study

Robert Elias (1986)

The Politics of Victimization "anticipate victimization" "limited social reality of crime and victimization that excludes other harms" Suggests the wedding of victimology and human rights.

Bounding

The first survey serves as the calendar reference point for the second, and so on

Altenative Cultural Differences

Trauma in the medical sense, refers to any physical injury, w/o concern for the origin of damage. -One generalization that emerged was the rapid ambulance response time, with deployment of specially trained paramedics, increased the odds of patient survival. -Medical expert period called the golden hour, the time period in which seriously injured people need medical attention if they are to survive. -Second finding is that most hospitals aren't sufficiently equipped to handle serious trauma cases.

Gray area

pertains to a victimization that does not conform to the usual common stereotype

Gesellschaft

social relations based on impersonal ties, as duty to a society or organization

gemeinschaft

social relations between individuals, based on close personal and family ties; community

Florida Star v. BJF (1989)

Court ruled that although the sheriff's department failed to fulfill its obligation under the Florida statue, the Star could not be held liable for publishing truthful information that was lawfully obtained.

FL Legislature in 1995

"...if a newspaper lawfully obtains truthful information about a matter of public significance then state officials may not constitionally punish publication of the information, absent a need to further a state interest of the highest order." Section 92.56 All record, including testimony from witnesses, which contain the name, address, or photograph of the victim of the crime of sexual battery, etc. should remain confidential. These records couldnt be made public or a part of public record and violation of this statue by a public officer or employee is punishable as a second degree misdemeanor

Limitations of the UCR

"Dark figure of crime" Hierarchy rule Offers little information on victims and offenders, data collected is about those arrested

Telescoping

takes place when respondents mistakenly bring criminal events that occurred outside the time frame into the survey period.

Deterrence

Is to prevent future transgressions

Victim and Witness Protection Act of 1982

Makes the granting of victim restitution a in federal sentencing

Victim Precipitation

deals w/ the degree to which the victim is responsible for his or her own victimization

Learned Helplessness

3 components: 1. The info a person has about what is going to happen 2. The knowledge or perception of what will happen 3. The person's behavior toward the event that takes place. -The problem with this perspective is the identification of which psychological traits are conducive to remaining in a violent relationship --Some observers point to to masochism, or a desire to suffer, as the key ingredient

Learning Theories

-Behavior is learned in both formal and informal settings --Example: modeling, imitation, reinforcement, and explicit training -3 learning theories --Modeling is perhaps the simplest form of learning theory. Suggest that people learn by copying or imitating the behavior of others. --Differential Association theory argues that most learning comes from interpersonal contacts that vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity, --Differential identification refers to real and fictional presentations in the media serving as ways to define behaviors as acceptable or unacceptable

President's Commission (1967)

-Commission came about because of the increasing crime and civil unrest in the 1960's -Victimization surveys have grown out of this Commission -President Johnson -Recognized that an accurate description of the crime problem was lacking. -It authorized a number of independent projects to gather info about crime victims. -4 generations of victimizations

Difference between British Crime Survey and NCVS and International Crime Victims Survey (ICVS)

-Conducted every year -BCS survey only those 16 and older -Recall period is one year and not 6 months -coupling of British census data with responses. -BCS and NCVS focus on street crimes primarily -Ability to make cross country comparisons (ICVS) -Small sample sizes in each country (ICVS) -5 year reference period (ICVS) -Criticisms of the use of CATI use in poor and/or developing countries (ICVS) -The lack of info gathered on ethnicity and other potential explanatory factors.

Subcultures of Violence

-Differential distribution of violent crime rates refers to is the fact that murder rates are not uniformly dispersed throughout time and space. -Gastil (1971) concluded that Southernness was responsible for the differential distribution of homicide victimizations rates throughout the US. This pronouncement referred to as the regional culture of violence thesis. -These researchers reanalyzed state homicide rates, adding their own Structural Poverty Index, which reflected variables such as high infant mortality, low education, and low income.

