Systems Architecture EXAM 2 Study Guide (Simplified)

How many clusters does it require to store a 6 KB file on a Windows computer if each cluster has 2 sectors?

6

Understand what data blocks are for in an EXT file system

: These blocks store the actual data of files and directories in the EXT file system.

What is a cache and how does it make a CPU more efficient?

A cache, a fast-access memory component, stores frequently used data and instructions near the CPU, reducing access time and boosting overall system performance by minimizing delays in fetching information from slower main memory.

Understand what a partition is

A partition is a logically independent section of a hard drive, treated as a separate unit, typically containing its own file system.

What is a thread and why do we use them in modern computers?

A thread is the smallest bit of code that can be executed independently. We use them in modern computers for efficiency.

Be able to explain what a thread is

A thread is the smallest block of computer code that can be independently scheduled for execution.

The _______ is a component within the CPU containing circuitry to perform computation, comparison, and logic instructions.

ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

__________ is a standard 7-bit coding method for character data and some device control codes and is supported by almost all computers.

ASCII

What is the difference between ASCII and Unicode? Why do we need Unicode?

ASCII uses a 7-bit encoding scheme limited to 128 characters, while Unicode employs a variable-length encoding capable of representing a broader range of characters from different languages, symbols, and emojis, essential for global communication and compatibility across diverse languages and writing systems in modern computing.

Understand the differences in ASCII and Unicode and why we need Unicode (What are the limitations of ASCII?):

ASCII: Limited to 128 characters, insufficient for global character representation. Unicode: Addresses this limitation by providing a larger character set, allowing for representation of characters from multiple languages and symbol sets.

Understand what the Memory/cache controller does

Address Bus: Transmits memory addresses. Data Bus: Carries data between the CPU and memory. Control Bus: Carries control signals for coordination.(Interrupts ride on the control bus

Understand what an inode is in an EXT file system

An inode in the EXT file system stores metadata and pointers to the data blocks that constitute a file or directory.

Explain what an interrupt is and what bus it uses

An interrupt is a signal to the CPU, initiated by hardware or software, to temporarily halt its current operation and handle a specific event. Uses control bus

Know the 7 ways CPUs can be classified by hardware elements

Architecture Clock Speed Cache Address Bus Data Bus Control Bus CPU Scheduling

Explain the three main parts of a CPU core and what they do.

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): The ALU performs arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, etc.) and logical operations (AND, OR, NOT, etc.), handling calculations and decision-making processes. Control Unit (CU): The CU manages the execution of instructions, fetching them from memory, decoding them into control signals, and coordinating the flow of data within the CPU and between other system components. Registers: Registers are small, high-speed memory units within the CPU that temporarily store data and instructions being processed, facilitating quick access by the ALU and CU for efficient computation and control flow.

What are two reasons computers represent data using binary?

Binary numbers represent electrical signals and can be transported reliably between computer systems and their components They can be processed by two-state electrical devices that are easy to design and fabricate They correspond to boolean logic They can combine digits to represent and manipulate larger numbers.

Binary numbers are well suited to computer processing because they correspond directly with values in ____ logic

Boolean

The ____ data type has only two data values—true and false.

Boolean

Understand why we use Boolean algebra in computing

Boolean algebra is fundamental in computing as it forms the basis for logical operations, helping in decision-making and control flow in computer systems.

The system __________ is the main channel for moving data and instructions to and from hardware components.

Bus

Explain The Tradeoffs in Goals of Computer Data Representation

C- Compactness A- Accuracy R- Range E- Ease of manipulation S- Standardization Each one can effect the efficiency of the other so it depends on what you need. For example accuracy may be very important and do that may be prioritized at the expense of compactness.

CISC vs. RISC

CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computing) CPUs use complex instructions that can perform multiple low-level operations, while RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computing) CPUs use simpler instructions with a more streamlined approach to execution.

