Super mega Study guide
Define or describe the following term: Atomic number.
# of Protons (in an electrically neutral atom thesis also the # of electrons.)
Define or describe the following term: Atomic mass,
# of Protons + # Nuetrons
Describe how cytokinesis occurs in animal cells and plants cells.
(Animal) a cleavage furrow (Plant) a cell plate.
Define or describe the following terms: Bivalent,
(Of homologous chromosomes) associated in pairs.
Define or describe the following terms: Matrix.
A component of a Mitochondrial Organelle which contains enzymes important for cellular respiration, mitochondrial DNA and Ribosomes.
Define or describe the following terms: nuclear envelope,
A double membrane with pores that regulates entry and exit of proteins and RNA.
What is the purpose of a testcross and what is the genotype that is always used in a testcross? Be comfortable doing monohybrid and dihybrid testcrosses.
A test cross is Used to figure out the genotype of an individual with the Dominant phenotype. the Recessive genotype is used in the test.
A.)Where in the chloroplast do the light reactions occur? B.)Where in the chloroplast does the Calvin cycle occur?
A.) Thylakoid membrane B.) Stroma
A.)How are plant cells different from animal cells? B.)What features do plant and animal cells both show?C.)What features are only found in animal cells? D.)What features are only found in plant cells?
A.)Plant cells make their own food through photosynthesis, animal cells do not. B.)Rough ER, Smooth ER, Golgi apparatus, Ribosomes, Mitochondria, nucleus, C.)Centrosome, Microvilli, lysosome. D.)Central vacule, chloro plast, plasmodesmata, cell wall
Define or describe the following terms: ATP:
ATP: (Adenosine Triphosphate)
Define or describe the following terms: Thylakoids
Another membranous system within Chloroplasts in the form of flattened interconnected sacs.
Define or describe the following terms: Kinetochore microtubule,
Any of the spindle microtubules that attach to the kinetochores of chromosomes by their plus ends, and maneuver the chromosomes during mitotic or meiotic chromosome segregation.
Define or describe the following term: Solvent.
Dissolved agent.
Define or describe the following terms: Heterotroph:
Heterotroph: organism(s) unable to create their own food and live off compounds produced by other organisms.
Define or describe the following terms: Okazaki fragments,
IE the lagging strand
Why is genetic variation important?
If offspring have a different combination of genes than their parents, they might be better suited to survive changes in the environment.
Define or describe the following terms: DNA ligase,
Joins fragments of DNA together.
Define or describe the following terms: Lysis:
Lysis: meaning (to break)
Define or describe the following terms: Metabolism:
Metabolism: All the chemical reactions that occur within a cell.
methyl (-CH3) group
Non-polar (Important to protein structures)
Define or describe the following terms: Tetrad,
homologous chromosomes are comprised of 4 chromatids or (tetrad
What are the difference levels of classification for organisms? What level of classification includes the most different types of organisms? The least different types of organisms?
(Largest to Smallest) A.)Domain. Kingdom. Phylum. Class. Order. Family. Genus. Species B.)Domain C.)Species
Define or describe the following term: Adhesion,
A Tendency of water molecules when they stick to surfaces.
Define or describe the following terms: Chromosome,
A pair of sister Chromatids
Define or describe the following terms:, nucleolus.
A prominent structure within the non-dividing nucleus which synthesizes the Ribosomes through instructions from DNA.
What are the 2 products of the light reactions that are used in the Calvin cycle?
ATP & NADPH
Define or describe the following term: Matter
Anything that takes up space and has mass.
Define or describe the following terms: Carotenoids:
Carotenoids: A group of Accessory pigments that are various shades of yellow and orange because they absorb violet and blue-green light
How does meiosis reduce chromosome number?
Chromosomes replicate in Interphase. Diploid cell divides twice: MEIOSIS I Homologous separate (sometimes called "reduction division") DIPLOID becomes Haploid MEIOSIS II: Sister Chromatids separate (like mitosis with no chromosome duplication) HAPLOID into HAPLOID The result is 4 haploid daughter cells.
Define or describe the following terms: Facilitated diffusion:
Facilitated diffusion: Passive transport by aid of proteins.
Define or describe the following terms:, Nucleus.
Generally the most conspicuous organelles in a Eukaryotic cell, the Nucleus is the information center of the cell and contains most of the cells genes.
Define or describe the following terms: X-linked genes,
Genes carried on the X-chromosome
Define or describe the following terms: Y-linked genes,
Genes carried on the Y-linked genes
Define or describe the following terms: Carriers,
Individuals who poses the genetic information of a train but do not exhibit the trait.
Are enzymes consumed (or used up) during chemical reactions?
No.
Define or describe the following term:, Acid
Substance that increases the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution.
Define or describe the following terms: Chromatin.
The complex of DNA and proteins making up Chromosomes
Define or describe the following terms: Nucleotide excision repair.
The process of correcting
Define or describe the following terms: Ribosome
The site of protein Synthesis.
How do C4 plants avoid photorespiration?
an enzyme in the mesophyll cells has a high affinity for CO_2 and can fix Carbon even when CO_2 concentration in the leaf is low, the resulting four carbon compound then acts as a carbon shuttle, that moves into bundle-sheath cells which are packed around the veins of the leaf and releases CO_2 this allows the concentration of CO_2 to remain high enough for the Calvin cycle to make sugars and avoid photorespiration.
Define or describe the following terms: Centromere,
the region of a chromosome to which the microtubules of the spindle attach, via the kinetochore, during cell division "the waist"
Define or describe the following terms: Double helix,
the shape of a ladder twisted in an ascending pattern.
Define or describe the following terms: Gene:
A carrier of genetic information.
Define or describe the following terms: Haploid cell,
A cell that has one set of chromosome
How are cancer cells different from normal cells?
Cancer cells exhibit neither density-dependent inhibition nor anchorage dependence. Cancer cells divide excessively and can invade other tissues. Cancer cells are "immortal" meaning that they continue to divide indefinitely...normal cells divide 20-50 times and then stop.
Define or describe the following terms: Carrier protein:
Carrier protein: A integral protein which shifts between two shapes, moving a solute across the membrane during the shape change.
What are the two types of pathways that enzymes assist with?
Catabolic pathways Anabolic pathways
Define or describe the following terms: Catabolic pathway:
Catabolic pathways release energy by breaking down complex molecules to simpler compounds.
Explain the difference between the two different types of metabolic pathways.
Catabolic pathways release energy by breaking down complex molecules to simpler compounds. anabolic pathway consumes energy to build complicated molecules from simpler ones.
Define or describe the following terms: Catalyst:
Catalyst: A substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself undergoing any permanent chemical change
Define or describe the following terms: Cell plate,
Cell plate is the structure found inside the dividing cells of terrestrial plants and some algae. It develops in the middle plane of the cell separating two daughter cells during cell division.
Define or describe the following terms: Integrins.
Cell-surface receptor proteins that allow the ECM to communicate with a cell leading to changes in cell begavoir.
Define or describe the following terms: Meiosis,
Cellular division that creates sex cells ( Gametes )
Define or describe the following terms: Channel protein:
Channel protein: A integral protein in the cell wall, which water molecules or specific solute can pass.
Describe the four kinds of structural changes that can occur to chromosomes.
DELETION = when end of chromosome breaks off. TRANSLOCATION = movement of chromosome segment from one chromosome to another, non-homologous chromosome. DUPLICATION = presence of chromosomal segment more than once in same chromosome. INVERSION = segment of chromosome is turned around 180 degrees.
What 2 types of stimuli help open or close gated ion channels?
Electrical and Chemical.
What are the key roles of cell division?
In Prokaryotes and Unicellular eukaryotes: Asexual Reproduction. In Multi-cellualar eukaryotes: Sexual reproduction. enables sexually reproducing organisms to develop from single cell. renewal and repair.
Distinguish between the light reactions and the Calvin cycle of photosynthesis.
Light reactions : Electron flow pushes electrons from water where they are at a low state of potential energy ultimately to NADPH, where they are stored at a high stat of potential energy. The light driven electron current also generates ATP. Thus the equipment of the thylakoid membrane concerts light energy to chemical energy stored int ATP and NADPH Calvin cycle: Carbon enters the Calvin cycle in the form of CO_2 and leaves n the form of sugar. The cycle spends ATP as am emerge spice and consumes NADPH as reducing power for adding high-energy electrons to make the sugar.
Define or describe the following terms: Light-harvesting complexes,:
Light-harvesting complexes: a complex consisting of various pigment molecules bound to proteins.
Define or describe the following terms: Linkage map,
Linkage map : Shows the relative locations of genes on a chromosome. LINKAGE MAPS can be constructed by doing crosses and observing the outcome of the offspring.
Define or describe the following terms:, Prokaryotic flagella.
Long tail like projections that allow bacteria to move when rotated. (like sperm)
Describe the events that take place during each phase of mitosis. Diagram each phase for a cell with four pairs of sister chromatids.
MITOSIS: Interphase, Prophase, Prometaphase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase & Cytokenisis.
Define or describe the following terms:, lysosomes.
Manufactured by the Golgi Apparitus in Animal Cells, possesses a low PH, and contain Digestive Enzymes that break down food, bacterias and organelles.
Why is meiosis necessary for organisms that reproduce sexually?
Meiosis allows for the DNA of both sexual organisms to divide and change allowing for the offspring to gain genetic material from both partners.
Define or describe the following term: Evaporative cooling,
Occurs when the surface of an object becomes cooler due to water evaporation.
What do organic chemists study?
Organ chemistry is the study of Carbon compounds.
Define or describe the following terms: Osmosis:
Osmosis: The Diffusion of water across a selective permeable barrier.
Define or describe the following terms: P generation,
P = parent generation.
Define or describe the following terms: Mutation,
Permanent change in the sequence of bases.
Define or describe the following terms: Photon:
Photon: discreet particles which in certain respects light is seen to behave as.
Define or describe the following terms: Photophosphorylation:
Photophosphorylation: the generation of ATP using Chemioosmosis to power the addition of a phosphate group to ADP
Define or describe the following terms: Photoprotection:
Photoprotection: is the biochemical process that helps organisms cope with molecular damage caused by sunlight.