Uniform Crime Report (1931)

-Envisioned as a way for police departments in different jurisdictions to exchange information about crime -Data is compiled annually from jurisdictions throughout the country Longest running systematic data collection in the social sciences - taken over by the FBI in 1931 -Provides standardized crime definitions Index, or Part I, Offenses: Personal offenses (murder, forcible rape, robbery, and aggravated assault) and Property offenses (burglary, larceny-theft, motor vehicle theft, and arson - a large amount of information is collected about these crimes Part II Offenses: Sex offenses, other than rape, offenses against the family, and vandalism - not as much information is collected about these crimes -most widely cited measure of crime -identify the magnitude of the crime problem, map changes over time, and guide actions to combat criminal element.

Sociocultural Explanations

-Events that are external to the individual that affect behavior -Expected roles of women, men, and children in society -Examples: child maltreatment (child is viewed as property of the father), rape, corporal punishment -Abuse of women--patriarchy creates a male privilege of structured inequality that portrays women as inferior and lacking in social power. -Sociocultural approach emphasizes the arguments that rape is not a sexual offense. --Rape is an offense of power- a tool that enables men to exert poor and control over women.

Cost of Victimization

-First Insult - Criminal Victimization --In addition to sustaining physical injury and property loss or damage, a sizeable proportion of victims reported losing time from work and their normal routines. --Also endured emotional anguish and interpersonal complications w/ family members and friends. --Even though many social service agencies were in operation, victims remained largely unaware of service availability -Second Insult - System Participation

National Incident Based Reporting System

-Grew out of a need to change the way we collect crime data in the mid-1980's -Collects detailed information on 22 categories of crimes, compared to the eight Index offenses of the UCR -Reports all crimes that occur during incident -Collects 53 data elements not found in traditional UCR data (p. 30- Table 2.2): --Victim --Victim-offender relationship --Injuries --Property loss --Presence of weapons --Number of victims and offenders --Arrestee information -Greatest advantage of NBRIS data is the ability of law enforcement and researchers to gain a more in-depth picture of the crime problem and to use that info to decide on an appropriate course of action.

Subcultural Theory

-Groups and individuals in society act in accordance with a set of subcultural norms that may violate the rules and regulations of the larger culture. -A subculture is a large group of individuals who hold a set of values, beliefs, ideas, views, and/or meanings that differ to some degree from the larger culture. --First an individual acts according to subculture mandates that, unfortunately, may be considered deviant by larger society (i.e., immigrants) --Second, deviance may result from the inability to join or be assimilated into a new or larger society. -Delinquency was the early focus --Cultural conflict- by following one set cultural (or subcultural) practices, the individual is violating the proscriptions of another culture.

Supplemental Homicide Reports

-Initiated in 1976 -Provides data on victim characteristics, location, offender characteristics, relationship between victim and offender, use of weapons, circumstances surrounding the event -Because of the SHR, we know that homicides rarely occur in commercial settings, occur more often on the weekends, involve acquaintances or intimates, and typically occur with little planning

Intraindividual Theories

-Locate the cause of deviant behavior inside a person -Psychopathology-- mental imbalances within the offender.. -Focus on what is wrong within an individual and address a variety of specific issues thought to cause abnormal behavior. 4 Criticisms: -Most inquiries rely upon clinical info as opposed to a random sample from larger population -Lack of an appropriate control group -Very little agreement among researchers about which exact characteristics distinguish abusers from nonusers -Research is ex post facto, which yields little predictive power.