Be able to explain what a cache is and what the different levels of cache mean

Caches come in multiple levels (L1, L2, L3), with L1 being the closest to the CPU and usually the smallest but fastest, and L3 shared by different cores being larger but slower L4 ad sometimes L3 are on motherboard

ist and briefly describe three of the five goals of data representation that computer system and CPU designers try to achieve for various types of data. Describe the trade-offs among those goals (i.e. how does one affect the other?). Be sure to give specific examples to demonstrate your understanding.

Compactness describes the number of bits used to represent a numeric value. The trade-off for compactness is that it has a limited range of values that it can represent. Accuracy is the degree to which the result of a measurement conforms to the correct value. Accuracy increases with the number of bits used, which affects the balance between range and compactness. It can be best achieved by balancing performance and cost. Range is the range of numbers available to use uses more data, slower. As range relates to compactness, the more compact a device with a smaller range, the more affordable it will be. Example: ASCII vs Unicode Ease of Manipulation means how easy it is to for the computer to process the data. The trade-off for ease of manipulation is that more complex devices require more time to perform functions. This relates to the efficiency of the computer. Standardization ensures correct and efficient data transmission. It gives users the flexibility to combine hardware from different vendors with few data transmission issues. The trade-off for standardization is the risk of losing functionality between devices. Example: ASCII vs EBCDIC

List the reasons computers use binary representation:

Computers are stupid. Binary representation is used in computers because it aligns well with the on/off nature of electronic switches, making it easier and more efficient for hardware to process and store data.

Which bus carries interrupts, read commands, status codes, and acknowledgements?

Control Bus

Which part of the CPU is responsible for receiving and decoding an instruction and giving it to another CPU component for execution?

Control Unit

Understand the different components of a CPU, including Control Unit (CU), Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), Registers, caches

Control Unit (CU): It coordinates and manages the execution of instructions, controlling the flow of data within the CPU and between other hardware components. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Responsible for executing arithmetic and logical operations, performing calculations, comparisons, and other mathematical operations. Registers: These are small, high-speed storage locations within the CPU used to store data temporarily during processing. They hold instructions, addresses, and intermediate results. Cache: A small, high-speed memory used to store frequently accessed data and instructions. It allows the CPU to access data quickly, improving overall performance by reducing the time spent fetching data from slower memory sources.

Be able to give examples of file metadata

File metadata includes attributes like file name, size, type, creation date, modification date, access permissions, and file location.

Know what a GUID Partition Table is

GPT is a modern partitioning scheme that overcomes MBR limitations by supporting larger disk sizes and offering more partitions.

Describe how hard drives are organized

Hard drives are organized into tracks, sectors, and cylinders.

Know what a disk cluster is in NTFS

In NTFS, a disk cluster is a group of one or more sectors used to store files. Serves as the smallest unit for file allocation

A(n) ____ is a whole number—a value that doesn't have a fractional part.

Integer

A(n) ________________ data type can store only whole numbers.

Integer

Describe the 5 different data types (formats) CPUs of most modern computer can recognize and process:

Integers: Whole Numbers Real Numbers: Can be Whole numbers and Fractions Characters: Alphabetical letters and symbols Boolean Values: True/False Values Memory Address: References to a specific location that memory is stored

What is the difference between an Intel or AMD CPU and an ARM CPU?

Intel/AMD CPUs typically power desktops/laptops and use x86/x64 architecture, while ARM CPUs are prevalent in mobile devices, embedded systems, and use a RISC-based architecture.

Understand how the User Interface works in a file system

It typically involves a graphical interface or command-line interface that allows users to interact with the file system, managing files/folders through operations like copy, paste, delete, and search.

Explain pipelining and how it makes CPUs more efficient

It's a CPU technique where multiple instructions are overlapped in execution stages, allowing the processor to process several instructions simultaneously, enhancing overall performance. - Think stairs

Know what a partition table does on a disk

It's a data structure on a disk that stores information about the partitions present on the disk, including their size, location, and type. Metadata about the partitions

Understand what the Superblock does in an EXT file system

It's a structure at the beginning of a file system that contains metadata about the file system itself, like size, status, and information about other structures.

Understand what formatting is

It's the process of preparing a storage device for data storage by creating a file system, defining the logical structures needed for data storage and retrieval.

