SYO3530: Exam 2 Study Guide
"black codes" and "Jim Crow" laws
Southern laws designed to restrict the rights of the newly freed black slaves Between the 1896 Court decision in Plessy v. Ferguson and the 1954 Court decision in Brown v. Board of Education, Black people were victim of a system of Jim Crow laws that upheld the principle of "separate but equal"
Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882
law that suspended Chinese immigration into America. The ban was supposed to last 10 years, but it was expanded several times and was essentially in effect until WWII. The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 was the first significant law that restricted immigration into the United States of an ethnic working group. Extreme example of nativism of period
marriage equality
legal recognition of same-sex marriage; landmark change came to the US with the Supreme Court's decision that same-sex marriage could not be denied by the states since denying this was in violation of the equal protections clause of the 14th amendment
pink-collar employment
often female-dominated employment; secretaries, data entry clerks, retail workers, health aids, etc.
green-collar occupations
often male-dominated employment; manual service tasks - clean offices, medical facilities, and stores; change oil in cars, etc.
blue-collar employment
working class employees; manual labor
queer theory
an emerging body of theory that explores intersections of gender identity and sexual orientation and activity are fluid, flexible, and challenge conventional categories
Equality Act of 2015
an extension of the 1964 Civil Rights Act to include sexuality and gender identity as protected categories
internal colonialism
colonial-style dominance of a racial or ethnic group by another group within the same national borders, including control over the subordinate group's governance, restriction of the group's freedom of movement, exploitation of the group's labor, and belief in the group's inferiority
social class
comprises those who share similar life chances in the marketplace or a similar position within a system of stratification; may be based on wealth, but may also include education, occupation and income
Dawes Allotment Act
(1887) provided that the reservations would be divided into 40-acre plots and sold. Plains Indians were to become small farmers on the Great Plains, where farming has been an impossible undertaking for anyone without a riverside location or modern irrigation. The Plains people failed and lost their land.
Termination Act
(1953) sought to eliminate reservation status. Native American-controlled land was lost and poverty persisted.
social/civil rights model of disability
- Proponents/advocates of this model argue that disability "should be viewed as a social phenomenon caused by social processes, rather than an individual phenomenon caused by biological processes" - Proponents/advocates of this model argue that having an "impairment" is not the same as having a "disability." Individuals may have biological "impairments," but it is society that "disables" people How is "disability" a product of society? a. People with impairments have different experiences of "disability" based on the culture and time period they live in. b. Whether people have a problem living with their impairment depends on the society in which they live. "Disability can then be viewed as a social problem caused by social processes" c. Disability, therefore, is defined as all of the things that place restrictions on a person with a biological impairment - Person with a disability is seen as has a right to "maximum life potential, self-reliance, independence, productivity, and equitable mainstream social participation in the most productive and least restrictive environment" - The role of government is to reduce the barriers to full participation and integration of people with disabilities.
individual/medical/treatment model of disability
- person with a disability was seen as biologically damaged or flawed - person with a disability was seen as being dependent on charity or government assistance, and thus a "drain" on society's resources - person with a disability was usually cared for either by the extended family or by state funded institutions
How gender inequality, "male privilege," or patriarchy been manifest throughout history
1. The valuing of males over females - infanticide, men considered more knowledgeable, women are expected to yield to men, in media & advertisements, men are often portrayed as dominant, active, and focused 2. Restrictive laws and norms - during early U.S. history women were regarded as the property of men and could not own property; could not vote until 1920; colleges would not accept women students' husbands had legal power over their wives 3. Income differentials - women's earnings are currently 80.5% of those for men, earnings showed gains relative to men's earnings in the 80s due to deindustrialization, women are not rewarded equally to men, the earnings vary by race and ethnicity 4. Division of labor in families - even when both parents are working, women do considerably more of the housework, shopping, and childcare than do men
4 elements of internal colonialism
1. control over a group's governance - the colonial group is allowed neither full autonomy nor full participation in the national government 2. restriction of freedom of movement - colonial peoples are not willing immigrants but are involuntarily incorporated into the national society. often, their ability to choose where they live and work is severely restricted. 3. colonial-style labor exploitation - a "cultural division of labor" exists in which the colonial peoples are assigned to the most menial or dangerous work and given the least compensation for that work 4. belief in a group's inferiority - in this model, prejudice follows from, rather than causes, discrimination. the exploitation of the colonial group must be justified, and this is done through an ideology that asserts the group's moral, intellectual, and cultural inferiority. Thus, the domination of the group's members by others is "for their own good"
redlining and residential segregation
African Americans remain highly segregated in neighborhoods and separate municipalities and continue to be the victims of discrimination in housing, employment, etc.
