Test 3 Exam

Homo Erectus (Asia)

"Java Man" discovered by Eugene Dubois in 1891. Taller than all other hominins and similar to humans anatomically. Hunter/Gatherers but did not use Archulean toolkit, only Oldowan. Large bodied variations (Turkana Boy) were found in East Africa showing evidence of hunting habits, not scavenging.

Paranthropus

"Parallel to man" were bipedal hominids that probably descended from the gracile Australopithecine hominids; hard food specialist found in East & South Africa with very wide, flat faces. Sagittal crest present, zygomatics (cheekbone) positioned anteriorly, and had larger posterior teeth than Australopithecines.

Geologic Time Periods

1. Pliocene era was 5 mya to 1.8 mya 2. Pleistocene era was 1.8 mya to 10 kya (alternating ice ages and interglacial periods)(divided up into subperiods called the Paleolithic

Lower Paleolithic

1.8 mya to 300 kya. "Homo Erectus" or Ergaster species emerged during this era. Known to use basic stone tools (blunt tools) and the period where "people" were found in Eurasia.

Basal Paleolithic

2.6 mya to 1.8 mya. The oldest known stone tools were found in this era as well as the first evidence of the genus "Homo"

Middle Paleolithic

300 kya to 50 kya. Emergence of the Neanderthals who used mousterian tools (flints, or sharp, prepared tools). This species is the anatomical relative of modern humans (AMH)

Upper Paleolithic

50 kya to 12 kya. Where we find "modern humans" that behave in manners that are most modern to us currently. *modern humans and neanderthals existence overlap and they occupy the same space for some period of time but modern humans win the survival battle.

What is a hominin?

A bipedal primate

Brain size trends

After early Homo, brain size increased mostly in the parietal lobe. The differences between Australopithecines and early Homo is profound; which led to led to assigning early Homo to a new genus. (should scale brain size to body size to see real difference knowing that early Homo body size was increasing).

How were Neanderthals physically adapted to cold?

Allen's Rule; genetic adaptation that endotherms from colder climates usually have shorter limbs (or appendages) than the equivalent animals from warmer climates. Average 5'4 in height.

Advantages/Disadvantages of bipedalism

Although bipedalism makes humans slower than most other apes, it did however give humans more efficient locomotion. This allowed humans to travel farther (long-distance roaming) and navigate different types of terrains. It also gave better visibility to humans in an emerging Grassland environment.

Evidence of scavenging behavior

Antelope horns found had microscopic wear which indicates use of digging; not killing.

Species existence

Ard. Ramidus 4.4 mya Au. Anamensis 4.2 - 3.9 mya Au. Afarensis 3.6 - 3 mya Au. Africanus 3 - 2.2 mya Au. Garhi 2.5 mya Par. Aethiopicus 2.5 - 2.3 mya Par. Boisei 2.2 - 1.3 mya Par. Robustus 1.8 - 1 mya

Evidence for ritualized burial

Atapuerca, Spain 400 kya (largest collection of hominin fossils in the world). 2000+ bones have been recovered from mound-structures. Researches believe this may be the oldest known funerary practice in the world.

Assessing Brain Size (cc = cranial capacity)

Au. Afrarensis - 280cc, Au. Africanus - 350cc P. Bolsei~Robustus - 380cc H. Habilis - 575cc Modern Humans - 850cc

How did hominins adapt to climate change at 2.6 Mya

Australopithecines disappear (2.5 mya) and Paranthropus emerges (2.4 mya). H-Habilis also divides into two species, H. Erectus in Asia and H. Ergaster in Africa.

Development in Genus Homo

Between the Basal and Middle Paleolithic era, brain size increases 300%, stone tools become sophisticated, most of the Old World is colonized, ancestral species begin using fire, and big game hunting.

How were Neanderthals physically adapted to close quarters hunting?

