T&HS ch 13

Robert Taylor (1987) found two primary weaknesses in U.S. systems:

(1) Intelligence is not properly analyzed, and (2) agencies do not coordinate information.

The Bureau of Justice Assistance (BJA) has trained more than_____________________ state, local, and tribal officers since 9/11 in the BJA State and Local Anti-Terrorism Training (SLATT) program

100,000

Before ____________, FLETC was responsible for training all federal law enforcement officers except special agents from the FBI and DEA. These agencies have their own training academies at the Marine Corps base in Quantico, Virginia.

2003

The DHS was created from the Office of Homeland Security in _______ as a direct result of the 9/11 attacks.

2003

Congress approved the creation of DHS by uniting ______agencies in 2002, but many other governmental organizations also focus on homeland security

22

Currently, ______ centers collect and analyze information, coordinating that information with DHS.

72

Before ____________, the FBI was designated as the lead agency for investigating cases of terrorism in the United States.

9/11

They maintain that the _________________was established to investigate the attacks but that it had neither the expertise nor the capability to reform intelligence gathering

9/11 Commission

According to the DOJ (U.S. DOJ, 2007), "There are ______ United States Attorneys stationed throughout the United States, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands.

93

Two types of private-sector organizations participate in homeland security__________________. The health care system and energy sector are also part of the infrastructure of homeland security.

: businesses providing critical infrastructure and businesses centered on security technology and service

Department of Homeland Security (DHS):

A federal agency created in 2003 by Congress from the Office of Homeland Security after the attacks of September 11, 2001.

National Criminal Intelligence Sharing Plan (NCISP)

A plan to share criminal intelligence among the nation's law enforcement agencies. It suggests minimum stan-dards for establishing and managing intelligence operations within police agencies.

national security intelligence:

A system of agencies and networks that gather information about threats to the country. Any threat or potential threat is examined under the auspices of national defense intelligence. Unlike criminal intelligence, people and agencies gathering defense information do not need to suspect any criminal activity. The FBI is empowered to gather defense intelligence.

Regional Crime Gun Cen-ters (RCGC):

ATF intelligence centers similar to RICs but focused on the illegal use of firearms.

total criminal intelligence (TCI):

All criminal intelligence gathered and analyzed for intelligence-led policing. Rather than focusing on one type of issue, such as terrorism, agencies focus on gathering information about all potential crimes and social problems.

total criminal intelligence (TCI):

An "all crimes" ap-proach to the intelligence process. The same type of intelligence that thwarts terrorism works against other crimes and community problems.

COINTELPRO:

An infamous FBI counterintelligence program started in 1956. Agents involved in COINTELPRO violated constitutional limitations on domestic intelligence gathering, and the pro-gram came under congressional criticism in the early 1970s. The FBI's abuse of power eventually resulted in restrictions on the FBI.

Basic information:

Analysts begin work after obtaining an in-depth, multi- disciplinary education.

Applied information:

Analysts gather information about a specific problem.

Analyzed information:

Analysts produce intelligence based on analyzed information.

Real-time information:

Analysts receive actual information as it is forwarded from the field.

Within the The New Jersey State Police (NJSP),The Intelligence Bureau is the largest division, composed of six units.

Analytic unit casino intelligence electronic surveillance Liaison Computerized Services Unit service unit street gang unit

RISS expanded operations in April 2003 by creating the

Anti-Terrorism Information Exchange (ATIX).

Although they do not use this information in criminal prosecutions, they are authorized to pass the information to agencies charged with national security.

Anti-Terrorist Assistance Coordinator (ATAC).

Each U.S. attorney's office has an

Anti-Terrorist Assistance Coordinator (ATAC).

_______________________ information, with the specificity the researcher seeks, requires both in-depth knowledge about a specific topic and the latest information from the discipline.

Applied

_______________________ intelligence involves gathering basic information about a target and real-time information about its current activities.

Applied

________________intelligence involves general information about a subject and its subdisciplines.

Basic

At the state and regional levels, efforts must be made to assemble, categorize, and analyze information and place it within national and international contexts.This results in a four-step process:

Basic information applied information real-time information analyzed information

_____________was unique in state and local law enforcement. It combined machine intelligence, that is, the type of information that can be gathered by computers and other automated devices, with information coming from a variety of police agencies. The information was correlated and organized by analysts looking for trends. Future projections were made by looking at past indicators. Rather than simply operating as an information-gathering unit, CATIC was a synthesizing process.