Define or describe the following terms: Photorespiration:
Photorespiration: A respiratory process in many higher plants by which they take up oxygen in the light and give out some carbon dioxide, contrary to the general pattern of photosynthesis.
Define or describe the following terms: Photosystem I:
Photosystem I: The first photosystem discovered in the light reaction step, it is actually the second photosystem in the process but it was discovered first so it was named first.
Define or describe the following terms: Photosystem II:
Photosystem II: The Second photosystem discovered in the light reaction step it is actually the first photosystem in the process but is was discovered second so it was named second.
Define or describe the following terms: Pinocytosis:
Pinocytosis: Cellular drinking engulfing of liquid or small particles.
Define or describe the following terms: Plasmolysis:
Plasmolysis: The phenomenon of a plant cell losing water to its surrounding and shrinking, as the plant shrinks the plasma membrane pulls away from the cell wall.
Define or describe the following terms: Polar microtubule,
Polar microtubules interdigitate at the spindle midzone and push the spindle poles apart via motor proteins.
Carbonyl (C=O)
Polar, Hydrophilic
Where does photosynthesis occur in the cell?
Within the Chloroplast
Define or describe the following term: Reactant.
atoms of varying substances.
Define or describe the following terms: Primer,
unknown
What do the terms aneuploidy, monosomy, trisomy, polyploidy, triploidy, and tetraploidy mean?
•MONOSOMY_= individual has only 1 copy of a chromosome ==> 2n -1 •TRISOMY = individual has 3 copies of a chromosome ==> 2n +1 (Caused by NONDISJUNCTION ==>failure of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate during meiosis I and meiosis II, respectively. •POLYPLOIDY= more than 2 complete chromosome sets in somatic cells •TRIPLOIDY= 3 chromosome sets (fertilization of abnormal diploid egg produced by nondisjunction of all chromosomes) •TETRAPLOIDY= 4 chromosome sets (failure of 2n zygote to divide after replicating its chromosomes...subsequent mitotic cell divisions create 4n zygote). NOTE : Many plants are polyploid: Bananas are triploids and strawberries are octopoid.
What are the different levels of biological organization? Define each level
(Smallest to largest) Atom: Smallest unit of molecules Molecule: Smallest unit of a compound that still has the properties of the compound Cell: Smallest unit of a living thing. Tissue: A group of cells with a common structure and function. Organ: Composed of a number of tissues and organized for a particular task Organism: An individual; complex individuals contain organ systems. Population: Several organisms of the same kind in a particular area. Community: Interacting population in a particular area. Ecosystem: A community plus the environment Biosphere: Regions of the Earth's crust, waters and atmosphere inhabited by living things. "All. Marylanders. Cook. Tons. OF. Oysters. (in) Pots. Containing. Eleven. Bay. (spices)"
Define or describe the following terms: Epistasis,
(from the Greek for : standing upon. The phenotypic expression of a gene at one locus alters that of a gene at a second locus. Example the Labrador crosstest. In Labrador retrievers, the ( E/e gene ) (determines whether hair gets any pigment) is epistatic to the (B/b gene) (determines whether hair gets black or brown pigment).
What are the 3 things that genetic material must be able to do?
1) Bble to STORE INFORMATION important for development and maintenance of living organisms. 2) STABLE so that it can be replicated and transmitted from generation to generation. 3) Able to UNDERGO RARE CHANGES called mutations required for evolution to occur.
Describe the steps DNA replication in eukaryotic cells. In your description, be sure to name and discuss the roles of the different proteins that are involved in DNA replication in the proper order of their appearance (i.e. helicase comes first and unwinds the double helix...). In addition, explain how DNA replication proceeds on the leading versus the lagging strands. Be sure you are comfortable with the more realistic DNA replication fork.
1) HELICASE unwinds DNA at replication fork. 2) SINGLE-STRAND BINDING PROTEINS stabilize unwound DNA strands. 3) TOPOISOMERASE relieves supercoiling. 4) PRIMASE adds a short nucleotide chain consisting of RNA, called a PRIMER. 5) DNA POLYMERASE III makes a copy of DNA. 6) DNA POLYMERASE I removes the RNA nucleotides in the primer and replaces them with DNA nucleotides. 7) DNA LIGASE joins Okazaki fragments together to make a continuous copy of DNA on the lagging strand.
Describe what happens during the light reactions of photosynthesis by tracing the movement of electrons from water to NADPH.
1. In Photosystem II Enzyme catalyses the splitting of water molecules the o molecules combine to form O_2 2. The photo excited H+ is released into the thylakoid space, and is passed via linear electron transport chain to (Photosystem 1)'s Primary Electron Acceptor. 3.Photo-excited electrons are passed in a series of reduce reactions from the PEA of PH I down a second transport chain through the protein ferredoxin. 4.The enzyme NADP+ reductase catalyzes the transfer of electrons from FD to NADPH.
Describe the 3 different kinds of endocytosis.
1. Phagocytosis: cell engulfs particle (eats) 2.Pinocytosis: cell gulps droplets (drinks) 3. Receptor_mediated: acquires large amounts of specific substances. (Bulk Buying)
What happens to the G3P made within the chloroplast of a plant cell?
1. regenerated into three molecules of RuBP 2. Used to become glucose, & the starting materials for metabolic pathways.
What are the four basic structural characteristics that all cells share?
1.)DNA (Genetic material) 2.)Cytoplasms (The interior of either type of cell) 3.)Ribosomes (Sites of protein synthesis.) 4.)Plasma membrane. (A Boundary of every cell that functions as a selective barrier that allows passage of enough oxygen, nutrients and waste to service the entire cell.
In eukaryotes, describe the 3 processing steps that mRNA undergoes before it can leave the nucleus. Why are introns so cool?
1.Addition of a 5' cap to the beginning of the RNA 2.Addition of a poly-A tail (tail of A nucleotides) to the end of the RNA 3. Chopping out of introns, or "junk" sequences, and pasting together of the remaining, good sequences (exons) no clue.
What 9 characteristics are shared by all living organisms?
1.Evolutionary adaptation 2.Respose to the environment 3.Reproduction 4.Growth and development 5.Energy Processing 6.Regulation (homeoStasis) 7.Order 8.Cells 9.DNA
Define or describe the following term: Molecule.
2 or more atoms held together by covalent bonds.
Define or describe the following terms: Translocation.
: Movement of chromosome segment from one chromosome to another, non-homologous chromosome.
Define or describe the following terms: Duplication,
: The Presence of chromosomal segment more than once in same chromosome.
Define or describe the following terms: Deletion,
: When the end of a chromosome breaks off.
Define or describe the following terms: Phospholipid bilayer
A Amphipathic layer (contains hydrophobic- & philic portions) consisting of phospholipids surrounding a cell.
What are the functions of the cell membrane?
A Barrier which regulates what enters and leaves the cell and provides protection and support.
Define or describe the following terms:, peptidoglycan
A Carbohydrate mix cross-linked with proteins. the cell wall consists of this mix.
Define or describe the following terms: Phosphodiester bond,
A Covalent bond Located between the phosphate group of the strand and the sugar of the nucleotide
What is an allosteric site?
A Receptor site remote from the active site, which can change the shape of the enzyme.
Define or describe the following term: Cohesion.
A Tendency of water molecules when they stick together.
Define or describe the following terms: Guanine,
A base pair in DNA that is a Purine amount of Guanine always equal to cytosine and vice versa. (G=C)
Define or describe the following terms: Cytosine,
A base pair in DNA that is a Pyrimadine amount of Cytosine always equal to cytosine and vice versa. (C=G)
Define or describe the following terms: Thymine,
A base pair in DNA that is a Pyrimadine amount of Thymine always equal to Adenine and vice versa. (T=A)
Define or describe the following terms: Reciprocal cross,
A breeding experiment designed to test the role of parental sex on a given inheritance pattern.
What is the smallest unit of living matter? Explain the differences between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells.
A cell Prokaryotic: these cells have no nucleus, they are small and have no Organals Eukaryotic: Contains a nucleus, they are large by comparison and possess Organals.
Define or describe the following terms: Diploid cell,
A cell that has two sets of chromosomes
Define or describe the following term: Solution
A liquid that is a Homogenous mixture of 2 or more substances.
Define or describe the following term: Surface tension
A measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid.
Define or describe the following term: Temperature
A measure of the intensity of heat in degrees.
Define or describe the following terms: Extracellular matrix,
A meshwork of proteins & polysaccharides surrounding animal cells. Made up of 1.Collagen 2.Fibronectin 3.Proteoglycan 4. Integrins
Define or describe the following terms: Centrioles,
A minute cylindrical organelle near the nucleus in animal cells, occurring in pairs and involved in the development of the mitotic spindle fibers in cell division
Define or describe the following terms: Cytoskeleton.
A network of fibers in cytoplasm which allow Cells to maintain their shape, move and divide.
How does a normal cell become a cancer cell?
A normal cell is converted to a cancerous cell by a process called transformation Transformation can occur when a mutation happens in one or more genes that encode for proteins in the cell cycle control system Mutations can occur for many reasons: spontaneously, exposure to chemicals, exposure to X-rays, and some viruses.
Define or describe the following terms: Cohesin,
A protein that sticks chromatids together.
Define or describe the following terms:, cell wall,
A rigid wall outside the cell membrane which protects the cell (especially from absorbing too much water) and help it maintain shape.
What are biochemical pathways?
A series of chemical reactions in living things. organizational units of metabolism.
Define or describe the following terms: Peroxisomes.
A specialized metabolic compartment bounded by a single membrane. Contains enzymes That remove H atoms from substrates & transfer them to O2 producing H2O2(Hydrogen Peroxide Gas)
Define or describe the following term: Buffer.
A substance that minimizes change4s in the concentration of (H+) and ( OH- )in a solution.
Define or describe the following term: Inert
A term to describe a non reactive Atom
Define or describe the following terms: Map unit,
A unit for measuring genetic linkage. It is defined as the distance between chromosome positions (also termed loci or markers) for which the expected average number of intervening chromosomal crossovers in a single generation is 0.01.