Big game hunters. Very powerful body build: broad chest, muscular, thick ribs. powerful grips (for handling spears)

Upper Paleolithic Blade tools

Blades are flakes that are twice as long as they are wide, often placed in handles that had 5x the cutting edge of mousterian tools. (long, narrow, thin). Also used antlers and bones for spear points and harpoons (fishing).

Australopithecines (Genus)

Date back from 4.2-2.0 mya, omnivorous diet, largely bipedal (pelvis more human-like), brain size similar to apes, larger teeth than humans and apes with thick enamel, and are highly sexually dimorphic

Taung Child

Discovered by Raymond Dart in the 1920's, which was a fossil of a juvenile hominin. The face & endocast (negative cast of the brain) was more human like but the size of the brain was more ape-like. Also, the foramen magnum position was suited for bipedalism.

Modern Humans

Dominated the Upper Paleolithic (120 - 50 kya). Reached western Europe bringing: a new toolkit, diversified subsistence strategies, and a highly developed sense of art.

Neanderthals

Dominated the middle paleolithic (300 - 50 kya) found primarily in Europe. Also found in Isreal 120 kya. Debated whether they should be classified as Homo Neanderthalensis or Homo Sapien Neanderthalensis. (some say they should be different species)

Ardipithecus ramidus

Earliest confirmed hominin (4.4 mya). Found in East Africa (Ethiopia) weighed between 90-115 pound. Key features: adapted to both bipedalism and quadrupedalism in trees, ape-like morphology but human-like canines, and lived in a wooded environment.

Best candidate for ancestor of Homo genus

Early Homo found first in East Africa so probably a contemporary Austrapolithecine: Au. Garhi (2.5 mya).

Australopithecine anatomy vs. early Homo

Early Homo had more efficient bipedalism, larger brain size, smaller teeth, gracile facial structure, and a molar structure of 1 > 2 > 3 (reverse order of Australopithecines/Paranthropus)

Big Brain hypothesis

Early anthropologists believed intelligence defined humans and expected large brain size to precede bipedalism. Later, this notion would be rejected and fossil records (Lucy - 1975) would indicate that bipedalism came first and a large brain size came second (roughly 2 million years later).

Why are stone tools important?

First evidence of manufactured items, earliest evidence of conscious behavior, and evidence of increasing mental capacity over time.

How do paleoanthropologists reconstruct the anatomy of Miocene apes?

Fossil apes from the Miocene era are rare. Ape anatomy is reflected in shared characteristics of their descendants.

Anatomically Modern Humans (AMH)

Fossil record is spotty. Evolved during the middle paleolithic with Neanderthals; occupying the same areas in Isreal and used similar tools. Evidence shows them in Africa 190 kya and in the Middle East 120 kya. Anatomically modern to humans but not quite so behaviorally yet.

Paranthropus Boisei

Found in East Africa 2.2-1.3 mya, largest brain size so far (525cc), hyper robust, large flat face, sagittal crest with tiny incissors, larger molars than aethiopicus, and also had the thickest enamel so far (hinting at a diet of seeds, tubers, bulbs, and roots).

Paranthropus Aethiopicus

Found in Ethopia 2.5-2.3 mya. Had a small brain (400cc) flared zygomatic arches, a shallow TMJ joint similar to afarensis, massive chewing apparatus, but had a cranial base more "primitive" than Au. Africanus.

Paranthropus Robustus

Found in South Africa 1.8 - 1.0 mya. Had a very hard food diet, brain size 525cc, largest teeth of all species, and zygomatics were postioned anterior.

Key changes of Modern humans

Habitual bipedalism, small canines, thick enamel, horseshoe shaped jaw, huge brain, non-projecting muzzle, no brow ridges, and spoken language capabilities

Timing of Hominin-Ape split

Hominins diverged from chimps & gorillas around 5 - 7 million years ago. Fossil record indicates the earliest definite hominin existed 4.4 MYA.