CATIC

The ODNI is a new concept in intelligence gathering. It coordinates information from national security and military intelligence. These agencies include the__________________________

CIA, the National Security Agency, the Defense Intelligence Agency, the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, and the National Reconnaissance Office.

in the 1950s the CIA tested drugs on Americans without their consent or knowledge; the FBI's counterintelligence program, _______________________ exceeded the authority of law enforcement in the name of national security.

COINTELPRO

California also introduced a new concept in statewide intelligence systems, the_____________________. Formed after September 11, this statewide intelligence system was designed to combat terrorism.

California Anti-Terrorism Information Center (CATIC)

_________________was not seeking to dismantle intelligence operations; he wanted to protect Americans from their government. The president tried to correct the abuse of power and end the scandal of using covert operations against American citizens.

Carter

civil defense:

Citizens engaged in homeland security.

___________________ is gathered by law enforce-ment and prosecuting attorneys. It cannot be gathered, analyzed, or stored without a reason to believe that a crime is about to take place or has taken place

Criminal intelligence

____________________ in the DHS, on the other hand, uses its agents to secure U.S. borders and points of entry, with customs agents collecting revenue.

Customs and Border Protection

in time of war, the military organizations in the _______________ play the leading role. The DOD has also assumed counterterrorist functions. It does this in two ways. First, DOD operates the U.S. Northern Command to ensure homeland security.

DOD

In the autumn of 2004, the _________________held a conference on special operations that combined the military's counterterrorism efforts with American law enforcement's.

Department of Defense (DOD)

________________________is a tool for dealing with weather disasters and industrial accidents.

Emergency planning

The Department of Justice (DOJ) maintains several functions in the realm of counterterrorism. The most noted agency is the_______________ (FBI, n.d.).

FBI

Law enforcement agencies that report to the director of national intelligence include the

FBI's National Security Branch, the DOE's Office of Intelligence and Counterintelligence, the DHS's Office of Intelligence and Analysis, the Department of the Treasury's Office of Intelligence and Analysis, and the Drug Enforcement Administration's Office of National Security Intelligence

Many DHS employees are employed in law enforcement tasks and have arrest powers. In the new Homeland Security structure, these special agents and federal police officers are trained at the ________________ in Glencoe, Georgia.

Federal Law Enforcement Training Center (FLETC)

The bureau also maintains_______________Intelligence offices in its local agencies

Field

The DOD has also assumed counterterrorist functions. It does this in two ways.

First, DOD operates the U.S. Northern Command to ensure homeland security. This is the second function of DOD. When civilian authorities request and the president approves it, military forces may be used to support civilians in counterterrorism

Law enforcement and intelligence agencies present their systems in a positive light, but critics point to two types of failures. .

First, intelligence processes have been ineffective Second, the government has abused its authority in the past.

Torin Monahan and Neal Palmer (2009) also have concerns. They argue that fusion centers have three weaknesses.

First, not only is there a lack of evidence demonstrating the efficacy of fusion centers; their research shows the homeland security system is ineffective and expensive. Second, the expansion of responsibility from terrorism prevention to dealing with all hazards represents a task beyond law enforcement's mission. Finally, the massive amount of information centralized in fusion centers threatens civil liberties.

If state and local agencies shift to offensive thinking and action, two results will inevitably develop.

First, police contact with potential terrorists will increase. Second, proactive measures demand increased intelligence gathering, and much of the information will have no relation to criminal activity.

Although the centers were operating by the beginning of the twenty-first century, Carter reports that they had some drawbacks.

First, their focus tended to be on local crimes and issues. There were few efforts to share information on a larger, more systematic scale. Second, no funding was available to expand the operation of the centers.

Despite the systems and networks that were developed to share information, many agencies still were not part of the information-sharing process. ________________ came about to correct this.

Fusion centers

The RICs eventually evolved into

High Intensity Drug Trafficking Area intelligence centers—HIDTA-RIC.

Prepared responses, the ____________________contends, are proactive

IACP

criminal intelligence

Information gathered on the reasonable suspicion that a criminal activity is occurring or about to occur. It is collected by law enforcement agencies in the course of their preventive and investigative functions. It is shared on information networks such as the Regional In-formation Sharing System (RISS). Unlike national defense intelligence, criminal intelligence applies only under criminal law. Agencies must suspect some violation of criminal law before they can collect intelligence.