A) List and describe what occurs during the 3 steps of transcription. B) Discuss important differences in the process that occur between bacteria and eukaryotic cells. C) During elongation, what RNA nucleotide is complementary to an adenine DNA nucleotide? D) What RNA nucleotide is complementary to a guanine DNA nucleotide? E) What RNA nucleotide is complementary to a cytosine DNA nucleotide? F) What RNA nucleotide is complementary to a thymine DNA nucleotide?
A) 1. Initiation. 2. Elongation 3. Termination B) C) Uracil D) Cytosine E) Guanine F) Adenine
List and describe what occurs during the 3 steps of translation. What are the three types of RNA and their roles in translation? Be sure you understand the movement of tRNA molecules in and out of the ribosome (hint: what slot do they start in? Where do they move next? and from which slot do they leave the ribosome?).
A) 1. Initiation. 2. Elongation 3. Termination B) tRNA: Brings amino acids to ribosome mRNA: carries the message of which amino acids need to be joined together. rRNA Bonds Amino Acids to make proteins. C) Slot order is A-site, P-site, E-site. leave for E.
A) Distinguish between ADP and ATP. B) How are they involved in energetic transformations? C) What three kinds of work occur in cells due to ATP breakdown?
A) ADP: Adenosine Diphosphate. An organic compound that is composed of adenosine and (two) phosphate groups. ATP: Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is considered by biologists to be the energy currency of life. It is the high-energy molecule that stores the energy we need to do just about everything we do. composed of adenosine and (three) phosphate groups. B) ADP is formed when the bonds in one of ATP's phosphate bonds is broken and the negative charges of the phosphate repel the single phosphate group away releasing energy. C) Chemical work, Transport Work, Mechanical Work.
A) What is enzyme inhibition? B) Distinguish between competitive and noncompetitive inhibition.
A) Active enzyme is prevented from combining with substrate. B) Competitive: Mimic or resemble the normal substrate molecule. Non-Competitive: Chemicals attach themselves to the enzymes at another point and alters the enzyme's shape
What does a gene code for? Be able to work through the multiple hypotheses that we discussed in lecture (hint: start with ONE GENE - ONE ENZYME hypothesis).
A) Codes for portions B) ONE GENE ONE ENZYME - genes dictate phenotypes through Enzymes. ONE GENE - ONE POLYPEPTIDE- many proteins consist of 2 or more polypeptides.
What does it mean that the genetic code is degenerate and unambiguous? Know what groups of bases stand for the start and stop codons. Additionally, know what amino acid the start codon codes for.
A) Degenerate: Amino acids have more than one codon. Unambiguous: Each codon has only one meaning. B) AUG :Start Codon UAA, UAG : Stop Codon C) AUG is the most common START codon and it codes for the amino acid methionine (Met) in eukaryotes and formyl methionine (fMet) in prokaryotes.
A) What are the first and second laws of thermodynamics? B) What is meant by the term entropy?
A) First Law: The total amount of energy in the universe is constant. Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but can be changed from one form to another. Second Law: Energy cannot be changed from one form to another without a loss of energy. B) Entropy is a measurement of disorder or randomness. Every energy transformation makes the universe more disorder.
A) What are the two types of membrane proteins? B)Describe the 6 different functions of membrane proteins.
A) Integral proteins & peripheral proteins. B) Transport, Enzymatic activity, Cell-Cell Recognition, intercellular joining. signal transduction. Attachment to the Cyto-Skeleoton and extracellular matrix
What are mutations and why do they occur? How accurate is DNA polymerase when it replicates DNA? What is meant by the term proofreading?
A) Mutations: permanent change in the sequence of bases. cause by Reactive chemicals, organic chemicals in Tobacco, Pesticides, pollutants, radiation, x_rays, Ultraviolet Light B) One error in one-billion nucleotides occurs after proofreading. C) When DNA Polymerase "checks" each nucleotide after it has been added.
A) What are the main differences between passive and active transport? B) How are diffusion and facilitated diffusion different? C) What are some examples of facilitated diffusion?
A) Passive transport deos not require energy while active transport does. B) Diffusion by itself requires only molecule movement. While facilitated Diffusion is accomplished though aid by proteins. C)
A) How do temperature and pH affect enzyme activity? B) What does it mean when an enzyme becomes denatured?
A) Temperature- the amount of temperature determines the rate of speed of an enzyme when temp is too high, enzyme slows down. pH- at some levels the enzyme will be unable to function. Most enzymes prefer close to neutral pH [7] B) When an enzyme is denatured, it changes its shape and can't function anymore
A.) Describe what happens during feedback inhibition. B) Is feedback inhibition an example of competitive or noncompetitive inhibition?
A) The end product of the enzymatic reaction binds to the allosteric site this changing the shape of the enzyme. B) non-competative
A) What does selectively permeable, differentially permeable or semi-permeable mean? B) Which substances can easily move across the cell membrane? C) Which substances do not easily move across the cell membrane?
A) They all mean the same thing: Certain substances are allowed to pass through while others are not. B) O2 and CO-2 C) NA+, K+, Ca2,
A) How do enzymes work as catalysts in biological reactions? B) How do they affect the amount of activation energy needed to start reactions?
A) They speed up reactions without being consumed by them. B) Enzymes speed up chemical reactions by lowering the amount of activation energy needed to start reactions.
A) On which side of the cell membrane do you find membrane carbohydrates? B) On which side of the cell membrane do you find peripheral proteins?
A) We find membrane Carbohydrates on the outside surface of the cell membrane. B) We find peripheral proteins on the inside of the cell membrane.
A) What is the connection between electrogenic pumps and membrane potential? B) Why is membrane potential important?
A) the electrogenic pump is a transport protein that generates electrical voltage across the cell membrane. B) Membrane potential acts as a battery that affects the traffic of all charged substances across the membrane.
A) What is the equation for Gibbs' free energy? B) Know what each of the letters in this equation stand for.
A). ΔG = ΔH - TΔS change in G = change in H - (T times change in S) B) G = gibbs free energy H = energy/enthalpy (heat change in constant pressure rxn) S = entropy / disorder/ randomness
Summarize the Calvin cycle: A.)What are the three phases called? B.) What goes in? C.) What comes out? D.) What is consumed? E.) What is regenerated?
A.) 1. Carbon Fixation 2. Reduction 3. Regeneration of CO_2 acceptor(RuBP) B.) 3-carbon atoms (entering one at a time), 6-NAdPH C.) 1 G3P D.) 9-ATP, 6-NADPH E.) 3 RuBp (rubisco)
A.)What is the extracellular matrix? B.)Is it found around both animal and plant cells? C.)What is it composed of? D.)Why is it important?
A.) A meshwork of proteins & Polysaccharides surrounding animal cells. B.) No. C.) Collagen, Fibronectin, Proteoglycans, Integrins. D.) The ECM possesses the ability to regulate cell behavior by communicating with the cells through Integrins.
A.)What is the cytoskeleton? B.)Why is it important? C.)What fibers compose the cytoskeleton? D.)What are some of the roles of each kind of fiber?
A.) A network of fibers in cytoplasm B.) The cytoskeleton gives Mechanical Support, Maintains cell shape, Anchors Organelles, Enables the cell to change shape, enables Cell motility: the movement of the entire cell and the organelles within it. It also plays a role with cell division C.) MicroTubules, MicroFilaments, Intermediate filaments, D.)~MicroTubulars: Shape and support the cell and serve as tracks along witch organelles can move. they are also involved with the separation of chromosomes during cell division. ~MicroFilaments: Help with muscle contraction, cytoplasmic streaming and cell division. The filaments act as a draw string constricting until cell "Pops" into 2 ~Intermediate filaments: reinforces the shape of the cell, Anchors organelles in place, Forms the nuclear lamina which lines the interior of the nuclear envelope.
A.)What is the cell cycle control system? B.)What are the three checkpoints within the cell cycle control system? C.)Which of these three checkpoints is considered to be the most important?
A.) Cyclically operating set of molecules in cell that triggers and coordinates key events in cell cyclesimilar to a clock B.) M, G1, G2 checkpoints. C.) G1 checkpoints.
Describe Mendel's Law of Independent Assortment. At what point in meiosis does this process occur? What are the consequences of independent assortment?
A.) Each pair of alleles SEGREGATES (ASSORTS) INDEPENDENTLY of each other pair of alleles during gamete formation. B.) Metaphase 1 C.) A broad and diverse array of genes.
A.) What are linked genes? B.) Understand how to do crosses with linked genes. By analyzing the phenotypic ratio of offspring from a cross, be able to determine whether linked genes are involved. If linked genes are involved, be able to distinguish which alleles are linked together on the same chromosome. What process can allow diverse gamete production even if genes are linked on the same chromosome?
A.) Genes located close together on the same chromosome. B.) C.) Crossing over.
A.)What is the connection between the electromagnetic spectrum and photosynthesis? B.)Which colors of light are used during the photosynthetic process? C.)What color of light is not absorbed by chlorophyll?
A.) It is the entire known spectrum of light, of which the visible portion drives photosynthesis. B.) VIOLET, BLUE, RED. are the most effective. C.) GREEN
A.)Are mitochondria maternally or paternally inherited? B.)What human disease that we discussed in lecture is linked to an incorrect gene in the DNA of the mitochondria?
A.) Maternally B.) Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy results from an allele that makes the improper form of NADH dehydrogenasereduces ATP productionleads to neural degeneration of optic nerve cells.
A.)The Theory of Endosymbiosis explains the origin of which eukaryotic organelles? B.)_What does the theory state? C.)What evidence supports the Theory of Endosymbiosis?
A.) Mitochondria and Chloroplasts B.) That both organelles where formerly small Prokaryotes that began living within larger cells. C.) 1. Double membrane pointe to plausible engulfment by the larger cell. 2. Both cells possess their own Ribosomes and DNA strands attached to their inner membranes. 3. Both M and C are autonomous organelles that grows and reproduce inside their cells.
A.)What organelle is responsible for cellular respiration? B.)What organelle is responsible for photosynthesis?C.)What are the different parts of a mitochondrion? D.)What are the different parts of a chloroplast?