Schafer (1968)

7 Types of Victim Precipitation Typology 1. Unrelated victims (no responsibility) 2. Provocative victims- offender reacts 3. Precipitative victims- victims leave themselves open 4. Biologically weak- age, physical conditions 5. Socially weak- immigrants, minorities 6. Self- victimizing 7. Political victims The Victim and His Criminal Functional Responsibility Table 1.3

Second generation was made up of several projects (1970-1970)

-Made up of several survey projects to see what would work best (Washington DC and Baltimore) -Reverse record check - locate victims names and contact them for more information -Forward record check - talk with victims and see if you can find the police report - about 1/3 of reports could not be found Important definitions: -Self respondent - person is speaking for herself (CA- improvement) -Household respondent - person is speaking for the household (CA improvement) -Lessons learned: Ask more specific questions, shorten the time respondents need to remember, ask individuals themselves (not the heads of households)

Poly victimization

-Means that maltreated children often fall prey to multiple forms, rather than a single type, of abuse and/or neglect

Third Generation (1972-1978)

-National Crime Survey - launched in 1972 72,000 households - interview as many as possible in household, trying to get 100,000 -Panel format - Contacted every six months over a six year period --Workers contacted each household every 6 months over a 3 year period for a total of 7 interviews. --Each subsequent interview was checked against previous reports --One person acted as a proxy for the household when the crime was against the entire household, contact person was a child, parent objected --Each person on the home was interviewed Limitation?: mover-stayer problem (surveys based on residence, not people) Business Victimization Survey - contacted businesses regarding risks - 15,000 businesses proved too small and too expensive City surveys - 26 large cities were involved, contacting residents and businesses - only used for three years because of overwhelming costs

Remedying the Financial Impact of Victimization

-Needs to entice victims back into the system w/ economic incentives. -Ways to recoup monetary losses--some alternatives include restitution, civil litigation, insurance payments, and victim compensation.

Noneconomic Costs

-No insurance to help recovery costs -Emotional consequences - shame, guilt, self-blame (Office for Victim of Crime (1998)) -Loss of sense of security (anything they equate to the victimization--banks, credit cards) -Time loss - work, school, time at the doctor, recuperating from an injury, talking to police and prosecution, coming to court, replacing lost goods -Debt collectors - harassed by debt collectors, rejected for loans and credit cards, subjected to criminal investigation -Business downtime for cybercrime assaults Interpersonal violence

Repeat Victimization

-Repeated occurrence of crime involving either the same victim or the same location --Examples: domestic violence, burglary -Series victimization - six or more similar but separate crimes which the victim is unable to recall individually or describe in detail to an interviewer (4.1% of crimes are series victimization) -Multiple victimizations are concentrated in a relatively few number of people -Near repeat - neighbor may be victimized in the same or similar way the initial victim is -Virtual repeat - follow-up victimization of a similar person, place, or item, not necessarily nearby - emphasis is on the method of offending or the similarity of targets -Risks of victimization is usually soon after the initial victimization and occurs within a short period of time -"Hot spots" - small geographic areas that are identified where crimes are so frequent that they are highly predictive -Computer mapping helps in these efforts -Community policing efforts -Risk heterogeneity - the prior victimization or some other factor identifies the victim or location as an appropriate target for future victimization -Event dependency - situations in which the same offender commits another offense based on the past experience with the victim or location - can also include information shared between offenders

Limitations of NIBRS

-Requires increased data entry requirements and data processing abilities on the part of law enforcement -Agencies must meet stringent guidelines for participation -No nationally representative data is available

Rationale for Restitution

-Restoring the victim to the pre-victimization condition -Rehabilitating the offender -Providing less restrictive alternative to incarceration -Deterring the offender from future criminal activity

Victim compensation

-State payments made to crime victims -First introduced in Great Britain by Margery Fry in 1957 -New Zealand passed the first compensation legislation in 1963, followed by England in 1964. -The federal government enacted legislation in 1984 that outlined compensation in instances in which federal crimes were committed. -The statute also provided for monetary assistance to states w/ compensation programs. -By 1989, 45 states had compensation statutes.