Planning

It enhances the gathering, organizing, and analyzing of information

the FBI also coordinates state and local law enforcement efforts in

Joint Terrorism Task Forces (JTTFs).

in Destin, Florida, several federal agencies sponsored a training session that combined federal law enforcement, military, and intelligence agencies with state, local, and tribal law enforcement. ________________ (2007), then secretary of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) , spoke of the necessity to operate as a multifaceted team of differing organizations to stop terrorism before it occurred.

Michael Chertoff

Shortly after 9/11, the IACP joined with the DOJ to create the _______________________

National Criminal Intelligence Sharing Plan (NCISP)

The plan established norms for collecting, analyzing, and storing criminal intelligence within legal guidelines. It also suggested how information could be shared among agencies. Its primary function was to set mini-mum standards for criminal intelligence so that every American police agency knew the legal guidelines for using criminal information. It also sought to create standards for using technology and giving police officers access to information.

National Criminal Intelligence Sharing Plan (NCISP)

___________________ is gathered to defend the nation. It is not used in criminal prosecutions, and it is not subject to legal scrutiny.

National security intelligence

Nancy Tucker (2008), a former executive in the intelligence community and now a professor at Georgetown University, suggests that the failure of intelligence analysis is evidenced by two factors: the surprise attacks of September 11 and the analysis of the WMD program in Iraq. Congress created the ________________ to address such flaws.

ODNI

The purpose of the_____________is to unite America's national security intelligence under one umbrella.

ODNI

national intelligence efforts. The 9/11 Commission report suggested sweeping intelligence reforms, including the creation of a single intelligence director. The ____________resulted from those recommendations.

ODNI

Fusion centers:

Operations set up to fuse information from multiple sources, analyze the data, turn it into usable intelligence, and distribute intelligence to agencies needing the information.

Regional Intelligence Centers:

Originally established to gather drug trafficking intelligence, RICs helped provide the basis for fusion centers.

______________________ brings resources together in a complex environment to manage multiple consequences.

Planning

United States Attorneys are appointed by, and serve at the discretion of, the____________________ of the United States, with advice and consent of the United States Senate. One United States Attorney is assigned to each of the judicial districts, with the exception of Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands where a single United States Attorney serves in both districts.

President

group think:

Refers to a bureaucratic process in which members of a group work together to solve a problem; however, innovation and deviant ideas are discouraged as the group tries to seek consensus about a conclusion. Powerful members of the group may quash alternative voices. Intelligence groups tend to resist making any risky conclusion lest they jeopardize their individual careers. Peer pressure creates an atmosphere in which every individual comes to the same conclusion.

David Carter (2008) says that fusion centers evolved from ______________ created to counteract drug trafficking in the 1980s.

Regional Intelligence Centers (RIC)

Fusion centers developed from __________

Regional Intelligence Centers.

High Intensity Drug Trafficking Area:

Specialized RICs in regions experiencing a high level of drug trafficking and drug-related crimes. They evolved from RICs and were the direct predecessor to fusion centers. Some HIDTAs simply expanded to become full fusion centers.

The federal government also envisions three intelligence roles for local governments. David Carter (2005) explains the first two.

State, local, and tribal law enforcement agencies need to collect tactical intelligence for the prevention of terrorism and other crimes. They must also use intelligence for planning and the deployment of resources. Chief Gary Vest (2007) explains the third role. Information sharing is at the heart of local intelligence systems.

agencies under the DHS

TSA, US customs and border, ICE, US citizens and immigration services, , US immigration and customs enforcement, secret service, emergency management, coast guard

symbolic targets:

Terrorist targets that may have limited military or security value but represent the power of the state under attack. Terrorists seek symbolic targets to strike fear into society and to give a sense of power to the terrorist group. The power of the symbol also multiplies the effect of the attack.

The New Jersey State Police (NJSP), for example, has an extensive intelligence-gathering apparatus (New Jersey State Police, 2002). The NJSP Intelligence Service Section is made up of three main divisions.

The Intelligence Bureau is the largest division, composed of six units. The Central Security Division Solid waste division

and after the invasion of Iraq and the failure to find weapons of mass destruction (WMD). ______________________began operations in April 2005.