Oscar Lewis' "culture of poverty"
Coined by Oscar Lewis, a set of common attributes, attitudes, and behaviors supposedly found among the poor (in Mexico, Puerto Rico, and the US), including fatalism, present-time orientation, mother-centered families, and suspicion of outside institutions; believed that these cultural traits are rooted in the overall structure of a society; once it comes into existence, it tends to perpetuate itself from generation to generation "The culture of poverty is both an adaptation and a reaction of the poor to their marginal position in a class stratified, highly individuated, capitalistic society"
The various social scientific perspectives that have been used to explain racial inequality in the United States today. What's the difference between cultural explanations and structural explanations of racial inequality, and what are some examples of each?
Cultural explanations seek to explain racial inequality by looking at cultural differences between different cultures. An example of a cultural explanation is Oscar Lewis's "culture of poverty" which claims that common attributes amongst poor ethnic groups of Mexico, Puerto Rico and the U.S. are to blame for inequality. In specific, he finds that fatalism, a present rather than future orientation, mother-centered families, and suspicion of outside institutions to be the main characteristics of this culture of poverty. The structural explanations of racial inequality look to the structure of U.S. society and the set of cultural norms and practices that disadvantage poor people of color. For instance, Doug Massey and Nancy Denton found that the persistent segregation of many Black people meant that they are concentrated in central-city areas where there are few jobs available to them.
cultural vs. structural explanations of racial/ethnic inequality
Cultural theories: - Culture of poverty (Oscar Lewis) - Culture as villain (Edward Banfield) Structural theories: - Gunnar Myrdal's classic analysis of the negative affects of racial discrimination in the "American dilemma:" noted the discrepancy between America's claims to ideals of freedom and equality and the reality that the nation was built on racial oppression and inequality; viscous cycle of "cumulative causation" in which discrimination and prejudice reinforce one another - the poor attended poor schools and were then faulted for failing to value education - William Julius Wilson's examination of the effect of economic change on Black people's prospects for jobs: plantation economy and racial-caste oppression to the period of industrial expansion, class conflict, and racial oppression to the progressive transition from racial inequalities to class inequalities - Doug Massey and Nancy Denton's analysis of the history and consequences of racial residential segregation: persistent segregation means that many Black people are concentrated in central-city areas where there are few jobs available to them - Dalton Conley's analysis of racial difference in wealth accumulation - Joe Feagin's analysis of the persistence of racism
repatriation & "Operation Wetback"
During a period of economic slowing and political suspicion of all things and people "un-American" in the mid-1950s, this returned to Mexico many Mexican laborers who had stayed in the US; the very people who had been welcomed as "braceros" were later thrown out
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
Ended the Mexican-American War and gave fully half of the Mexican territory to the United States, land that is now the states of California, Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, and much of Colorado.
What factors have been cited as contributing to the glass ceiling for women? What changes might promote the advancement of women in careers?
Factors - Differential socialization, pattern of family dynamics, and the hidden structures of corporations (demographic, power, opportunity, shadow) Changes - train female middle managers how to think more like the company's men and the executive women and changing the corporate structure by bringing in women in groups so they are not left as tokens, giving managers the full power and authority that their titles suggest, and making sure that no position in the company is seen as a dead end
What factors have displaced men from traditional roles? What factors have overburdened women in their old and new roles? How are men and women coping with these changes around the world?
Factors displacing men from traditional roles - deindustrialization and the changing global economy Factors that have overburdened women - the "double burden" or "second shift" of household and family responsibilities even while working full-time
Indian Removal Act
In 1830, President Andrew Jackson signed this and ordered that Native Americans be marched on the "Trail of Tears" to the "Indian colonization zone" in what is now Oklahoma
slave trade
In which people were taken by force in Africa and then packed shoulder to shoulder in the dark holds of ships to languish in their own waste until released to the slave block on the other shore. Lasted until 1817 after which slavery became a "cash crop" - slavery had to be sustained through domestic reproduction
How has masculinity conferred both privilege and vulnerability over time? How has this affected the lives and life chances of both men and women?