Legal Reforms

-Statuses that protect the rape victims' background and character in court proceedings. -New law designed to protect battered spouses and children. -Legislation mandating documents and teachers report suspected cases of child abuse represented in a bold initiative. -guidelines for informing victims about court proceedings and the legal system, as well as provisions that allow victim impact statements in sentencing and parole decisions. -"Victim Bill of Rights"

Symbolic Interactionism

-The interaction between two people -Every person develops their idea of themselves depending upon their environment and how those around them see them -outcome of interaction is always uncertain -interaction b/w 2 people also sets expectations and behaviors. Parents maltreat children b/c of the inadequate relationship they had w/ their own parents. -Elder maltreatment is an example of this - how? --Signifies a role reversal for both parent and child ---lead to neglect and abuse -Homicide as a situated transaction - what does this mean? --Wolfgang (1958)- police homicide records for all murders committed during the 5 year period in Philadelphia (48- 52). ---Finding 150 cases (26%) victim precipitated

Economic Costs

-The seeming disparity in figures for robbery and assault (more robbery victims w/ economic loss but more dollars by assault victims) is due to the sheer number of assault victims compared w/ robbery victims and the cross of medical care. -These monetary estimates would escalate considerably if complete information were available on every single crime incident.

Second Insult - System Participation

-Time loss -Lost wages -Courthouse experiences leave victims and families feeling bewildered and frustrated -Not servicing victims is based not on apathy but rational choices -Loss of trust in the police and cj system -It is more realistic to view the lack of participation in the criminal justice system as a rationale choice. Victims make a cost-benefit analysis and see exacerbated costs accruing from system participation -American criminal justice system is facing a critical loss of citizen trust support -Most often, victims report that the suspect was not successful and that nothing was lost. -Others claim the police wouldn't do anything or feel that the police wouldn't want to get involved in the matter. -6 out of every 10 property victimizations go to the police

Growing Crime Problem

-UCR crime double from 1960 to 1980 -President Johnson President Commission on Law Enforcement and the Administration of justices (1967): -beginnings of systematic victimization surveys -Suggestions for the means of alleviating the pain and loss of victims -Ideas for community programs aimed at providing victim services -Calls for involving victims further in the criminal justice system --15 years later victims still had substantial unified needs

What are the most used and reliable when measuring and understanding crime and victimology?

-Uniform Crime Report -National Incident Based Reporting System (NIBRS) -National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) 1. official record of police departments 2. Surveys that ask people about offenses they committed 3. Question individuals about instances in which they are victimized

Victim Movement

-Victims are in need of support and assistance from society -Mostly started as a grassroots movement -Victims and victims' families organizing and advocating for themselves

Routines Activities/Lifestyle Model

-Victims place themselves in harms way due to their routines -This was initially used to explain property offenses -Now, it is also used to explain violent offenses -Choices that a person makes about their routine may also explain their victimization -An individual's choice of behavior (i.e., their lifestyle) influences the chances of becoming a victim -understanding the social situations in which violent acts occur.

Victimization Surveys

-instead of relying upon police reports or other official information, these surveys entails contacting people and asking them if they have been crime victims. -one can divide them into various stages, or generations. -From the 1960's there have been four generations of victimization surveys, each developed based on the strengths and limitations of the previous one 1. National Opinion Research Center survey (1967 - 1970) 2. Second generation was made up of several projects (1970-1970) 3. Ambitious undertaking: The National Crime Survey (1972-1978), The Business Victimization Survey (1977), and City Surveys (1972-1975) 4.National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS)

Women's Movement (1960s)

-victim blaming -Reformers complained that the system dealt w/ assault victims as if they themselves were the offenders -Goal: Development of rape crisis centers, shelters for battered women, and counseling centers.

Arguments for Victim Rights Amendment

1. Alleviate the trauma felt by crime victims who have traditionally been forgotten and re-victimized by the criminal justice system. 2. Give the crime victim standing equal to the criminal defendant to appeal unjust holdings in criminal case. 3. Necessary to counterbalance the rights granted to criminal defendants by the Bill of Rights

Reasons why victim blaming is popular?

1. Consistent w/ another set of societal belief involving a just world 2. Allow for the idea of victim prevention 3. Helps answer difficult questions about the motivations of offenders and diverts attention from traditional criminology's inability to prevent crime.