The Office of the Director of National Intelligence (ODNI)

intelligence-led policing

This concept is a continuation of community policing, in which police officers anticipate and solve community problems with citizens before an increase in crime and social disorder occurs.

A ________________ magazine article (Calabresi and Ratnesar, 2002) states the issue succinctly: America needs to learn to spy again.

Time

The DOJ is involved in other areas as well (U.S. DOJ, 2006). _________________________investigate and prosecute terrorism cases and coordinate intelligence sharing (see "Build-ing Intelligence Systems"). C

U.S. attorneys

The _____________________ increases the ability of law enforcement and intelligence agencies to share information,

USA PATRIOT Act

Civil defense did not develop overnight; rather, it emerged slowly from civilian functions during __________________

World War II.

Stansfield Turner

a former director of the CIA, to summarize the differences between law enforcement and national security. "Give the FBI a task," Turner once said, "and it will try to complete the mission within the constraints of the law. Give the CIA the same mission, and it tries to complete the task without concern for legality."

Symbols need not only be considered in the _____________. Blowing up a national treasure would entail the loss of a national symbol, but killing thousands of innocent people becomes a symbol in itself.

abstract

Information gathering is comparable to _______________. Before beginning, a researcher needs basic knowledge of a field and an understanding of subdisciplines.

academic research

Police intelligence systems can be modeled after ________________

academic research.

Fusion centers continued to evolve with an "_____________" or total criminal intelligence (TCI) mentality

all crime

Carter (2008) shows that fusion centers took the TCI concept one step further by analyzing information about "all threats," and from there analysis went to "__________." The primary mission remains analyzing intelligence to identify terrorist threats, but there is a great redundancy in information. In other words, the information that can be used to prevent terrorism is also useful in identifying criminal and public health problems.

all hazards

The intelligence process is very close to basic and applied academic research. It involves the legal recognition, collection, analysis, and distribution of information. Intelligence is "________________________

analyzed information.

The greatest criticism is aimed at the ___________. Although illegal immigration is a hot topic of political debate, the southern border is not secure by any measure.

borders

The University of Virginia's Critical Incident Analysis Group (CIAG)

brought law enforcement officials, business leaders, governmental administrators, and academics together to discuss America's vulnerability to symbolic attac

Defense or security intelligence

can be gathered whether the targets are involved in a crime or not.

Each United States Attorney is the ___________________ of the United States within his or her particular jurisdiction."

chief federal law enforcement officer

During the cold war various organizations involved in ____________ gradually learned specific missions.

civil defense

Homeland security also involves _____________, that is, citizens engaged in home-land security

civil defense

Kayyem and Howitt believe that partnerships are the key to _________________________

community planning.

Despite these views, the commission did not blame the FBI for all the intelligence failures. It stated that a series of rulings by the attorney general and mandates from Congress limited the FBI's ability to collect domestic intelligence. As a result, DOJ officials were confused about the relationship between criminal investigations and intelligence operations, and this resulted in a complete separation of the FBI's _______________________________

criminal and national security functions.

The reason for the initial confusion about policy is that America had no common ____________ of homeland security

definition

After riots in Dade County, Florida, in 1980, local agencies developed ___________________ similar to mutual aid pacts among firefighters.

field-force-deployment plans

Formerly, the U.S. Coast Guard was under the Department of Transportation (except in time of war, when it is subsumed by the U.S. Navy). It was the ______________agency to be assigned to the DHS.

first

a typical fusion center may have analysts and agents from several federal law enforcement and intelligence agencies, military personnel, and local police officers and criminal analysts. It merges information—earning the name ___________—into a single process of data analysis.

fusion

The 9/11 Commission Report stated that the DOJ was geared to ______________________. It was not designed to look into additional intelligence after a verdict is rendered.

gather evidence, prosecute, and convict

The ODNI has also been able to attack the problem of ______________ by placing analysts in critical thinking training during the first stages of their careers.

group think

If military forces are to transform themselves in the fashion suggested by Thomas Barnett (2004), law enforcement must seek and find new roles. More than _________________ of the DHS agencies have police power, and state and local governments look to law enforcement to prevent attacks and respond to the unthinkable.

half

Spear-phishing

has become one of most common methods of attacking private corporations. It begins with the attackers doing research on employees, generally through social network sites. The attackers devise a strategy to send e-mails to selected targets with lures to get them to open e-mails containing malicious software. The e-mails appear to be sent from close associates of the selected target. When the e-mail is opened, a hacker can enter the system through the portal.