A.) Mitochondrion B.) Chloroplasts C.) 1. Smooth outer membrane 2. Cristae 3.Matrix 4. DNA 5.Ribosomes D.) 1.Stroma, 2.Inner and outer membranes 3.Granum
A.)What is the mitotic spindle? B.)Why is it important? C).What is it composed of? D.)What organizes it in animal cells versus plant cells?
A.) Mitotic Spindle: a collection of microtubule fibers within a cell. B.) The mitotic spindle moves chromosomes during mitosis. C.) Centrosome aster kinetochore microtubules and polar microtubules. D.) Centrosomes.(animal) Microtubule- organizing centers(plant)
A.)What makes up the endomembrane system and why is it important? B.)Describe the important functions of each component of the endomembrane system. C.)What organelle makes lysosomes and in what type of cell (plant or animal)?
A.) Nuclear envelope, Endoplasmic reticulim, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, Vesicles and Vacuoles, Plasma membranes. B.) Rough ER,(Modifies Protiens ). Smooth ER,(makes lipids). C.) Golgi Apparatus: both Plant & Animal.
A.)What do bacterial cell walls consist of? B.)Why do antibiotics kill bacteria?
A.) Peptidoglycan (carbohydrate mix cross linked with protein) B.) Antibiotics interfere with the bonds of the bacterias cellular walls, this permits the cell to absorb more water than it can reasonably facilitate and the cell bursts.
A.)What are the functions of cell walls in plants cells? B.)Describe the general structure of a plant cell wall.
A.) Protection, maintain shape, preventions of excessive water intake. Structure of cell holds plant up, B.) 1: Cell wall 2: middle lamella: Cements cells together with Pectin. C.): Plasmodesmata: Cytoplasmic connections.
A.)What types of photosynthetic pigments are found in plants? B.) Why do plants have more than one photosynthetic pigment? C.) What 2 roles do carotenoids play in plants?
A.) Three types Chlorophyll a, Chlorophyll b, Carotenoids. B.) To expand the breadth of wavelengths that are absorbed. C. )Expands the breath of wavelengths absorbed & Photoprotection
What book did Darwin publish? What are the 2 really important ideas that Darwin brought up in this book?
A.)"The Origin of Species" B.) Decent with Modification: present day species have arisen from ancestors that differed from them. Natural Selection: Process by which individuals with certain heritable traits tent to produce more surviving offspring than do individuals without those traits.
A.)What are ribosomes composed of? B.)Cells of which Domains (Eukarya, etc.) contain ribosomes? C.)What is the main function of a ribosome? D.)Is a ribosome surrounded by membrane?
A.)Composed of Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and proteins. B.)Eukarya, Prokaryotic C.)Universal protein synthesis machines found in all cell types. D.) No. it is the organelle, not surrounded by membrane
A.)How many phospholipid bilayers is the nuclear envelope made up of? B.)"What is chromatin? C.)What does the nucleolus make? D.)What is the nuclear lamina composed of? E.)Where is the nuclear lamina found? F.)What role does the nuclear lamina play?
A.)Double layered phospholipid bilayer (2) B.) unwound DNA + proteins (is contained within the nucleus. C.)The Nucleolus makes Ribosomes D.)Nuclear lamina is composed of protein filaments E.)The nuclear lamina covers the inner surface of the nuclear envelope F.)The nuclear lamina gives the nucleus its shape.
What is nondisjunction? How can it lead to human genetic disorders? What are some human genetic disorders that occur because of changes in the number of autosomal chromosomes or sex chromosomes?
A.)Failure of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate during meiosis 1 & 2, respectively/ B.) Nondisjunction leads to a surplus/deficit of genetic material in the cell leading to genetic issues. C.) Down-syndrome - example of trisomy. TURNER SYNDROME: XO females, female gonads are underdeveloped, females do not undergo puberty or menstruation and are sterile. KLINEFELTER SYNDROME: XXY males who are sterile, male gonads are underdeveloped, some breast development occurs, and some individuals may have diminished mental capacity. POLY-X FEMALES: XXX females, fertile females that are somewhat taller than average. JACOBS SYNDROME: XYY males, fertile males that are somewhat taller than average.
Given a strand of DNA, determine the composition of an mRNA molecule.
A=U T=A G=C C=G Note that the Adenine to Uracil only occurs with the mRNA Transcription. DNA: TAC AAG ATA ACA TTA TTT ACT mRNA:AUG UUC UAU UGU AAU AAA UGA
Define or describe the following terms: ATP synthase:
ATP synthase: A complex of enzyme which is responsible for the creation of ATP in plants.
Define or describe the following terms: Accessory pigments:
Accessory Pigments: Chloroplast pigments that absorb solar energy.
Define or describe the following terms: Activation energy:
Activation energy: Activation energy is the energy which must be provided to a chemical system with potential reactants to result in a chemical reaction
Define or describe the following terms: Active transport:
Active transport: the movement of molecules which does require energy.
Describe the events that take place in G2 of interphase.
After the DNA synthesis the cells begins to create organelles and proteins for functional use.
What is the Cell Theory?
All living things are composed of cells, and all cells come only form preexisting cells.
Define or describe the following terms: Allele,
Allele: The alternative variations of genes that account for variations in inherited characteristics. Alleles can be either DOMINANT or RECESSIVE.
Define or describe the following terms:plasma membrane.
Also known as "cell membrane" it is the functioning selective barrier that allows passage of enough oxygen nutrients and waits to service the entire cell.
Define or describe the following term: Specific heat.
Amount of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 Gram of a substance to change its temperature by one degree Celsius
Define or describe the following terms: Amphipathic:
Amphipathic: Have both hydrophobic hydrophilic properties.
Define or describe the following terms: Anabolic pathway:
An anabolic pathway consumes energy to build complicated molecules from simpler ones.
Define or describe the following terms: Nuclease,
An enzyme involved in the nucleotide excision/ repair of DNA.
Define or describe the following terms: Antiparallel configuration,
An expression of the two strands of DNA going in opposite directions.
Define or describe the following terms: Recessive allele,
An inherited characteristic that will Have NO effect on the organisms appearance.
Define or describe the following terms: Dominant allele,
An inherited characteristic that will determine the organisms appearance
Define or describe the following terms: Centrosome,
An organelle near the nucleus of a cell which contains the centrioles (in animal cells) and from which the spindle fibers develop in cell division
Define or describe the following term: Radioactive isotope,
An unstable isotope whose nucleus decals, giving off particles and energy.
Define or describe the following terms:, Golgi apparatus.
Appears as flattened sacs, acts as the warehouse for the cell, with some manufacturing on the side In animal cells, The GA makes Lysosmes In plant cells, The GA makes Polysaccharides
Define or describe the following terms: Aquaporin:
Aquaporin: A channel protein that allows the passage of 3 billion water molecules per second.
What were Archibald Garrod's and Beadle and Tatum's contributions to understanding the connection between genotype and phenotype?
Archibald Garrod's : Genes dictate phenotypes through Enzymes Beadle and Tantum : One gene, one enzyme Hypothesis. DNA inherited by an organism leads to specific traits by dictating the synthesis of protiens.
What are the two types of reproduction and how are they different?
Asexual: the creation of offspring by a single parent without sperm or egg. Sexual: the creation of offspring by fusion of sperm and egg.
Define or describe the following term: Isotopes.
Atoms of the same element that differ in # of neutrons (have the same # of protons.)
Define or describe the following terms: Autosomes,
Autosomes : Chromosomes other than the sex determining pair.
Define or describe the following terms: Autotroph:
Autotroph: "Self Feeder " an organism that sustains itself without eating anything derived from other living beings.
A) Describe the fluid mosaic model of cell membrane structure. B) What are the main components that make up cell membranes?
B.) Phospholipid bilayer, integral and peripheral proteins.
Define or describe the following terms: Purines,
Bases of nucleotides that make up DNA Adenine (A) Guanine(G) mnemonic to remember pairing "Good And Pure." Guanine, Adenine Purines
Define or describe the following terms: Pyrimidines,
Bases of nucleotides that make up DNA Thymine(T) Cytosine(C) mnemonic to remember pairing "C The Pyramids" Cytosine Thymine Pyrimidines
Describe how prokaryotic cells divide through binary fission.
Binary vision = (dividing in half) Asexual reproduction. chromosome in the cell replicates and the two copies push to opposite ends of the cell. Plasma membrane pinches inward to divide cell into two identical daughter cells.
What are the Definitions of Biology and Evolution?
Biology: The study of life. Evolution: the theorized process of change that has transformed life from its beginning to the astounding array of organisms today.
C) Relate the change in Gibbs' free energy to whether a chemical reaction is endergonic or exergonic. D) Understand the connection between the change in Gibbs' free energy and whether a reaction will occur spontaneously or non-spontaneously.
C) A negative(-) ΔG indicates a endergonic reaction because there's a loss of free energy. A positive (+) ΔG indicates an endergonic reaction because free energy is being absorbed. D) The word (spontaneity) implies that the reaction is energetically favorable, not that it will occur rapidly. Exergonic reactions are those that occur Spontaneously. Because the ΔG is negative Endergonic reaction are non-spontaneous because the ΔG increases.
Define or describe the following terms: C3 plant:
C3 plant: plants whose first organic product of carbon fixation is a three-carbon compound.
What types of plants are considered to be C3 plants? C4 plants? CAM plants?
C3 plants: first organic product is a 3- carbon compound. (rice, wheat, soybeans) C4 plants: first organic product is a 4- carbon compound.(corn, sugar cane,) CAM plants: (Pineapples, cacti and other succulent(Water Storing) plants.
Define or describe the following terms: C4 plant:
C4 plant: plants that are named so because they carry out a modified pathway for sugar synthesis that first fixes CO_2 into a four carbon compound.
How to CAM plants avoid photorespiration?
CAM (Crassulacean acid metabolism) plants open stomata during the night and close them during the day, the reverse of how other plants behave. this behavior helps conserve water but also prevents CO_2 from entering the leaves during the day. The mesophyll cells of CAM plants Store the organic acids they make during the night in the vacuoles until morning, when the stomata close. During the day when the light reaction can produce ATP and NADPH for the Calvin cycle. CO_2 is released from the organic acids made the night before to become incorporated into sugar in the chloroplast.