Argument Against Victim Rights Amendment

1. Contrary to the common law tradition of separate criminal and civil law systems 2. Make the criminal justice system and the courts less efficient and effective 3. Diminish the rights guaranteed to those accused of crimes in the Bill of Rights 4. It is a state issue because there is already wide support for victim's rights.

Lukenbill (1977) Situated Transaction Actions

1. Insult 2. Recipient's assessment of these actions as offensive 3.The response (e.g., save face, degrade initiator, demonstrate superiority) 4. Murder

Other Factors

1. Mass media 2. Increased interest in victims among academics -Schafer- The Victim and His Criminal --Range from general victim topics to more specific topics, such as IPV -First international Symposium on victimology was held in Jerusalem in 1973.

Why is this such a difficult endeavor? --Reasons for the Perpetuations of Existing definitions

1. Reliance on official definitions and data in most analyses of victim issues that leads to questions that don't take into account the social setting 2. Current ability of existing agencies to co-opt and incorporate emerging movements, such as the children's movement, into existing social control system. 3. The control of the criminal justice and victimology rests in the hands of the powerful few who view a critical approach as a threat to the status quo.

von Hentig (1948)

13 categories- born a criminal physical or social or psychological disadvantages The Criminal and His Victim Victim types reflect the inability to resist a perpetrator due to physical, social, or psychological disadvantages. Table 1.1

Standing

A doctrine employed to determine the merits by of a legal claim, on the grounds that even though the claim may be correct, the litigant advancing it is not properly situated to be entitled to it judicial determination.

Forward record check

After asking respondents in a victim survey whether they had contacted the police about the incident, the researchers combed police files for a written case report. --Police records showed a great deal of similarity --there was evidence that telescoping could produce some major distortions unless specific steps were taken to counteract this tendency. ---Skogan's 3 assumptions: 1. Police records are an appropriate benchmark 2. Can only deal w/ situations that have come to the attention of the record-keeper. 3. Crime victims are very mobile groups whose frequent address changes which makes recontact difficult.

Four Theories of the Press

Authoritarian- Communist- the media are owned by the government Libertarian- assumes human being are intelligent and capable of making their own decisions if given the appropriate information and media is free from government interference. Social responsibility-media has the right to criticize government and other social instituions, it also has a responsibility to respond to society's interests and needs

What is a trigger warning?

Being triggered relative to aspects of an event (see article)

Advantages of UCR

Broad geographical coverage that allows crime comparisons from year to year and from place to place

Problems Associated w/ the Concept

Circular reasoning Conceptual Weakness Places undue responsibility on victims Creates culturally legitimate Victim Excuses Offenders Behavior and diminishes responsibility

Corp v. Cohn (1975)

Civil case- daughter killed by attackers SC ruled that the protection afforded the press through the First and Fourteenth Amendments "... forbids civil liability for the publication of lawfully, obtained truthful information."

"Dark figure of crime"

Crimes only reported to the police.

Justice For All Act 2004

Enhanced protections in federal crimes and provided additional funding for witness and victim protection.

Victim and Witness Protection Act of 1984

Established a federally financed victim compensation fund and now dispenses millions in the form of victims' compensation, assistance, and grants;

Mendelsohn (1937)

Father of victimology 6 Categories of Victims 1. Completely Innocent Victim 2. Victim as Guilty as Offender - Engage in crime 3. Victim is More Guilty than offender- Victim provokes 4. Most Guilty Victim- started off as offender & was injured 5. Imaginary Victim- pretend to be a victim 6. Victim w/ Minor Guilt- victim places themselves in situation Table 1.2

What signaled the end of the VJS (gesellschaft)?