The HSIN allows all states and major urban areas to collect and disseminate information among federal, state, and local agencies involved in combating terrorism. It also

helps provide situational awareness. • facilitates information sharing and collaboration with homeland security partners across federal, state, and local levels .• provides advanced analytic capabilities. • enables real-time sharing of threat information.

The Coast Guard has many duties

including the protection of coastal and inland waterways, environmental protection, the interdiction of contraband, and maritime law enforcement. For counterterrorism, its primary mission is to intercept terrorists and weapons on the high seas. Coast Guard personnel also serve wherever U.S. military personnel are deployed under the command of the armed forces.

The most important aspect of security, however, is the _____________ that guides security forces.

information

Raw information comes to fusion centers from law enforcement, other government agencies, and the private sector. The raw information is analyzed to reveal patterns of suspicious activity, the behavior habits of known or suspected terrorists, the vulnerability of targets, and the probability of an attack. This information, known as an _______________

intelligence product

The purpose of __________________ is to redeploy resources in areas where they are most needed based on the analysis of criminal information

intelligence-led policing

A type of law enforcement in which resources are deployed based on information gathered and analyzed from criminal intelligence.

intelligence-led policing:

pragmatic terrorism

involves a practical attempt to destroy political power;

Symbolic terrorism

is a dramatic attack to show vulnerability;

The Central Security Division

is responsible for New Jersey's counterterrorist mission. Its primary purpose is the prevention of terrorist activities through intelligence operations. In other words, it is a proactive organization designed to prevent terrorism through interdiction.

Department of Energy (DOE)

is responsible for protecting nuclear materials, power grids, and gas lines.

The Homeland Security Information Network (HSIN)

is set up to connect all jurisdictions with real-time communication. It includes state homeland security officials, the National Guard, emergency operations centers, and local emergency service providers. HSIN provides encrypted communications on a secure network. Designed to combine the criminal information of RISS with critical infrastructure protection, HSIN is designed to unite all the different organizations involved in homeland security

systematic terrorism

is waged over a period of time to change social conditions.

Agencies are coming to grips with the concept of homeland security because, in its most rudimentary form, the term means

keeping the country safe.

The concept was formed in the wake of a jihadist attack, but it has expanded beyond September 11.

keeping the country safe.

homeland security protects_____________________. It is designed to secure the United States.

lives, property, and infrastructure

Americans define homeland security in several different ways. It has a variety of meanings to different government agencies, private organizations, and interest groups. The best way to define it is to look at the _____________________ of each particular agency dealing with homeland security.

mission

Each organization in a network has its own function, and the key to success in a network is sharing information.This leads to the need for two different types of intelligence.

national security intelligence criminal intelligence

obtained by critics of the system, CATIC collected and maintained records on several individuals and groups that had nothing to do with terrorism. In fact, if critics are correct, it gathered and stored information on political dissidents who engaged in _____________ criminal activity (B. Hoffman, 2003). This is an illegal activity. Despite the initial hopes, CATIC closed its doors.

no

Judge Richard A. Posner (2004) argues that the 9/11 Commission Report presents two competing parts. The first, he writes, is an excellent step-by-step analysis of the events that led up to the attacks on September 11 and an explanation of actions after the terrorists struck. The second part of the report is a series of recommendations. Posner says that he paused when he encountered the recommendations because the policies and directions the commission suggested were ________________________

not altogether consistent with the analysis of the first part of the report.

Police Commissioner Raymond Kelly created two new units, ________________________. Retired Marine Corps General Frank Libutti heads the counterterrorism section, and a former high-ranking CIA official, David Cohen, was selected to head the intelligence section.

one for counterterrorism and one for intelligence

The DOJ has created two intelligence systems,

one in federal prosecutors' offices and the other in law enforcement.

The Post found that the intelligence community had grown so large that no one could account for its costs. In fact, the number of people involved in intelligence and the number of agencies doing the same work were also unknown. It found that

over 3,000 public and private organizations operated counterterrorism-related programs at 10,000 locations across the United States. The number of top secret security clearances, numbering about 854,000 people, was astounding. Over 50,000 intelligence reports were published each year, and no one agency had the authority to manage the overall operation.