Define or describe the following terms: CAM plant.:
CAM plant: A plant who's mesophyll cells store the organic acids they make during the night in their vacuoles until morning when the stomata close.
How many times do normal cells divide? How many times do cancer cells divide?
Cancer cells are "immortal" meaning that they continue to divide indefinitely...normal cells divide 20-50 times and then stop.
Describe the contributions of the following researchers to the DNA model: Chargaff, Franklin, Watson, and Crick.
Chargaff, Franklin : tothatl was seen by Watson and Crickok the photo using X_ray diffraction Watson, Crick.
Define or describe the following terms: Chemical energy:
Chemical energy: potential energy stored up in chemical reactions.
Describe how chemicals move within Ecosystems.
Chemical nutrients Cycle within ecosystems.
Define or describe the following terms: Chlorophyll a:
Chlorophyll a : The chloroplasts in plants which absorbs the ( purple) spectrum of visible light.
Define or describe the following terms: Chlorophyll b:
Chlorophyll b : The chloroplasts in plants which absorbs the ( blue) spectrum of visible light.
What affects the fluidity of the cell membrane?
Cholesterol regulates cell fluidity. & unsaturated hydrocarbon tails lead to more fluidity.
What are chromosomes composed of?
Chromosome = DNA + Histone Protiens
Define or describe the following terms: Coenzyme:
Coenzyme: an organic molecule cofactor of enzymes which perform a crucial chemical function in catalysts.
Be familiar with some human X-linked disorders (i.e., color blindness and hemophilia). Are these dominant or recessive X-linked human disorders?
Color-Blindness (missing alleles for blue red and green sensitive cone cells. ) : recesiive Hemophilia (Absence of clotting factor in blood) : recessive,
Compare mitosis and cytokinesis in plant versus animal cells (hint: check out the comparison table).
Comparison of Mitosis & Cytokinesis in plant and animal cells.
Define or describe the following terms: Competitive inhibition:
Competitive inhibition: Reversible inhibitors which resemble normal substrate molecules and compete for admission into the enzymes active site.
Define or describe the following terms:, contractile vacuole.
Contractile vacuoles that pump excess water out of the cell thereby maintaining a suitable concentration of ions and molecules.
Define or describe the following terms: Cotransport:
Cotransport: A mechanism indirectly driven by a ATP=powered pump that allows the transport of different solutes,
Define or describe the following terms: Crenation:
Crenation: the condition or state of being crenated, shriveled.
Define or describe the following terms: Crossing over,
Crossing over : the exchange of genetic material between non sister chromatids. This leads to genetic recombination.
How does genetic variation arise through meiosis and fertilization?
Crossing over, Independant assortment Random fertilization (each sperm and ovum are unique in their genetic make up so each combination of the two is a 1 in 64 trillion possible diploid combination.
Define or describe the following terms: Plasmodesmata.
Cytoplasmic connections which unify a plant into one living continuum.
What is genetic material?
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) a self-replicating material which is present in nearly all living organisms as the main constituent of chromosomes. It is the carrier of genetic information.
Define or describe the following terms: Supercoiling,
DNA supercoiling refers to the over- or under-winding of a DNA strand, and is an expression of the strain on that strand. Supercoiling is important in a number of biological processes, such as compacting DNA, and by regulating access to the genetic code,
Define or describe the following terms: Degradation:
Degradation: The reduction of a chemical Compound to one less complex, as by splitting off one or more groups
What three things will influence whether a cell will divide or not?
Density-Dependent Inhibition -Crowded cells stop dividing -Due to physical contact of cell-surface proteins between adjacent cells Anchorage Dependence -Cells only divide if they are in contact with a solid surface like a culture dish or extracellular matrix of a tissue Growth Factors -These are proteins secreted by certain body cells that cause other cells to divide
Define or describe the following terms: Heterozygous genotype,
Described by a single uppercase and a single lower case alphabetical characters (Tt,Rr,Pp, ect.) they represent a dominant and recessive pair of Alleles that will, and will not be presented in the organisms appearance.
Define or describe the following terms: Homozygous dominant genotype,
Described by double capitalized alphabetical characters (TT,RR,PP, ect.) they represent the dominant Alleles that will be presented in the organisms appearance.
Define or describe the following terms: Homozygous recessive genotype,
Described by double lowercase alphabetical characters (tt,rr,pp, ect.) they represent the recessive Alleles that will be presented in the organisms appearance due to the lack of dominant Alleles.
What are the 3 types of animal cell junctions and why is each one important?
Desmosomes: Function like Rivets. fastens Cells together into strong Flexible sheets. Tight Junctions: Functions like a Zipper fastening between. cells.. Proteins in plasma membranes attach to each other. forming seals which prevent leakage. Gap Junctions: Pores surrounded by proteins in plasma,a membrane which provide Cytoplasmic Channels neccesarry for communication between cell tissues.
Define or describe the following terms: Diffusion:
Diffusion: The moment of molecules from a high concentration to a low concentration. This is why you get thirsty if you drink sea water.
Define or describe the following terms: Diploid #, Haploid #
Diploid: A cell contacting 2 sets of chromosomes. Haploid: A cell containing 1 set of chromosomes.
What are the three Domains of life? How are they different from each other>?
Domain Bacteria Domain Archaea Domain Eukarya
Define or describe the following terms: Electrogenic pump:
Electrogenic pump: generates voltage across a membrane.
Define or describe the following terms: Electromagnetic Spectrum:
Electromagnetic Spectrum: The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of frequencies (the spectrum) of electromagnetic radiation and their respective wavelengths and photon energies.
Define or describe the following term: Valence electron,
Electrons in the outermost shell.
Define or describe the following terms: Endergonic:
Endergonic: the process of matter entering the cell.
Define or describe the following terms: Endocytosis:
Endocytosis: how material enters a cell.
Define or describe the following terms: Energy coupling:
Energy coupling: Transfer of energy from catabolism to anabolism, or transfer of energy from exergonic process to endergonic process.
Describe how energy moves through Ecosystems.
Energy flows through ecosystems.
Define or describe the following term: Kinetic Energy
Energy of motion.
Define or describe the following terms: Energy:
Energy: The capacity to cause change.
Define or describe the following terms: Entropy:
Entropy: A measure of disorder or randomness (Every energy transformation make s the universe more disordered)
Define or describe the following terms: Enzyme cofactor:
Enzyme cofactor: non protein helpers for catalytic activity.
Define or describe the following terms: Enzyme inhibition:
Enzyme inhibition:is a decreases in enzyme activity due to the presence of inhibitors..
Define or describe the following terms: Enzyme:
Enzyme: A substance produced by a living organism which acts as a catalyst to bring about a specific biochemical reaction.
Define or describe the following terms: Equilibrium:
Equilibrium: The point at which substances are of equivalent concentration.
Distinguish between exergonic and endergonic reactions.
Exergonic: Energy being released. (ball roll down the hill energy is released) Endergonic: Energy being absorbed (ball rolls up the hill, needs energy absorbs energy.)
Define or describe the following terms: Exergonic:
Exergonic: The process of matter exiting the cell.
Where is ATP consumed during exocytosis and endocytosis?
Exo : Endo:
What explains sidedness in cell membranes?
Exocytosis using vesicles.
Define or describe the following terms: Exocytosis:
Exocytosis: How material exits a cell.
Define or describe the following terms: F1 generation,
F1 = First generation of offspring
Define or describe the following terms: F2 generation,
F2 = Second generation of off-spring.
Define or describe the following terms: Feedback inhibition:
Feedback inhibition:a common mode of metabolic control, in which a metabolic pathway is switched off by the inhibitory binding of its end product to an enzyme that acts early in the pathway.
Define or describe the following terms:, fimbriae.
Finger-like projections on the surface of some prokaryotes.
Define or describe the following terms: Flaccid:
Flaccid: The state of being limp. (used to describe the state of a plant cell.)
Describe how Meselson and Stahl's experiments proved that DNA replication is semiconservative. What does semiconservative replication mean?
For their experiment, Meselson and Stahl used a special form of nitrogen: 15N. Normally, almost all of the nitrogen in any given cell is 14N and thus contains seven neutrons in addition to its seven protons. So, 15N, with eight neutrons, is considered "heavy nitrogen" (but it is not radioactive). When growing cells are fed heavy nitrogen, the 15N isotope enters the cells' metabolism and significant amounts of it will be incorporated into the nitrogen-rich nucleotides and DNA. Thus, the DNA of cells grown with 15N in their food source would be more dense than that of normal cells. The power of having DNA of different densities is that they can be separated by centrifugation. Like all proper scientific hypotheses, the three models of DNA replication each make certain predictions, and testing hypothetical predictions is a key part of scientific research. In the case of Meselson and Stahl's experiment, the predictions that each of these models makes are as follows. If the conservative model of DNA replication is true, then one would predict that the bacterial cells grown for one generation (20 minutes) with 14N would have two different kinds of DNA: the original DNA would be the density of DNA grown with only 15N nitrogen, while both strands of the new DNA molecules would be the lighter 14N DNA band. However, if either the semi-conservative or the dispersive models of DNA replication are correct, the double-stranded DNA inside the bacteria after one generation would be a mixture of old and new DNA, and thus, one strand would be made of 15N and one of 14N DNA. Thus, this "hybrid" DNA would be an intermediate density halfway between the 14N and 15N bands of DNA. In Figure 4 below, you can see what the three models of DNA replication predict will happen in the Meselson and Stahl experiment, followed by what they actually observed. DNA replication is a semi-conservative process, because when a new double-stranded DNA molecule is formed: One strand will be from the original template molecule One strand will be newly synthesised
Define or describe the following terms:, central vacuole,
Found only in plant cells, it is a large vacuole in the near center of plant cells that helps with the plant cells growth.
Define or describe the following terms: Tight junctions
Function like Zipper fasteners between cells. the proteins in plasma membranes attach to each other forming seals to prevent leakage.
Define or describe the following terms: Desmosomes.