Which feature of NTFS keeps a log of file system activity to help prevent loss of information if there is a power outage while your disk is in use?

Journaling

Understand what the Master Boot Record is and the difference between a primary partition, and extended partition, and a logical partition.

MBR is a special type of boot sector at the first sector of the disk that contains the bootloader and partition information for the system. Primary Partition: Can be formatted and assigned a drive letter. Extended partitions: Cannot be formatted and assigned a drive letter. It acts as a container for Logical partitions: Which is used for data storage.

Explain overflow and underflow:

Overflow: Occurs when a calculation result exceeds the maximum value that a data type can hold. Underflow: Happens when a calculation yields a value smaller than the smallest representable value for that data type.

Which feature of RISC CPUs allows the processor to operate on one instruction at the same time it is fetching one or more subsequent instructions?

Pipelining

How does pipelining increase the speed of a computer system?

Pipelining increases the speed of a computer because after every clock cycle it adds more tasks to be completed. This creates the stair like system that completes more tasks per clock cycle.

A ___________ partition is one that is listed in the Master Boot Record partition table.

Primary

Explain the differences between a RISC processor and a CISC processor. Which one dominates the consumer PC industry?

RISC processors focus on a simplified instruction set for faster execution of simple tasks, while CISC processors offer a more complex set of instructions, often executing more operations per instruction, and historically, CISC processors have dominated the consumer PC industry.

The ___________ is (are) inside the core of a CPU and is the fastest memory locations in the computer system.

Register

The _______ _______ (2 words) is the first memory location the CPU goes to when it is powered on.

Reset Vector

In a folder hierarchy, the top, or primary, level is referred to as which of the following?

Root

Know the difference between single core and multi-core computers

Single-core computers have one processing unit, while multi-core computers integrate multiple processors within a single chip for parallel processing tasks.

Know the difference between single processor and multi-processor computers

Single-processor computers have one central processing unit, while multi-processor computers contain multiple CPUs for simultaneous processing.

A ____________ in an EXT file system stores metadata about the entire file system, not a particular file.

Super Block

Understand the difference between the CPU clock and the external clock in a computer

The CPU clock is the internal clock that dictates how fast the CPU processes instructions, while the external clock is the system's overall clock speed.

Know what the Master File Table is in NTFS

The MFT in NTFS stores metadata for all files and directories on the disk

Know how file systems are normally organized

The file system has a hierarchal structure. The structure goes Computer, Disk drives. Directories. Subdirectories, Files

Understand how the width of the address bus affect how much memory a computer can access

The width of the address bus determines the maximum memory capacity a computer can access; a wider bus allows access to more memory locations.

Understand what the reset vector is for and why computers need it

a reset vector is like a built-in instruction in a computer's memory that tells the computer what to do when it starts or restarts. It's essential for the system to begin executing code from a known point.

Which hardware component predicts what data will be needed and makes that data available to the CPU's internal memory?

cache controller

A group of sectors on a disk is called which of the following?

cluster

The term "____" describes the number of bits used to represent a numeric value.

compactness

Which of the following is NOT a task typically performed by an OS's file system?

convert files between image formats

A file on a Macintosh file system can have a fork and a fork.

data, resource

In which of the following elements of a file system are files organized in groups for easy navigation of the file system?

directory

Understand the functions of a file system:

file system manages how data is stored, organized, and retrieved on storage devices, including tasks like file creation, deletion, naming, and access control.

Which type of operation writes the file system structure to the disk?

formatting

What type of structure is usually used to organize folders in a file system?

hierarchical

What structure does the Linux ext3 file system use to keep track of files in the file system?

inode

Which of the following is NOT an element of the MBR on a Windows system?

master file table

A CPU that has two or more components that read and execute instructions is referred to as which of the following?

multicore processor

The data types a CPU supports are sometimes called ____ data types.

primitive

Which of the following is NOT considered part of a computer's system architecture?

the kernel

The accuracy, or precision, of data format representation increases with ____.

the number of data bits used

Which of the following statements is true about how disk drives are organized?

tracks are divided into sectors