which the world was politically divided between Western/democratic and Eastern/communist nations.

Babylonian Captivity

The period from 1309 to 1376 when the popes resided in Avignon rather than in Rome. The phrase refers to the seventy years when the Hebrews were held captive in Babylon.

Reign of Terror

The period from 1793 to 1794 during which Robespierre's Committee of Public Safety tried and executed thousands suspected of treason and a new revolutionary culture was imposed.

Mandate System

The plan to allow Britain and France to administer former Ottoman territories, put into place after the end of WWI.

Reichstag

The popularly elected lower house of government of the new German Empire after 1871.

Postcolonial Migration

The postwar movement of people from former colonies and the developing world into Europe.

October Manifesto

The result of a great general strike in October 1905, it granted full civil rights and promised a popularly elected duma (parliament) with real legislative power.

Sepoy Rebellion

The revolt of Indian soldiers in 1857 against certain practices that violated religious customs; also known as the Sepoy Mutiny. (p. 661)

Boris Yeltsin

Was the first President of the Russian Federation from 1991 to 1999. The Yeltsin era was a traumatic period in Russian history—a period marked by widespread corruption, economic collapse, and enormous political and social problems. In June 1991 Yeltsin came to power on a wave of high expectations. On June 12 Yeltsin was elected president of the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic with 57% of the vote, becoming the first popularly elected president in Russian history. But Yeltsin never recovered his popularity after endorsing radical economic reforms in early 1992 which were widely blamed for devastating the living standards of most of the Russian population. By the time he left office, Yeltsin was a deeply unpopular figure in Russia, with an approval rating as low as two percent by some estimates.

Catherine de Medici

Was the wife of Henry II (Valois). She acted as regent during the reign of her three weak and ineffective sons - Francis II (1559-60) Charles IX (1560-74) Henry III (1574-89). Ordered the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre.

1815

Waterloo defeat and Congress of Vienna

Fourteen Points

Wilson's 1918 peace proposal calling for open diplomacy, a reduction in armaments, freedom of commerce and trade, the establishment of the League of Nations, and national self-determination.

Lorenzo Valla

Wrote "On Pleasure" defended the senses of good

Castiglione

Wrote "The Courtier" describing all of the major things that a man must have in order to be a functioning societal person

Pico della Mirandola

Wrote On the Dignity of Man which stated that man was made in the image of God before the fall and as Christ after the Resurrection. Man is placed in-between beasts and the angels. He also believed that there is no limits to what man can accomplish.

Locke

Wrote Two Treatises of Government. Said human nature lived free and had the natural rights of life, liberty, and property. He said government was created in order to protect these rights and if the government failed to do so it was the duty of the people to rebel.

Machiavellli

Wrote the Prince, a book about using politics as a science. "feared rather than loved" and "fox and lion"

Catherine the Great

ruled Russia from 1762 to 1796, added new lands to Russia, encouraged science, art, lierature, Russia became one of Europe's most powerful nations

Martin Luther

a German monk who became one of the most famous critics of the Roman Catholic Chruch. In 1517, he wrote 95 theses, or statements of belief attacking the church practices.

Franz List

a Hungarian[3][4][5] composer, virtuoso pianist and teacher. He was also the father-in-law of Richard Wagner. In 1865 he became an abbot in the Roman Catholic Church.

Marshall Plan

a United States program of economic aid for the reconstruction of Europe (1948-1952)

Versailles

a palace built in the 17th century for Louis XIV southwest of Paris near the city of Versailles

Socialism

a political theory advocating state ownership of industry

Concert of Europe

a series of alliances among European nations in the 19th century, devised by Prince Klemens von Metternich to prevent the outbreak of revolutions

Zwingli

a swiss priest. Led the Swiss protestant movement. Stressed salvation through faith alone and denounced many Catholic beliefs and practices, such as purgatory, and the sale of indulgences. Took communiun elements as figurative, not literally.

Neocolonialism

a system designed to perpetuate Western economic domination and undermine the promise of political independence, thereby extending to Africa (and much of Asia) the economic subordination that the United States had established in Latin America in the nineteenth century.