Function like rivets, fastening cells together into strong flexible sheets. (important in tissues that get stretched, like muscles)
Define or describe the following terms: Gametes
Gametes: (reproductive cells) = sperm and eggs
Define or describe the following terms: Gated ion channel:
Gated ion channel: A Ion channel which opens and closes in response to a stimulus.
Define Gene, Gene Expression and Genome.
Gene: Unit of Inheritance Gene Expression: How a cell uses the information in a gene to create a protein. Genome: The entire library of genetic instruction that an organism inherits,
Define or describe the following terms: Glycolipids:
Glycolipids: a Membrane Carbohydrate resulting from the the combination of phospholipids and carbohydrates
Define or describe the following terms: Glycoproteins:
Glycoproteins: a membrane carbohydrate resulting from the combination of proteins and carbohydrate chains.
Describe Griffith's experiments with Streptococcus pneumonia and explain why the results were important. What did Avery and colleagues figure out regarding the transformation of Streptococcus pneumonia?
Griffith's experiment was an experiment done in 1928 by Frederick Griffith. It was one of the first experiments showing that bacteria can get DNA through a process called transformation.[1][2] Griffith used two strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae. These bacteria infect mice, Griffith's favorite animals. He used a type III-S (smooth) and type II-R (rough) strain. The III-S strain covers itself with a polysaccharide capsule that protects it from the host's immune system. This means that the host will die. The II-R strain does not have that protective shield around it and is killed by the host's immune system. In this experiment, bacteria from the III-S strain were killed by heat, and their remains were added to II-R strain bacteria. While neither harmed the mice on their own, the blend of the two was able to kill mice. Griffith was also able to get both live II-R and live III-S strains of S. pneumoniae from the blood of these dead mice. He concluded that the type II-R had been "transformed" into the lethal III-S strain by a "transforming principle" that was somehow part of the dead III-S strain bacteria.[3] Today, we know that the "transforming principle" Griffith saw was the DNA of the III-S strain bacteria. While the bacteria had been killed, the DNA had survived the heating process and was taken up by the II-R strain bacteria. The III-S strain DNA contains the genes that form the shielding polysaccharide part from attack. Armed with this gene, the former II-R strain bacteria were now protected from the host's immune system and could kill the host.
Define or describe the following term: Hydroxide ion
H+ (hydrogen ion)
Define or describe the following terms: Heat:
Heat: Unusable Energy
Define or describe the following terms: Topoisomerase,
Helps relieve strain by breaking and rejoining DNA strands.
Define or describe the following terms: Microtubules.
Hollow rods constructed from globular protein called Tubulin. Microtubules shape and support the cell and serve as tracks along which certain organelle can move. function as compression resisting girders
Define or describe the following terms: Homologous chromosomes,
Homologous chromosomes are the maternal and paternal copies of the same chromosome. Homologous chromosomes carry genes for the same trait, however, the version of the gene may be different (i.e. hair color).
What are 7 exceptions to Mendelian patterns of inheritance?
INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE MULTIPLE ALLELES FOR ONE GENE CODOMINANCE PLEIOTROPY EPISTATIC POLYGENIC INHERITANCE INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT OF PHENOTYPE.
Describe the events that take place in each phase of meiosis. Diagram each phase for a cell with 2 pairs of homologous chromosomes.
INTERPHASE: Includes G1, S and G2 just like in mitosis. DNA replicates . Centrosome duplicates. PROPHASE I (combines both prophase and prometaphase): Chromatin condenses to form chromosomes. Nuclear envelope disappears. Mitotic spindle apparatus begins to form. Homologous chromosomes pair up, a process called Synapsis Crossing-over of non-sister chromatids occurs. METAPHASE I: Mitotic spindle apparatus fully formed. Kinetochore microtubules are attached to pairs of homologous chromosomes. Pairs of homologous chromosomes line up at metaphase plate. Independent assortment of homologous chromosomes occurs. ANAPHASE I: Pairs of Homologous Chromosomes are separated by kinetochore microtubules and are pulled towards opposite poles of cell. Polar microtubules elongate pushing the poles of the cell farther apart. TELOPHASE I &CYTOKINESIS: Nuclear envelopes reform, chromosomes unwind into chromatin, and mitotic spindle apparatus disappears. Cytokinesis occurs forming Two Haploid(n) Daughter Cells. Daughter cells have 1 chromosome from each homologous pair. Daughter cells are not genetically identical. BETWEEN MEIOSIS I & II INTERKENISIS_: No DNA replication. Chromosomes still consist of pairs of sister chromatids. PROPHASE II (combines both prophase and prometaphase): Chromatin condenses to form chromosomes. Nuclear envelope disappears. Mitotic spindle apparatus begins to form. NO Synapsis OR Cross-over OCCURS. METAPHASE II: Mitotic spindle apparatus fully formed. Kinetochore microtubules are attached to pairs of sister chromatids. Pairs of Sister Chromatids line up at metaphase plate. NO Independant Assortment OCCURS. ANAPHASE II: Pairs of Sister Chromatids are separated by kinetochore microtubules and Daughter Chromosomes are pulled towards opposite poles of cell. polar microtubules elongate pushing the poles of the cell farther apart. TELOPHASE II & CYTOKINESIS: nuclear envelopes reform, chromosomes unwind into chromatin, mitotic spindle apparatus disappears. Cytokinesis occurs forming Four Haploid daughter cells. Daughter cells have 1 chromosome from each original homologous pair. Daughter cells are Genetically different from each other and from original parent cell.
Understand ABO blood types in humans. What are the possible genotypes for the 4 different blood types? What are the possible blood types of offspring from parental crosses between parents with similar and different blood types? Based on a person's blood type, what kind of blood can they receive in a transfusion?
I^A = A glycoproteins on red blood cells I^B = B glycoproteins on red blood cells I = neither A or B glycoproteins on red blood cells Blood types : A, B, AB, O Depending on the Dominance, similar blood type parents will produce either the same blood type or a recessive O(ii) type Different blood types will have a higher diversity window for genetic selection type A Receives: A & O type B Receives: B & O type AB Receives: A,B,AB, & O type O Receives: O
What is the difference between benign and malignant tumors?
If abnormal cells remain only at the original site, the lump is called a benign tumor Malignant tumors invade surrounding tissues and other parts of the body Metastasis is the spread of cancer cells to other parts of the body through blood and lymph vessels
Why are Peroxisomes important?
In Liver cells, Peroxisomes detoxify alcohols and poisons. In seedlings: Peroxisomes covert fatty acids into sugars.
Define or describe the following terms: Pole
In developmental biology, an embryo is divided into two hemispheres: the animal pole and the vegetal pole within a blastula. The animal pole consists of small cells that divide rapidly, in contrast with the vegetal pole below it.
What is independent assortment and why is it important? When does it occur?
Independent assortment is the Random orientation of Pairs of Homologous at metaphase plate. This step occurs during METAPHASE I
Define or describe the following terms: Inhibitor:
Inhibitor: A molecule that binds to an enzyme and decreases its activity.
Define or describe the following terms: Integral proteins:
Integral proteins: A Protein which penetrates the hydrophobic interior of lipid bilayer.
Define or describe the following terms: Ion channel:
Ion channel: a Channel protein that transports ions.
What is cotransport?
It is a single ATP-powered pump that transports a specific solute that can indirectly drive the active transport of several other solutes in a mechanism. The substance that has been pumped across a membrane can do work as it moves across the membrane by diffusion, analogous to water that has been pumped uphill and performs work as it flows back down. Another transport protein, a cotransporter separate from the pump, can couple the "downhill" diffusion of this substance to the "uphill" transport of a second substance against its own concentration gradient (or electrochemical) gradient.
What are some of the different forms of energy here on Earth?
Kinetic Energy, potential energy, chemical energy, Thermal energy, Solar energy.
Define or describe the following terms: Kinetic energy:
Kinetic energy: The energy of motion.
What are the four Kingdoms of Eukarya? How are they different from each other?
Kingdom Plantea Kingdom Fungi Kingdom Protista Kingdom Animalia.
Define or describe the following terms: Vacuoles.
Large vesicles derived from the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus. Food Vacuoles Formed through Phagocytosis In plants Vacuoles can store substances like poisons, food and pigments.
Compare mitosis and meiosis in terms of DNA replication, # of cell divisions, crossing over of homologous chromosomes, # of daughter cells and genetic composition, and role in animal body.
Meiosis: randomized DNA, 4 cell divisions, genetic crossing over occurs between homologous chromosomes, for daughter cells at the end of cycle each randomly different from each other, role of Meiosis: the production of sex cells for reproduction. Mitosis: complete exact copy of DNA. One cell division, no Crossing-Over, no Homologous chromosomes, 2 daughter cells, exact copy, role in animal body is for development and repair.
Define or describe the following terms: Membrane protein:
Membrane Protein: Consisting of Integral and Peripheral proteins, these proteins are found within or directly inside the phospholipid bilayer.
Define or describe the following terms: Membrane carbohydrate:
Membrane carbohydrate: Usually short , branched chains of fewer than 15 sugar units. some are covalently bonded to lipids forming molecules called Glycolipids. However most are covalently bonded to proteins, which are then called ClycoProteins.
Define or describe the following terms: Membrane potential:
Membrane potential: The voltage across the membrane.
Define or describe the following terms: mesophyll cell:
Mesophyll cell: Cells which make up the tissue in the interior of the leaf.
Define or describe the following terms: Metabolic pathway:
Metabolic pathways start with a particular molecule that is turned into a product through a series of steps catalyzed by specific enzymes.
What limits cell size?
Metabolism: a cell requires a surface area to volume ratio in order to efficiently exchange materials through the outer surface, a small cells exchange rate is adequate to keep the cell alive, while the exchange rate for a larger cell fall short of its needs.
Name and describe what happens during each of the 4 phases of the cell cycle. What portions of the cell cycle does interphase include?
Mitotic (M) Phase = nuclear division & division of the cytoplasm. G1 Phase = first growth phase (cell produces proteins and organelles. S Phase = Synthesis phase (chromosomes are duplicated) G2 Phase = Second growth phase (cell produces proteins and organelles) Interphase = G1 + S + G2
Define or describe the following terms: Eukaryotic flagella.
More Complex than Prokaryotic Flagella, Eukaryotic Flagella allow for different movement types.