Species existence 2

Homo Habilis 2.3 - 1.4 mya H. Erectus 1.8 - 30 kya H. Heidelburgensis 700 - 200 kya H. Neanderthalensis 250 - 30 kya AMH 120 - 50 kya Modern Humans 50 - 12 kya

Foot (Adducted Big Toe)

In humans the foot is small relative to leg length. The foot develops a longitudinal arch which allows ligaments and muscles to act as jumping springs. Also, the big toe is aligned with the other toes (adducted) to promote balance when standing up-right.

Iliac blade & Gluteal Muscles

In humans the pelvis is short & broad, the blade is anteroposterior, and the gluteal muscles are lateral. In Apes, the pelvis is tall & narrow, the blade is mediolateral, and the gluteals are posterior.Gluteal Muscles are attached to the iliac blade and the femur which is important for propulsion in Apes and for balance in humans. For both, these features keep the torso uptight when bipedal.

Valgus Knee

In humans, the femur angles inward from the pelvis to the knee. This positions the knee more under the center of mass which is needed for habitual bidepalism.

Broca's Area (brain)

In the frontal lobe, area associated with language production.

Wernicke's Area (brain)

In the parietal lobe, area associated with language comprehension.

Bone fracture patterns among Neanderthals

Incredible number of fractures due to big game hunting (hands, arms, shoulders, and chest). Similar distribution to fractures found in rodeo riders today.

Toolmaking & Intelligence

Kanzi the Bonobo and the tool making experiment: ~Kanzi was shown how sharp flakes can cut rope, then Kanzi learned to cut ropes in order to get fruit. ~Thicker ropes were used and Kanzi learned to identify the sharpest flakes 90% of the time. ~Kanzi learned to make his own tools although he never managed to strike stones at the optimum angle for sharp flakes.

Australopithecus Garhi

Lived about 2.5 mya in East Africa. Skull was similar to Afarensis and some skulls had a small sagittal crest. This species was most like Afarensis except for: larger posterior and anterior teeth, and more variations in size or robustness. Occupied grassy plains surrounding a lake, no evidence of stone tools found.

Australopithecus Afarensis

Lucy's species dating back to 3-3.9 mya. Species is widespread all throughout East Africa and lived in savannas or woodlands.

Homo Habilis (early Homo)

Means handyman in Latin (earliest agreed upon member of the Homo genus). Found in East and South Africa about 2.3-1.4 mya with strong evidence of stone tool use.

How might climate have led to evolution of the first hominin?

Miocene-Pliocene transition. In the late Miocene, it was difficult for forest dwelling organisms to survive; a cooling trend in the climate decreased species diversity and number of forests. Therefore making Apes more terrestrial. Grassland species increased in number.

How does Neanderthal technology & culture differ from modern humans?

Neanderthals lived hard, short lives (not past 45). They were not artists and did not paint caves like modern humans. Both groups cared for the handicap: old man from LaChappelle (crippling arthritis) and the old man from Shanidar (blind in one eye, withered arm, severe arthritis)

Earliest stone tools

Oldowan found 2.6 mya in East Africa. A stone about the size of a tennis ball used a hammer to knock off flakes used for cutting and scraping. 1. Flakes - for cutting/scraping 2. Choppers - for cutting and opening limbs or bones 3. tools - to cut meat, vegetation, and wood

Six Anatomical changes associated with habitual bipedalism

Position of the foramen magnum, shape of the spine develops S-curve, several changes to the pelvis, valgus knee, changes to the foot, and forelimbs shorter than hindlimbs.

Hominin Brain

Pre-Homo Development: the first bone tool users were Au. Africanus who had more developed frontal lobes. Granting them increased mental capacity for planning, concentration, etc. (evidence of hemispherization, human-like shape).

Facial and masticatory (chewing process) adaptations

Sagittal crest is needed for temporalis muscles to attach (the strongest muscle of mastication). Zygomatic needed for the attachment of masseter muscles which connects the cheek bone to the mandibles permitting broad chewing force; designed for chewing on one side of the mouth at once.