Masculinity can be considered a category of privilege in that men have been accorded multiple dimensions of advantage in power, privilege, and prestige. However, it is also a vulnerability in that male privilege is not always afforded to all men. Masculinity comes with ideas of being a strong provider and of fitting the social norms. Men who abandon their families or who face precariousness in race, ethnicity, or class are therefore more vulnerable.
How racial and ethnic inequality has been manifest throughout U.S. history and how it is manifest today
Native Americans: Historical -annihilated, forced to move westward, or force to assimilate; Indian Removal Act, Trail of Tears, the Long Walk, Dawes Allotment Act of 1887, Termination Act of 1953, Reagan administration's broadening of mining and resource extraction on Native lands. Today - Native Americans who reside on reservations are more likely to be poor and unemployed (30% unemployment, 60% in poverty); single "industry" of the gambling business African Americans: Historical - Trans-Atlantic slave trade, slavery sustained through domestic reproduction, sharecropping, Plessy v. Ferguson, Board v. Education, Jim Crow laws Today - rates of employment, median family income and mean family network significantly below white people; remain highly segregated in neighborhoods, discrimination in housing, employment, etc.; deindustrialization
What have been the major trends in the distribution of income over the past several decades? How have these affected occupations and class structure? What are the current trends in occupation growth, and what effects will these likely have on the distribution of income?
Over history the distribution of income in many societies has approximated a pyramid: an absolute ruler, a few wealthy nobles, a somewhat larger middle or merchant class, and many near the bottom. Still many have some form of the pyramid, with a few wealthy families, a small middle class of businesspeople, professionals, and technocratic experts and a large group of rural and urban poor and near poor. The US resembles a potbellied stove. In the 80s, economic expansion favored upper income groups far more than the lowest income groups whom lost ground because of a minimum wage that did not rise with inflation and reductions in government services and payments. The recession of 1990-92 hurt everyone, but those in the lower income groups the most, especially as manufacturing jobs were eliminated. The long economic growth period starting in 1992 helped those bottom brackets slightly, but only in regaining what was lost. When the recession hit in 2000, the gains were once eliminated and the recession accelerated job losses caused by deindustrialization. Recovery has not brought "reindustrialization" and most of the current job growth is at the lowest end of the income scale. The middle class is stressed but not disappearing - they are no longer able to maintain middle-class lifestyles with their declining incomes. This income spread is due to an integrating global economy based on new technologies. Global markets are met with new opportunities and profits, while workers' wages face downward pressure from international competition and automation.
Bracero Program
Recruited Mexicans to work in the United States; named for the Spanish term for a manual laborer, from brazo, the Spanish word for arm); ended in 1964, the same year that the Border Industrialization Program made it easier for US firms to locate across the border to northern Mexico
stratification, distribution
Stratification = process by which scarce and desired goods and services (and the honors associated with them) are distributed in society based on the positions you occupy Distribution = the pattern of variation in a variable. It tells us how often each value occurs in a population.
William Goode's "sociology of subordinates" (pp. 153-154)
Suggests that relations between men and women share aspects that are likely true of those between any other superordinate (or privileged) group and other subordinate (or disadvantaged) group: 1. Many groups may misunderstand one another, but men need to know less about the world of women than the other way around because the world in which men operate is not female dominated, just as whites often know less about the lives of blacks than the other way around. 2. The current generation of men did not create the social system that exists today and so can claim innocence of any "conspiracy" to oppress women. Note that whites, especially younger whites, often make the same argument in reference to oppressed racial groups. 3. Men, like all superordinates, take for granted the system that gives them their status and so are unaware of how the social structure may give them many small but cumulative advantages. People at the top almost always assume they have earned their accomplishments. 4. When men look at their lives, they are more likely to note the burdens and responsibilities of their gender roles than the advantages. 5. Superiors, in this case successful men, do not readily notice the talents and abilities of subordinates, such as female colleagues. Given that people who have few opportunities to take risks rarely accomplish much, this situation becomes self-validating. 6. Men are likely to view small losses of position and deference toward them as significant changes (even if, and maybe especially if, they willingly give up some power or privilege). On the other hand, they hardly notice activities and events that maintain the status quo.