Define or describe the following terms: NADP reductase:
NADP reductase: he last enzyme in the transfer of electrons during photosynthesis from photosystem I to NADPH. The NADPH is then used as a reducing equivalent in the reactions of the Calvin cycle
Define or describe the following terms: Intermediate filaments.
Named for their diameter being between Microfilaments and MicroTubules. Intermediate filaments are more permanent fixtures, reinforcing the shape of the cell and fixing the position of organelles.
Do molecules stop moving during diffusion once equilibrium is reached?
No. The molecules continue moving even after equilibrium is reached.
What are coenzymes?
Non protein compound that is necessary for the functioning of an enzyme. Cofactor that assist enzymes
Define or describe the following terms: Noncompetitive inhibition:
Noncompetitive inhibition: Inhibitors which do not directly compete with the substrate to bind to the enzyme at the activation site. instead they impede enzymatic reactions by binding to another portion of the enzyme. This interaction causes the enzyme to change its shape in such a way that the active site becomes less effective at catalyzing the conversions of substrate to product.
Define or describe the following term: Hydrogen ion
OH-(Hydroxide Ion)
What distinguishes prokaryotic cells from eukaryotic cells?
PROKARYOTIC CELLS --lack membrane bound nucleus --small (1-10 µm in diameter) --bacteria & archaea EUKARYOTIC CELLS --have membrane bound nucleus --larger (10-100 µm in diameter), contain organelles --protists, fungi, plants & animals
Define or describe the following terms: Passive transport:
Passive transport: the movement of molecules which does not require energy
Define or describe the following terms: Peripheral proteins:
Peripheral proteins: A Protein not embedded in membrane, loosely bound to internal surface
Define or describe the following terms: Autosomes.
Pertaining to a chromosome that is not a sex chromosome. People normally have 22 pairs of autosomes (44 autosomes) in each cell, together with 2 sex chromosomes, X and Y in a male and X and X in a female.
Define or describe the following terms: Phagocytosis:
Phagocytosis: Cellular eating, engulfing of large food particles.
Define or describe the following terms: Phosphorylation:
Phosphorylation: A biochemical process that involves the addition of phosphate to an organic compound. Phosphorylation is carried out through the action of enzymes known as phosphotransferases or kinases.
Define or describe the following terms: Photoautotroph:
Photoautotroph: Organisms which use light energy to drive the synthesis of organic molecules from carbon dioxide and (in most cases) water
Hydroxyl (-OH)
Polar, Hydrophilic
Amino (-NH2)
Polar, Hydrophilic, Weak Base (the only basic within the functional groups)
Carboxyl (-COOH)
Polar, Hydrophilic, Weak acid
Define or describe the following terms: Gap junctions.
Pores surrounded by proteins in plasma membrane which provide Cytoplasmic channels, Allowing small molecules and ions to pass through. necessary for communications between cells and tissues.
Define or describe the following terms: Potential energy:
Potential energy: Stored energy.
Define or describe the following terms: Primary electron acceptor:
Primary electron acceptor: Molecule capable of accepting electrons and becoming reduced.
Define the following terms: Producer, Consumer, and Decomposer.
Producer: Creates food. Consumer: Eat producers Decomposer: Eat dead consumers & producers and recycle nutrients.
Define or describe the following terms: Proton pump
Proton pump: the electrogenic pump of plants fungi and bacteria.
Know how to set-up Punnett squares for monohybrid and dihybrid crosses. Be able to calculate genotypic and phenotypic ratios from the Punnett squares. Understand how to use probability to solve larger crosses (i.e. trihybrid crosses like AaBbCc x AaBbCc).
Punnet squares are like multiplication squares using the genes.
Define or describe the following term: Heat of vaporization
Quantity of heat a liquid must absorb for one gram of it to be converted from liquid to the gaseous state.
Define or describe the following terms: Reaction center:
Reaction center:an organized association of proteins holding a special pair of chlorophyll (a) molecules.
Define or describe the following terms: Receptor-mediated endocytosis:
Receptor-mediated endocytosis: A specialized type of pinocytosis that enables the cell to acquire bulk qualities of specific substances.
Define or describe the following terms: DNA polymerase I,
Replaces RNA nucleotides in primer with DNA nucleotides.
Define or describe the following terms:, Rough ER,
Rough (ER): Endoplasmic Reticulim : Found within both Animal and plant cells, referred to as "rough" due to its "bumpy" covering of ribosomes. The Rough ER makes and modifies proteins and forms transport vesicles
Define or describe the following terms: Rubisco:
Rubisco: The enzyme that catalyzes the first step of the Calvin cycle.
Write out the summary chemical equation for photosynthesis. What is reduced? What is oxidized?
SOLAR + six CO_2 + sixH_2O. =======> C_6H_12O_6 + six O_2 The CO_2 is reduced to C_6H_12O_6 the six H_2O is oxidized to become oxygen.
Describe the 3 main differences between spermatogenesis and oogenesis in humans.
SPERMATOGENESIS OOGENESIS SPERMATOGENESIS: All FOUR products develop into mature sperm. OOGENESIS: Only ONE product develops into a mature egg. SPERMATOGENESIS: Occurs throughout adolescence and adulthood. OOGENESIS:Production of mature eggs ends at ~ 50 years old. SPERMATOGENESIS: Produces sperm in a CONTINUOUS process. OOGENESIS: Includes long INTERUPTIONS.
Define or describe the following terms: Inversion.
Segment of chromosome is turned around 180 degrees.
Define or describe the following terms: Sex chromosomes,
Sex Chromosomes : chromosomes that determine the sex of an individual.
Define or describe the following terms: Sex-linked genes,
Sex-linked genes : Genes located on a sex chromosome
Why are height and skin color examples of polygenic inheritance?
Skin pigment in humans is controlled by at least three separately inherited genes. height genes are affected by factors such as nutrition/ exercise and environment.
Sulfhydryl (-SH)
Slightly polar, Slightly acidic.
Define or describe the following terms:, transport vesicles,
Small sacs made membrane which carry things to and from sell organelles.
Define or describe the following term: Atom.
Smallest unit of matter that retains the properties of an element.
Define or describe the following terms: smooth ER.
Smooth (ER): Endoplasmic Reticulim : resembling tubes the Smooth ER possesses no ribosomes on its outer surface. The Smooth Er Create lipids (oils sex hormones, phospholipids.) Detoxifies drugs and poisons in the liver. Stores calcium ions.
Does energy flow or cycle on Earth?
Solar energy processed by photosynthesis, and then being consumed to become kinetic energy / heat energy.
Define or describe the following terms: Somatic Cells
Somatic = all body cells except the reproductive cells
Explain the difference between somatic cells, germ cells and gametes. Where are germ cells located in the human body?
Somatic cells: all of the cells in your body aside from those in the gonads. Germ cells: cells which undergo meiosis to form gametes, diploid. Gametes: sexual cells location gonads.
Define or describe the following terms: stomata:
Stomata: a pore, found in the epidermis of leaves, stems, and other organs, that facilitates gas exchange
Define or describe the following term: Solute.
Substance being dissolved.
Define or describe the following term: Compounds
Substance consisting of 2 or more different elements.
Define or describe the following term: Elements
Substance that cannot be broken down into other substances.
Define or describe the following term: Base
Substance that reduces the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution.
Define or describe the following terms: Substrate:
Substrate: The surface on which an organism (such as a plant, fungus, or animal) lives.
What is the key product of the Calvin cycle?
Sugar [CH_2-O]
Describe three ways that are used to treat patients with cancer.
Surgery to remove tumors. Radiation which damages DNA in cancer cells more than in normal cells. Chemotherapy which are drugs that disrupt steps in the cell cycle.
Define or describe the following terms: Synapsis,
Synapsis (also called syndesis) is the pairing of two homologous chromosomes that occurs during meiosis. It allows matching-up of homologous pairs prior to their segregation, and possible chromosomal crossover between them. Synapsis takes place during prophase I of meiosis.
What are synapsis and crossing over and why are they important? When do they occur?
Synapsis is the pairing up of homologous chromosomes Crossing over is the exchange of genetic material between non sister chromatids. This leads to genetic recombination. these steps occur at Prophase I.
Define or describe the following terms: Synthesis:
Synthesis: The production of an organic compound in a living thing, especially as aided by enzymes
Define or describe the following terms: Primase,
Synthesizes RNA primers.
Define or describe the following terms: DNA polymerase III,
Synthesizes new DNA.
Define or describe the following term: Hydrophilic.
Term used to describe a "love" of water.
Describe how ATP is made during the light reactions of photosynthesis.
The Exergonic fall of electrons to a lower energy level provides energy for the syntheses of ATP. As electrons are passed through the cytochrome complex H+ are lumped into the thylakoid space contributing to the proton gradient that is subsequently used in chemiosmosis.
Define or describe the following terms: Genotype,
The Genetic make up of an organism.
Why are membrane carbohydrates important in animal cells?
The Membrane Carbohydrates function as markers that distinguish one cell from another (like little flags)
Define or describe the following terms: Chloroplasts
The Organelle within a Plant Cell that converts energy to forms that the cell can use for work. (this is the guy responsible for photosynthesis.
Define or describe the following terms:, mitochondria.
The Organelle within an Animal Cell that converts energy to forms that the cell can use for work.
Define or describe the following terms: Single-strand binding proteins,
The Protein which Stabilizes the unwound parental Strands of DNA
Define or describe the following terms: Helicase,
The Protein which unwinds the Double helix
Define or describe the following terms: Leading strand,
The Strand of DNA that is Continuously being Copied.
Describe the induced fit model for how an enzyme interacts with its substrate.
The active site undergoes change in shape to fit more snugly around the substrate. It's like a lock (active site) and key (substrate). However, lock can change shape.
Define or describe the following term: Electronegativity.
The attraction a particular atom has for the electrons of a covalent bond.
Define or describe the following terms: Cleavage furrow,
The cleavage furrow is the indentation of the cell's surface that begins the progression of cleavage, by which animal and some algal cells undergo cytokinesis
How does energy coupling work?