Feudal barons laid claims to any compensation offenders paid victims. Industrial Revolution depersonalized relationships, which created a demand for urbanized communities. Criminal acts were viewed as violations against the state. Concern shifted away from making the victim whole to dealing with the criminal. Crime was seen as a threat to the social fabric of the community. Gesellschaft-- social

Smith and Weis (1976)

Four areas of concern: 1. Creation of definitions -legal processes -social processes -scientific processes 2. Application of Definitions -control agents - behavioral or social scientists -significant others - the victim -community 3. Victims' reactions during the post-victimization period -seeking help -complaints -Reaction to response of others 4. Societal Reactions to victims -Crisis intervention -medical -social service - civil court -police -prevention

Mendolsohn (later work-1976)

General victimology subsumes 5 types of victims : Criminal- crime victims Social Environment- individual, class, or group oppression Natural Environment- floods, earthquakes One's Self- suicide Technology- people who fall prey to society's reliance upon scientific innovations.

Victimization and Technology (video)

How does technology sometimes protect perpetrators and allow for anonymous victimization? -Trolls- feminists and journalists -Cyber harassment of women -72.5% of women experience harassment -More likely to report -Men might make up a nontrivial % of victims -Abusive tweets sent by other women -Men more likely to receive abusive tweets

Restitution

Is making payment in an amount sufficient to render the victim whole again.

Retribution

Means the offender would suffer in proportion to the degree of harm is caused by his or her actions

Children's Rights Movement (1960s)

Mid-1960s society decided abuse against children as a social problem -physical and psychological actions used with children began to be questioned and labeled as abuse. -States enacted legislations outlining the limits to which a child could be physically disciplined Criminal justice agencies created and expanded to address child maltreatment -Shelters set up -runaways gained publicity

Fourth Generation (1979)

National Crime Victimization Survey - what we use currently Introduction of better screen questions - those that probe possible victimization experiences This new format produced more information than prior surveys --perceptions of offense severity, school crime, workplace violence, identity theft, etc. Improved information on gray area events Computer-assisted telephone interviews - allowed interviewer to skip irrelevant questions Current survey targets 86,000 respondents in some 43,000 households Done in 6 month intervals Limitations: mover-stayer, being able to study subgroups

Victim Justice System

No authorities to turn to for help. Victims were expected to fend for themselves and society agreed to this arrangement

Societal/System Costs

Pain and suffering Psychological impacts Reduced quality of life Costs associated with the offenders decision to commit the crime - loss of socially acceptable production Chart 4.7, p. 89 All crime categories = $295 trillion in costs -Among these are the criminal justice system costs of investigating, arresting, prosecuting, adjudicating, and incarcerating/punishing the offender. -There are medical costs related to injuries and lost income, as well as intangible costs, which include pain and suffering, psychological impacts, and reduced quality of life.

Situational Explanations

Reflect an array of factors that deal with the social, environmental, and economic situation of the victim and the perpetrator Strain theory --Considers deviance as a direct result of social situation that places value on achievement but fails to provide the access to legitimate means for being successful. --In order to understand strain, 1 must know that man is egoistic and requires satisfaction in their endeavors Agnew-- inability to achieve social goals, removal of desired stimuli, or faced w/ negative stimuli Stress-- can appear in various settings and from a variety of sources. Social isolation-- lack of family support can exacerbate dependency and stress Social exchange - "What's in it for me?" Social attitudes (i.e., attitudes developed through interaction b/w people and reflect larger social attitudes that may change over time) - the 'isms -Example: Ageism (unfamiliar to current generation and transition of control)

Difference b/w Schafer and von Hentig

Schafer differs from von Hentig in that he holds the victim more explicit responsible for the criminal act

Senate Joint Resolution 3

September 30, 1999 Each individual who is the victim of a crime for which the defendant can be imprisoned for a period longer than 1 year or any other crime that involves violence shall have the rights... Not passed

Reverse record check

Starts by locating crime victim names in police files, contacting the people and administering a victim survey to them. Survey responses are checked against police records to assess the degree to which the respondent confirms offense characteristics that appear in the official files. --Revealed memory decay grew more problematic as the time period increased. --best recall occurred within 3 months --victims erroneously moved up events that occurred outside of the time frame and placed them inside the targeted interval. --Wording of some questions and their order of presentation affected the response

National Opinion Research Center survey (1967 - 1970)