How the American class structure has changed over the last century, and how it has changed over the last several decades (half century)
The American class structure has changed over the last century and last several decades due to deindustrialization, the decline of agricultural jobs and the growth of white-collar employment. Deindustrialization has lead there to be a new international division of labor where labor-intensive work has shifted overseas. Blue-collar employment rose during the early decades of the 20th century, dipped during the Depression, recovered during WWII, peaked in the 50s, and has now continued to decline each decade due to such deindustrializaiton. Continually, less than 3% of the U.S. labor force is currently working in agriculture. This is largely due to the combination of capitalism and industrialization resulting in agribusiness that rely on economies of sale. Additionally, according to a study done by Lynd and Lynd (1929), most white-collar workers in the early 20th century were self-employed professionals and businesspeople. By the midcentury, however, these workers also included what Whyte (1956) calls the "organization man," which includes employees of large businesses and corporations.
Give examples of the ways in which language is used as a marker of class position, as well as racial and ethnic identity. Are any other such markers predominant in social interaction?
The associations - class, status, ethnicity, race, and region - that accompany an accent are what provides distinction or prestige. A nonwhite person's acceptability to members of mainstream society is often contingent on the language they use. For instance, the most accepted Black leaders are those who don't "speak" Black. Perceptions of the acceptability of language are also bound with issues of both ethnicity and class. Early immigrants worked hard to remove traces of old-country dialects in order to move up the socioeconomic ladder. Additionally, some ethnic accents are considered marks of distinction (French & British English) while others are accorded less prestige (Eastern European). Other markers predominant in social interaction
The concept of internal colonialism best fits the experiences of which ethnic and racial groups? Provide examples. Are there currently internal colonial peoples in the United States or elsewhere? Who might these be?
The concept of internal colonialism best fits the experiences of the following populations: Native Americans, African Americans, Hispanic Americans and Irish Americans and New European Groups. Yes, there are still currently internal colonial peoples in the United States, especially Native Americans, African Americans and Chicanos.
Japanese "War Relocation Camps
The forcible relocation of approximately 110,000 Japanese Americans to housing facilities in the wake of Imperial Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor.
The distinction between the individual/medical/treatment model of disability and the social/civil rights model of disability.
The individual/medical/treatment model of disability posits that people with disabilities are biologically flawed, dependent on charity or government assistance and a drain on society's resource. The social/civil rights model of disability, on the other hand, argues that disability should be viewed as a social phenomenon caused by social processes, rather than an individual phenomenon caused by biological processes. Whereas the individual/medical/treatment model of disability views biological impairments as the disability itself, the social/civil rights model of disability argues that it is society that "disables" people with impairments.
What economic and social forces tend to make wealth as concentrated as it is in the United States? What are the consequences of this concentration of wealth?
The rich become richer while the poor get nowhere - accumulated wealth insures that those near the bottom will be called on to spend almost all of their incomes and that the wealth they may acquire will likely depreciate in value. The conservative nature of wealth can also undermine progressive social changes, as marginalized groups, such as Black Americans, do not have accumulated wealth to rely on.
"Trail of Tears" and the "Long Walk"
Trail of Tears - In 1830, President Andrew Jackson signed the "Indian Removal Act" and ordered that Native Americans be marched on the Trail of Tears to the "Indian colonization zone" in what is now Oklahoma Long Walk - Between 1864-1866, the US govt. forced the Navajo people to endure the "long walk" to the Bosque Redondo Reservation in what is now New Mexico
T/F: Proponents of "internal colonialism theory" argue that oppressed groups are used as colonial-style labor within the dominant society by virtue of their limited opportunities within the "primary labor market."
True
T/F: Wealth is more concentrated than income in most societies.
True
wealth, occupation, income
Wealth - accumulated property owned by a person or family occupation - the work we do for compensation; how we obtain our incomes income - money received annually
In what ways has whiteness been a category of privilege in U.S. history? In what ways is this still true, and in what ways is it changing? Are there new categories of privilege?
Whiteness is a category of privilege in U.S. history as groups have long been categorized as "white" and "non-white" or an "in-group" and "out-group." This is still true today, mainly in the criminal justice sphere and in how we view language. A couple of other categories of privilege include class and gender.
The reasons cited by social scientists for why women continue to earn less than men in contemporary societies.