The purpose of fusion centers is to

place experts and analysts from a variety of fields and organizations in a single collaborative work environment.

The ______________ guiding homeland security in the United States has not been fully developed, and agency leaders are not quite sure how all the missions of the various agencies fit together.

policy

There is confusion, to be sure, but it centers on ___________, not mission.

policy

terrorists use symbolic attacks, or attacks on symbols, to achieve _________________________

pragmatic or systematic results.

Roles of DHS are divided into three functions:

preventing terrorism, responding to attacks, and providing technical support to local agencies

One of the greatest potential allies is __________________

private security organizations.

FBI's Law Enforcement Online (LEO)

provides FBI intelligence to state, local, and tribal agencies.

The U.S. Marshals Service (2005)

provides protection to federal officials under any type of threat in addition to the roles of securing the courts and apprehending escaped offenders. Marshals are responsible for securing federal courts and officials from terrorist attacks.

With the advent of __________motorized patrol, response time became the measure of police effectiveness.

radio-dispatched

American law enforcement has a long tradition of _______________ patrol, that is, responding to crimes and calls for assistance.

reactive

police agencies are required to demonstrate a ________________ of criminal activity before they may collect information.

reasonable suspicion

David Carter suggests refocusing law enforcement efforts. Police activity, he argues, should be led by intelligence. In order to accomplish this, police agencies should take an "R-cubed" approach:

reassess, refocus, and reallocate.

The ability of state, local, and tribal agencies to ______________ information is at the heart of preventing terrorist strikes within the borders of the United States

share

Asymmetrical war is waged against _______________ , and homeland security is designed to secure symbols.

symbolic targets

Ian Lesser (1999, pp. 85-144) outlines three forms of terrorism:

symbolic, pragmatic, and systematic.

The National Strategy for Homeland Security (Office of Homeland Security, 2002, p. 56; U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 2004b, pp. 3-34) calls for increasing information sharing among law enforcement agencies by building a cooperative environment that enables sharing of essential information. It will be a "__________________."

system of systems that can provide the right information to the right people at all times

National security intelligence is ultimately designed to protect ______________, not individuals' rights.

targets

FLETC instructors also teach basic and advanced classes on ______________.

terrorism

Nancy Tucker (2008), a former executive in the intelligence community and now a professor at Georgetown University, suggests that the failure of intelligence analysis is evidenced by two factors:

the surprise attacks of September 11 and the analysis of the WMD program in Iraq.

Essentially, mission and ________ of homeland security mean the same thing, but there are many different understandings of homeland security because agencies have differing missions.

understanding

Regional Information Sharing System (RISS)

was created in 1973. RISS has six centers—each serving a selected group of states—that share criminal information with investigators working on a variety of criminal activities, including terrorism.

The Solid Waste Division

which gathers information about hazardous materials and keeps an eye on organized crime, and the Casino Bureau round out the organization of the NJSP Intelligence Service Section.

The 9/11 commission criticized the FBI because:

• It did not place resources in intelligence gathering. • The division established to analyze intelligence faltered .• The bureau did not have an effective intelligence-gathering system.

Information for Planning

• List available resources .• Project potential attacks .• Identify critical infrastructures. Factors influencing plans, including • emergency command structures • coordination among agencies • mass casualties • victim and family support • preservation of evidence • crime scene management • media relations • costs • training and preincident exercises

Congress received special attention. The commission said that Congress bore much of the responsibility for the state of affairs in government. It had failed to create an effective mechanism for protecting the country. It had maintained a large bureaucracy with ineffective oversight and communication. Among the issues noted by the 9/11 Commission were the following:

• There were too many committees overseeing intelligence. • Like the intelligence community, Congress was structured for a cold war enemy .• Congressional priorities were in areas other than terrorism .• Congress was slow to react to terrorism and favored local domestic issues over those of national security.

National Security Agency, DOE, DHS, FBI, and CIA. Defense or security intelligence is usually based on one or more of the following sources:

• humint: Human intelligence from spies, informers, defectors, and other people • imint: Imagery intelligence from satellites and aircraft • sigint: Signal intelligence from communications • masint: Measures and signatures intelligence from sensing devices, such as detecting a weapons system based on the amount of heat it is producing