Gaspar de Guzman, Count-Duke of Olivares

appointed administrator of Spain by Philip IV, devised new sources of revenue

Maupeou

appointed chancellor by Louis XV to crush the judicial opposition, abolished existing parlements

Franz- Ferdinand

archduke of Austria Hungary who was assassinated at Sarajevo by a Serbian terrorist group called the Black Hand; his death was a main cause for World War I

Rousseau

believed people in their natural state were basically good but that they were corrupted by the evils of society, especially the uneven distribution of property

Savonorola

bonfire of Vanities and Ruled Florence STRICTLY, later exectued by the Pope

Walter Scott

born in Edinburgh; personified romantic movement's fascination with history-raised on grandfather's farm, fell under spell of old ballads and tales of Scottish border-influenced by German romanticism-esp. Johann Wolfgang con Goethe-translated Gotz von Berlichingen: play about a 16th century knight who revolted against centralized authority and championed individual freedom-storyteller, composed long narrative poems and series of historical novels-recreated spirit of bygone ages and great historical events

John Cockerill

built cotton-spinning equipment in Belgium, established modern ironworks, coal mines and built an industrial factory which produced locomotives and machinery

Fritz Harkort

business pioneer in the German machinery industry, built steam engines, imported materials from England, ambition resulted in large financial losses

Cromwell

chief minister. secretly protestant.used the opportunity to have Henry VIII work with parliament to secure the birth of the Anglican Church(Protestant)

Petrarch

coined the term renaissance, , (1304-1374) Father of the Renaissance. He believed the first two centuries of the Roman Empire to represent the peak in the development of human civilization.

Stravinsky

composer who was born in Russia but lived in the United States after 1939 (1882-1971)

Whigs

conservatives and popular with pro-Bank people and plantation owners. They mainly came from the National Republican Party, which was once largely Federalists. They took their name from the British political party that had opposed King George during the American Revolution. Their policies included support of industry, protective tariffs, and Clay's American System. They were generally upper class in origin. Included Clay and Webster

Peter the Great

czar of Russia who introduced ideas from western Europe to reform the government

Currie

discovered radium

Christopher Columbus

discovered the New World, cruel and ineffective governor of Spain's Caribbean colony, sought a more direct route to the East Indies, laid the foundation for Spanish imperial administration in the Canary Islands

Brezhnev Doctrine

doctrine created after the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968, according to which the Soviet Union and its allies had the right to intervene in any socialist country whenever they saw the need.

Cavour

dominant figure in Sardinia government 1850-1861, worked to consolidate Sardinia as a liberal constitutional state capable of leading northern Italy, worked for a secret diplomatic alliance with Napoleon III against Austria, regained Napoleon's support by ceding Savoy and Nice to France

Charles Lyell

effectively discredited the long-standing view that the earth's surface had been formed by short-lived cataclysms, such as biblical floods and earthquakes-his principle: uniformitarianism: same geological processes that are at work today slowly formed the earth's surface over an immensely long time

Zemstvos

elected local rural governments allow some democracy without weakening the central government

John Tetzel

friar appointed to sell indulgences

Lorenzo Medici

gave power to the lower classes of Italy, but he let his family business decline.

Louis XV

grandson of Louis XIV and king of France from 1715 to 1774 who led France into the War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War (1710-1774)

Ignatius Loyola

he founded the Jesuits in 1534. He was a Spanish soldier, who while in war, shattered his leg. Because he had so long to wait for his leg to heal that he read a lot about Jesus and he also had trouble with how you can earn your salvation, and he believed that you could earn through ones actions. he organized the Jesuits like a military body.

Frans Ferdinand

heir to Austria-Hungary throne who was assinated, event started WWI

Central Powers

in World War I the alliance of Germany and Austria-Hungary and other nations allied with them in opposing the Allies

Surrelaism

indebted to Freud, explores the dream world, life without logic, reason or meaning, fasicnation or mystery, the strance necounters betwen objects, and incongruity, subjects are often indecipherable in their strangeness, the beautiful is the quality of chance association. Values: the dream sequence, fantasy.

Nietzsche

influential German philosopher remembered for his concept of the superman and for his rejection of Christian values (1844-1900)

Louis XVI

king of France from 1774 to 1792

Dubcek

leader of Czechoslovakia during the Prague of Spring, he expanded freedom of discussion and other intellectual rights at a time when they were being repressed in the Soviet

Margaret Thatcher

leader of conservatives in Great Britain who came to power. Pledged to limit social welfare, restrict union power, and end inflation. Formed Thatcherism, in which her economic policy was termed, and improved the British economic situation. She dominated British politics in 1980s, and her government tried to replace local property taxes with a flat-rate tax payable by every adult. Her popularity fell, and resigned.