Women are still concentrated in some of the most undercompensated occupations. Of the 10 lowest paying occupations in the US, only one (farm labor) is male dominated. Child care, for instance, is still overwhelmingly female (95%) and offers some of the lowest wages ($418/week). Even when women enter higher wage professions, they still often earn less than men. This can be explained by the fact that women are more likely to be newcomers to these professions and have less experience and seniority. Additionally, as some professions become "feminized," incomes drop markedly. For example, the incomes in real estate sales dropped as large numbers of women found this an accessible profession. Another example is how the earnings of senior partners in major law firms remain high, but the average incomes of new attorneys have dropped as more women have entered the profession. Also due in part to the fact that men and women tend to pursue different specialties within professions. For example, although there are now more female physicians, high proportions of women doctors cluster in specialties of family practice and pediatrics, which have lower average earnings than male-dominated surgeons and cardiologists. The phenomenon of the glass ceiling explains how women move into middle management but then "stall out" and are unable to advance into top executive positions. Some researchers found that this is from differential socialization, while others found a pattern in family dynamics. Still, another sociologist noted the hidden structures within corporations, such as demographic structure, power structure, opportunity structure, and shadow structure.
linguistic prejudice
a nonwhite person's acceptability to members of mainstream society is often contingent on the language they use
ethnic enclaves
a sector of the urban economy in which ethnic entrepreneurs hire and serve the needs of coethnics, creating their own ethnic labor market; possible only where large numbers of coethics share a common metropolitan area, such as Cuban Americans in Miami; requires a mix of backgrounds among the immigrants themselves: some with the human and financial capital to begin businesses, others with fewer resources who are willing to work in those businesses
glass ceiling
a situation faced by women and some racial and ethnic groups in which individuals seem to move up into middle management fairly readily but then "stall" as though they have run into an invisible obstacle to further advancement
feminization of poverty
a social trend in which the group most at risk of poverty comprises single mothers and their dependent children
visible minorities
a visually recognizable racial or ethnic group comprising a minority of the population; carries a distinguishing element into the public sphere
sharecroppers
after slavery ended in 1865, rural slaves became this in which they were bound by debt obligations instead of slavery
"double burden," "second shift"
because women's expanded roles in the workplace have generally not been accompanied by any relaxation of expectations for their family and domestic activities many women face the burden of home and work responsibilites
service sectors
businesses that provide services rather than manufactured goods
measures of central tendency (mean, median, and mode)
central tendencies - different measures of the "typical case" in a distribution Mean = the arithmetic average Median = the point at which half the cases are greater and half are less. The midpoint. Mode = the bulge or peak of a distribution. The place that holds the most people.
class structure: capitalists, upper-middle class, middle class, working class, working poor, underclass
class structure - the division of U.S. society into distinct social classes based on wealth, income, education, and occupation capitalist class: investors, heirs, and executives, typically with prestigious university education and annual family incomes over $2 million, mostly from assets upper-middle class: high-level managers, professionals, midsize business owners with college education, most often with advanced degrees, with family incomes of $150,000+ middle class: low-level managers, semiprofessionals, some persons in sales and skilled crafts, foreman and supervisors with at least high school education, usually some college, technical training, or apprenticeship and family incomes of about $70,000 working class: high school-educated operatives, clerical workers, most retail salesclerks, routinized assembly and factory workers, and related "blue-collar" employees with family incomes of about $40,000 working poor: poorly paid service workers and laborers, operatives, and clerical workers in low-wage sectors, usually with some high school and family incomes of around $25,000 underclass: persons with erratic job histories and weak attachment to the formal labor force, unemployed or able to find only seasonal or part-time work, dependent on temporary or informal employment or some form of social assistance, and with typical family income of $15,000
agribusiness
corporate-controlled agriculture using large amounts of investment on large expanses of land to mass-produce products for a consumer market supported by a number of technological interventions: mechanical interventions, such as large, specialized machinery; chemical interventions, such as fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides; and biological interventions, including new hybrid seed varieties and genetically altered varieties
three "hidden structures" of organizations: demographic structure, power structure, and opportunity structure
demographic structure: how many people hold differing types of positions and what the ages, races, genders, and so forth of those people are power structure: not the official hierarchy, but who really had discretionary authority to make things happen and who had someone else looking over their shoulders opportunity structure: some people got ahead, some did not; certain positions often lead to promotions, whereas other positions cap opportunities for advancement
gender and gender roles