Targeted 10,000 households through the US Asked them about crime incidents that happened to them in the last 12 months Interviewer ask for more detailed information on the two most recent and most serious offense This showed that the UCR was underreporting crime by roughly 50%, except for motor vehicle thefts (Why?--most auto insurance companies will not issue a reimbursement check unless the victim files a police report) Limitations: very small sample, victims and experts disagree on what the crimes were, telescoping, memory decay, all household responses were counted as coming from head of household

Whalen v. Roe (1977)

The Court established that although the Constitution does not explicitly mention any right of privacy, the recognizes 2 forms off privacy: 1. constitutional privacy protects an individual's freedom to make choices regarding their personal aspects of life 2. gov. interest in disseminating the information must be balanced against the individual's interest in keeping info quiet Quoted Roe v. Wade 1973

Bloch v. Ribar (1998)

The Court ruled that a rape victim has a fundamental right to privacy in preventing government officials from unnecessarily releasing the intimate details of the rape where no penalogical purpose behind it

Payne v. TN (1991)

The US Supreme Court upheld the statutory right of victims to make impact statements during sentencing unless it was shown that the statements were so prejudicial as to make the process fundamentally unfair.

Wolfgang's Patterns in Criminal Homicide

Using homicide data from the city of Philadelphia, Wolfgang reported that 26%of the homicides that occurred from 1948 through 1952 results from victim precipitation. 1. The victim and offender usually had some prior interpersonal relationship. 2. The homicide act is often the product of a small disagreement that escalates until the situation burst out of control. 3. Alcohol consumed by the victim is a common ingredient in many victim precipitated homicides.

Amir (1971)

Variety of factors that helped precipitate the rape: Alcohol use Seductive actions by victim Wearing reveling clothing Having a bad reputation Wrong place at the wrong time Using risque language Sometimes, the offender misreads the victim's overtures Some victims may have an unconscious need to be controlled through rape

What was the most important contribution of the NORC survey?

We learned that people are willing to talk about their victimization experiences

Criticisms and Reactions to Amir

Weis & Borges (1973) attributed Amir's conclusions to faults implicit in relying upon police accounts, to a host of procedural errors, as well as to ill-conceived theoretical notions. Curtis (1974) suggested that a more accurate definition of victim precipitation. Franklin and Franklin (1976) - Table 1.4 4 Problematic Assumptions of Victim Precipitation 1. The behavior of the victim can explain the criminal act. 2. The offender becomes activated only when a victim emits certain signals. 3. The victim's behavior is necessary and sufficient to cause a criminal act. 4. The intent of the victim can be gauged by the victimization incident.

Critical Victimology

an attempt to examine the wider social context in which some versions of victimology have become more dominant than others and also to understand how those versions of victimology are interwoven w/ questions of policy response and services delivery to victims of crime. Rather than only focusing on crime, victim, and offender alone, critical victimology questions how the supportive social factors give rise to the action and the response of crime.

Rape shield laws

designed to provide protection for victims of rape in restricting the introduction of evidence on prior sexual history to prevent character assassination by the defense Kobe Bryant and Duke cases

Hierarchy Rule

dictates that only 1 offense (typically the most serious offense) is recorded when multiple offenses occur at the same time.

Offender restitution

involves the transfer of services or money from the offenders to the victim for damages inflicted by the offender. --The Code of Hammurabi and the Justinian Code until the state assumed responsibility --More than 1/3 of the states have a constitutional amendment that gives victims a right to victim restitution

Memory Decay

is evidenced when respondents were victimized during the same time frame, but forgot the event and did not provide the correct answer to the question

Panel Design

surveys the same group of households or respondents at regular intervals over a period of time, which allows for bounding. --This provision can eliminate any obvious repetition in the events of the report. --Found more accurate recall and less telescoping in a 6 month time frame than over a 12 month format.

Civil restitution lien

that the sentencing court, at the request of the victim, levies a claim against any real or personal property the convicted offender currently possesses or may come to own.