Cecil Rhodes

led British imperialism in Africa, conquered Bechuanaland (Botswana) and Rhodesia (Zimbabwe and Zambia), developed gold mines, laid the foundations for apartheid

Joseph Fouche

left in charge of the police state by Napoleon, organized a spy system to root out subversive people and potential opponents to Napoleon's regime

Cardinal Richelieu

minister of King Louis XVIII, appointed by Marie de Medici , had the real power, wanted to curb power of nobility, 32 generalities, military provinces France was divided into

Leon Gambetta

moderate republican leader, preached a republic of truly equal economic opportunity, established absolute parliamentary supremacy in 1877 and 1879

Cornelius Vermuyden

most famous of Dutch drainage engineers, directed drainage projects in Yorkshire and Cambridgeshire, reclaimed 40,000 acres

Hindenburg

named hitler chancellor. a war hero, was elected to be german president when he was 84 and in poor health. the nazis took full advantage of his old age

During the great witchcraft persecutions who were often tried as witches?

older women

Edwin Chadwick

one of the commissions charged with relief to paupers, Benthamite, realized disease and death caused poverty, believed disease could be prevented by cleaning up the urban environment, reports became the basis of Britain's first public health law, believed in the miasmatic theory of disease

July Revolution

overthrow of King Charles X (sought to impose absolutism by rolling back the constitutional monarchy)-radical revolt in Paris forced Charles to abdicate

Rubens

prolific Flemish baroque painter

Picasso

prolific and influential Spanish artist who lived in France (1881-1973)

Elizabeth I

ruled from 1558-1603; followed a policy that was a middle course between Catholic and Protestant extremes. She sets up a national Church, is declared head of the Anglican Church, establishes a state Church that moderates Catholics and Protestants, allowed priests to marry, allowed sermons to be delivered in English, and made the Book of Common Prayer more acceptable to Catholics.

Rasputin

self-proclaimed holy man, great influence over Tsarina Alexandra, treated son Alexei's hemophilia through hypnosis, murdered in December 1916

Charles X

set out to restore the absolute monarchy with the help of the ultraroyalists. Tried to repay nobles for lands lost during the revolution, but the liberals in teh legislative assemly opposed him. Eventually, he issued the July Ordinances.

Einstein

someone who has exceptional intellectual ability and originality

Charles I

son of James I who was King of England and Scotland and Ireland

Philip II

son of Louis VII whose reign as king of France saw wars with the English that regained control of Normandy and Anjou and most of Poitou (1165-1223)

Ismail

succeeded his father as ruler of Egypt in 1863, promoted irrigation networks to stimulate production, supported construction of Suez Canal, established Arabic as official language, forced to allow Britain and France to oversee Egypt to pay its debts, abdicated in favor of his son, Tewfiq

Cosimo de Medici

supported education and the arts, made many business connections in Europe

Frederick William

the Elector of Brandenburg who rebuilt his domain after its destruction during the Thirty Years' War (1620-1688), placed very strong emphasis on the army

Alexander I

the czar of Russia whose plans to liberalize the government of Russia were unrealized because of the wars with Napoleon (1777-1825)

Henry IV

the first Lancastrian king of England from 1399 to 1413

Qing Dynasty

the last imperial dynasty of China (from 1644 to 1912) which was overthrown by revolutionaries; during the Qing dynasty China was ruled by the Manchu

2nd Republic

the result of another revolution in France with which the emergence of universal male suffrage came about, also much conflict between middle and lower classes

Great Famine (Ireland)

the result of four years of crop failure in Ireland, a country that had grown dependent of potatoes as a dietary staple.

Decolonization

the reversal of Europe's overseas expansion caused by the rising demand of Asian and African peoples for national self-determination, racial equality, and personal dignity.

William II

the second son of William the Conqueror who succeeded him as King of England (1056-1100)

Bourgeoisie

the social class between the lower and upper classes

Alexander II

the son of Nicholas I who, as czar of Russia, introduced reforms that included limited emancipation of the serfs (1818-1881)

Mussolini

was an Italian politician who led the National Fascist Party and is credited with being one of the key figures in the creation of Fascism. He became the Prime Minister of Italy in 1922 and began using the title Il Duce by 1925.

The Princes main purpose

was to unite Italy under one ruler

Catherine de Medici

wife of Henry II, influenced her sons after the end of there father's rein. She placed an alliance with the ultra-Catholics (the militant Catholics), which was led by the second most powerful family in France, The Guise Family. She permitted the Guise Family their own independent army,which they would use to take out the other religions residing within the French Borders. This led to the civil wars in France and also the St. Bartholome's Day Massacre.

Castiglione

wrote The Courtier, sought to fashion the young gentleman into the courtly ideal, trained in physical, spiritual, intellectual and artistic pursuits

Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes

wrote What is the Third Estate?, argued that the nobility was a tiny, overprivileged minority and that the 3rd estate comprised the true strength of the French nation