gender - a social distinction that assigns different roles and traits to men and women; the meaning attached to being male or female in a particular society, the social and cultural traits associated with masculinity and femininity; the gender norms of the kinds of attitudes and activities that are appropriate for members of one's sex category gender roles -expectations regarding the proper behavior, attitudes, and activities of males and females
analogy of "potbellied stove"
income distributions assume the shape of a potbellied stove; begins at the bottom with a significant group of very poor with incomes well below the poverty line, a larger group of near poor with incomes near the poverty line, and a bulge of lower income households; above the bulge, the distribution gradually narrows upward through middle and upper-middle incomes and then is capped by a very tall but narrow "pipe" of high-income households adding one or two people with extremely high incomes would lengthen the end of the "stovepipe" but it wouldn't change the shape of the belly
disablist attitudes
individual prejudicial attitudes wherein people with biological impairments have been devalued on many levels as biologically inferior, psychologically damaged, culturally "other," and as presenting a economic burned to welfare capitalism
burgundy-collar occupations
jobs that provide first employment for many young people and supplemental or last-resort employment for older people; fast food jobs
social contract
long-term commitments and understandings in a society, particularly between employers and employees the definition of white-collar work seems to be changing to accommodate a new social contract in which long-term commitments between employer and employee are replaced by temporary and flexible arrangements
secondary labor market
low-wage jobs with few benefits and little security; immigrant workers with limited credentials and marketable skills who arrive in large numbers and are dispersed across the country are likely to work here includes: - latin american - caribbean immigrants - labor migrants - "internal colonial" groups: African Americans and Mexican Americans
"personal eugenics"
medical advancements have made it possible to test whether the fetus has certain impairments - these advancements are praised in the medical community for allowing parents to practice selective abortion
middleman minorities
members of an ethnic minority group who tend to operate small businesses in neighborhoods dominated by other, often poor ethnic groups, and who are often owners of small grocery and liquor stores, laundries, small motels, and variety shops; may be accepted by dominant groups, even seen as "model minorities," but they often incur the hostility of the people they serve
differential socialization
men and women are socialized to behave differently in the workplace: - men developed career plans early on, were willing and eager to take on risks, liked to work in groups where they were noticed, were sensitive to company politics, and knew how to cultivate relationships that would help them get ahead - women tended to come to think of their work as a lifelong career only later, generally avoided risk, preferred to work independently rather in committees or groups, and tended to help subordinates rather than mingle with superiors who could help them advance; believed that hard work and dedication would help them advance
"leisure gap"
men have more leisure time left over at the end of the working day than do women because women spend twice as much time as men in housework and caring for family members
color prejudice (colorism)
prejudice or discrimination against individuals with a dark skin tone, typically among people of the same ethnic or racial group.
economies of scale
productive efficiency that comes with mass production, lowering the cost of each unit
white-collar employment
professional, desk, managerial or administrative work; mostly performed in an office or other administrative setting
race and ethnicity
race - a social boundary between groups based on presumed physical differences, often conferring privilege on one group ethnicity - a social boundary between groups based on presumed common ancestry or common cultural heritage
racism, systemic racism
racism embedded within the system/society as a whole, seen as normal practices
biological functionalism
the belief that, given biological sex differences, certain role differences between men and women are functional for society
primary labor market
the group of jobs with good salaries and benefits that includes professional and technical employment; workers who arrive with select skills and credentials that are in great demand may move directly into this market includes: - Asian, Indian physicians and other professionals - Filipino and Hong Kong professionals educated in English - Select immigrants from East and South Asia and from Europe and elsewhere
"shadow structure" that keeps women on the periphery
the informal structure of an organization, not seen in official organizational charts, includes the values attached to race and gender; the places where employees build alliances, establish confidences, and manage their reputations. a large organization has a "core" and a "periphery" - this structure can help move men to the center of dense networks of information exchange and keep women talking to one another on the peripheries of power
deindustrialization
the loss of unionized heavy industry by a city, state, or country as part of globalized production
personal earnings
the money an individual receives in wages, commissions, and tips for work performed
income quintiles
the percentage of income going to each fifth of the population
"doing gender"
the performance of tasks based upon the gender assigned to us by society and, in turn, ourselves Famous article by West and Zimmerman where they argue that gender is: - an action that we accomplish in everyday interaction - a feature of social situations rather than a property of individuals (both an outcome of and a rationale for various social arrangements) - an ideological device which produces, reproduces, and legitimates one of the most fundamental divisions of society
family income, household income
total amount of money coming into a family unit or place of residence
social constructions
views of reality that are culturally created and passed on through socialization and social interaction - like race, gender, sex, etc.