The energy released from the hydrolysis of ATP into ADP is used to perform cellular work, usually by coupling the exergonic reaction of ATP hydrolysis with endergonic reactions.
Define or describe the following terms: Stroma.
The fluid outside of the Thylakoids.
Define or describe the following terms: Oogenesis.
The formation of a mature fertile Egg/ovum in Female physiology. a once a month process that ends generally with menopause.
Define or describe the following terms: Transformation,
The genetic alteration of a cell resulting from the direct uptake and incorporation of exogenous genetic material from its surroundings through the cell membrane.
Define or describe the following terms: Cristae.
The infolding os the organelle inner membrane.
Define or describe the following terms:, nuclear lamina,
The inner surface covering of the Nuclear Envelope.
Define or describe the following terms: capsule
The outermost layer of a Prokaryotic cell.
Define or describe the following terms: Pleiotropy,
The phenomenon where a single gene affects more than one triat Example sickle cell disease: a disorder characterized by divers symptoms All phenotypic effects are a result from a single kind of allele when present on Bothe chromosomes.
Define or describe the following terms: Replication fork,
The points where DNA is "unzipped ""by the Replication process
Define or describe the following terms: Recombinant chromosome,
The product of the " Crossing over " occurrence
Define or describe the following terms: Independent assortment,
The random orientation of Pairs of homologous chromosomes at the metaphase plate.
Define or describe the following terms: Centrosome.
The region from which MicroTubulars grow out from.
Describe what is involved in NUCLEOTIDE EXCISION REPAIR.
The removal and replacement of damaged DNA nuclease removes the damaged portion, DNA Polymerase fits new section DNA Ligase joins any gaps.
Define or describe the following term: Product
The result of a chemical reaction.
Define or describe the following terms: Chiasmata (chiasma),
The sites where "crossing over" occurs./
Define or describe the following term: Hydration shell
The sphere of water molecules around each dissolved ion.
Define or describe the following terms: Metastasis.
The spread of cancer cells to other parts of the body through blood and lymph vessels.
Define or describe the following terms: Lagging strand,
The strand that id copied in short segments called the Okazaki fragments
Define or describe the following term: Evaporation
The transformation of a liquid into a gas. Evaporation happens when water comes into contact with air..
Define or describe the following term: Vaporization,
The transformation of a liquid into a gas. Vaporization happens when liquids reach boiling point.
Define or describe the following terms: Thermal energy:
Thermal energy: Kinetic energy associated with random movement of atoms or molecules.
Describe the experiments conducted by Hershey and Chase. What did the results from their experiments help scientists understand about genetic material?
They irradiated both the protein shell and DNA of bacteria to show which one affected the cells the bacteria would infiltrate. after a centrifuge Their results proved that it was the genetic material inside DNA which allowed for their multiplication.
Define or describe the following terms: Middle lamella.
Thin layer rich and sticky polysaccharides called pectins.
Define or describe the following terms: MicroFilaments (actin filaments).
Thin solid rods. also called actin filaments because they are built from molecules of actin.. Twisted double Chains of actin subunits. Role in the cytoskeleton is to bear tension (Pulling forces)
How many turns of the Calvin cycle have to occur to make 1 molecule of glucose?
Three cycles.
Define or describe the following terms: Grana
Thylakoids which are stacked like poker chips in some regions of the Chloroplast. (the singular fro Grana is Granum)
Define or describe the following term: Heat
Total amount of kinetic energy due to the random motion of atoms or molecules in a body of matter.
What are X-linked genes and how are they recognized?
Traits determined by genes carried on the X chromosome are called X-linked genes males only poses a single X chromosome.
Define or describe the following terms: Transmembrane:
Transmembrane: Spanning the entire membrane.
Define or describe the following terms: Turgid:
Turgid: the state of being Firm. (used to describe the state of a plant cell.)
Define or describe the following terms: T2 bacteriophage,
Viruses that infect bacteria ("bacteria-eaters"). t2 bacteriophage refers to Hershey and Chase experiment to prove DNA holds genetic information.
What is an example of a human genetic disorder that arises due to the deletion of a part of chromosome 7?
WILLIAMS SYNDROME -- look like pixies. -- poor academic skills but excellent verbal and musical abilities. -- suffer from heart problems.
Define or describe the following terms: wavelength:
Wavelength: The distance between the crest of electromagnetic waves.
Define or describe the following terms: Incomplete dominance,
When a heteroZygote posses an intermediated phenotype (pink flower from red and white) When neither Allele possesses complete dominance.
Define or describe the following terms: Polygenic inheritance,
When more than ONE gene can affect a SINGLE trait. The result, is continuous variation of phenotype, bell-shaped curve. Environmental factors also influence trait.
Define or describe the following terms: True-breeding
When self-pollinate off-spring look like their parent.
Define or describe the following terms: nucleoid region
Within A Prokaryotic Cell, it is where prokaryotic DNA is found.
How is DNA stored in non-dividing cells versus dividing cells?
Within the chromatin.
Define or describe the following terms: X-ray diffraction,
X-ray diffraction is caused by constructive interference of x-ray waves that reflect off internal crystal planes. This was the method which was used to lead to the discovery that DNA was a double helix composed of two strands.
A.)Considering sexual life cycles, are diploid cells the only type of cells that can divide by mitosis? B.)Can diploid and haploid cells divide by meiosis?
Yes. No meiosis reduces the number of chromosomes from 2 to 1. point of fact: both haploids and diploids can under go MITOSIS, but it depends on the cell cycle.
Define or describe the following terms: Adenine,
a base pair in DNA that is a Purine amount of Adenine always equal to Thymine and vice versa. (A=T)
Define or describe the following terms: Kinetochore,
a complex of proteins associated with the centromere of a chromosome during cell division, to which the microtubules of the spindle attach
Define or describe the following terms: Centrioles.
a composition of nine sets of triplet microtubules arrange in a ring.
Define or describe the following terms: Codominance,
a phenomenon when more than one alleles is fully expressed. Example: type AB blood.
Define or describe the following terms: Metaphase plate,
a plane cell section in the equatorial plane of the metaphase spindle having the chromosomes oriented upon it.
What does it mean when we say that enzymes are substrate specific?
a substrate refers to the reactants that an enzyme acts on, being substrate specific means that an enzyme will only act upon a substrate that its shape allows for.
Where does the carbon dioxide and water used in photosynthesis come from?
carbon dioxide comes directly from the environment. from animals who breath out carbon dioxide. Water comes from the environment.
Define or describe the following terms: Transformation,
change in genotype and phenotype due to assimilation of external DNA by a cell.
Define or describe the following terms: Synaptonemal complex,
composed of proteins, the Synaptonemal complex is what holds. homologous chromosomes together.
Why are some females considered to be genetic mosaics?
females that are heterozygous who have cells that may express different alleles
What is the connection between C3 plants and photorespiration?
for C_3 plants photorespiration occurs during hot temperatures, this is due to the stomata closing up to prevent moisture loss, since no co_2 can get in, the Calvin cycle is starved of CO_2 and O_2 builds up. Rubisco begins to add oxygen instead of carbon dioxide to the Calvin cycle, causing a shift of process that allows carbon dioxide rather than oxygen leave the plant. Photorespiration uses ATP rather than generating it. it also produces no sugar.
Define or describe the following terms: Phosphodiester backbone,
located on the sides of the DNA ladder, composed of sugar and phosphate
Define or describe the following term: pH.
pH stands for (partial Hydrogen)
Given the numbers and phenotypes of offspring from crosses, be able to calculate recombination frequencies and map the locations of genes on a chromosome.
percentage of recombinant phenotypes. (206/2300 + 185/2300)* 100 = 17%
Given an mRNA molecule, determine the tRNA anticodons that would pair with the specific mRNA codons.
tRNAAnticodons will be in the reverse composition of the mRNA. mRNA:AUG UUC UAU UGU AAU AAA UGA tRNA: UAC AAG AUA ACA UUA UUU ACU anti-codons
Define or describe the following term: Hydrophobic.
term use to describe a "hate" of water.
Explain the blending concept of inheritance. Why did Mendel's work disprove this concept of inheritance?
the blended concept was the basic idea that if parents with two distinct traits are paired together ANY resulting offspring would possess a blended result of those traits. Mendels experiments with pea plants proved that the popular model of inheritance was (while not entirely false) largely wrong as his crossings of plants proved when he reaped a broader variety of resulting offspring then he expected.
Define or describe the following terms: Chromatid,
the condensed form of DNA.
Define or describe the following terms: Spermatogenesis
the creation of sperm. in male physiology it is a continuous and prolific process in males. (takes 7 weeks to produce a single sperm.)
Define or describe the following terms: Cytokinesis,
the cytoplasmic division of a cell at the end of mitosis or meiosis, bringing about the separation into two daughter cells.
Define or describe the following terms: Replication bubble,
the form which DNA takes when it is in the process of replication
Define or describe the following terms: Barr body,
the highly condensed inactivated X chromosome.
Define or describe the following terms: Complementary base pairing,
the links of the DNA ladder composed of Adenine and Thymine (Always Together) 2 hydrogen bonds Guanine and Cytosine. (Great Company) 3 hydrogen bonds
Define or describe the following term: Chemical reactions.
the making or breaking of chemical bonds
Define or describe the following term: Valence shell,
the outermost electron shell of an atom.
Define or describe the following terms: Phenotype,
the physical appearance of an organism.
Define or describe the following terms: Fertilization,
the union of haploid gametes to produce Diploid Zygote.
Define or describe the following terms: Recombinant phenotypes,
traits appear like a picture between each parent (This is a result of crossing-over!!)
Define or describe the following terms: Parental phenotypes,
traits that look precisely like one of the parent.
Describe Mendel's Law of Segregation.
• Alternative variations of genes (ALLELES) account for variations in inherited characters. • An organism inherits TWO copies of a gene for each trait, one from each parent. • Alleles can be DOMINANT or RECESSIVE. • If an organism inherits 2 different alleles for a trait, the DOMINANT allele will determine the organism's appearance, while the _RECESSIVE_ allele will have no effect on the organism's appearance. • The LAW OF SEGREGATION = the 2 alleles for a trait segregate (separate from each other) during gamete formation and end up in different gametes.