Australopithecus Africanus

Taung child species dating back to 2.5-3.3 mya only in South Africa. They had more horseshoe shaped jaws, higher foreheads, projecting muzzles, similar bipedalism to Afarensis species, and increased facial bone mass that allowed stronger chewing muscles to develop.

Why are so many fossils found in East and South Africa?

The earliest humans were found in Africa, which is where much of human evolution occurred. The fossils of these early hominids, which lived 2 to 6 million years ago, all come from that continent. Most scientists believe early humans migrated out of Africa into Asia between 2 million and 1.7 million years ago, entering Europe some time within the past 1 million years.

"Lucy"

The skeleton that shows evidence of small skull capacity akin to that of apes and of bipedal upright walk akin to that of humans, supporting the debated view that bipedalism preceded increase in brain size in human evolution.

Turkana Boy

This specimen is the most complete early human skeleton ever found (East Africa). It is 1.5 million years old. Turkana Boy is classified as Homo Ergaster.

Behavioral Modernity

Variable subsistence strategy that was adaptable to the environment. Big game hunting in some areas, gathering lifestyles in others, higher population density so increased communal living, and manufactured non-utilitarian items; most widespread are Venus Figurines (28 kya) which possibly were symbolic of fertility. And demonstrated elaborate burial practices.

Upper Paleolithic art

Very developed. 1868 first rock art discovered in Spain dating back 23 kya; primarily cave paintings of big game animals and outlined human hands. (could have been used to indicate which animals were in which areas).

Evidence for hunting and gathering

Very particular diets. Only hunted the young or old members of dangerous game, hunted all ages of docile game, consumed seaside animals (shellfish, seals, fishing, and some birds) which Neanderthals did not, and root/tuber remains found in hearth of some caves.

Neanderthal vs. Human burial

Very similar. Neanderthals buried their dead which is the first intentional burial among hominins. There are 8 discovered sites with graves that include pollen (from dead flowers) and skulls of other animals. Humans followed suit.

Evidence of hunting behavior

Wood spears with fire-hardened tips (400 kya) used to hunt deer, horses, elephants, elephants, and hippos. First early human species to build shelters (site in Terra Amata France)

Spine curvature

ape spine is almost completely straight which means when bipedal, the center of mass is in front of the pelvis; preventing long periods of up-right locomotion. The human spine curves the anterior in lumbar and the posterior in thoracic; aligning the center of gravity with the spinal cord and the pelvis. This adaptation distributes mechanical stress of the body during rest and movement.

Domestication of Dogs

around 15 kya. began the process of artificial selection; killed off any dogs with traits that they did not like. (can be observed in mtDNA analysis).

Key skeletal/dental changes of Miocene apes

climbing adaptations, large canines, thin enamel on teeth, u-shaped upper jaw, large brain, projecting muzzle, brow ridges

Acheulean tools

developed 1.6 - 1.5 mya, the main tool being the (bifacial) hand axe. Very symmetrical with a specialized flake that is much more efficient than Oldowan tools. Important because the tools differ from the raw materials which indicates manufacturing (planning, visualization, cognitive capacity).

Connection between anatomy and diet

development of the jaw muscles allowed this species to exploit a variety of food sources; opposed to being limited to a carnivorous or herbivorous diet.

Australopithecus Anamensis

earliest species dating back to 3.8-4.2 mya in East Africa. Lived in a woodland/bushland habitat, U-shaped jaw, bipedal lower body, considerable canine dimorphism, and weighed about 50-55 kgs.

Who were the earliest tool makers?

earliest tools aren't directly associated with fossils so you have to look at which hominins existed 2.6 to 1.8 mya. ~Au. Garhi (2.5 mya in Ethopia) is plausible because animal bones in that area have been found with cut marks and signs of deliberate chopping.

Unique to the Paleolithic Era

first use of fire, development of Archeulean toolkit, spread of hominins from Africa, Homo erectus dominates, becoming human-like, development of ritualistic behavior, and beginnings of hunting.

Difference from Neanderthals

gracile skeletal structure, non-taurodont roots, facial slimming complex (developed chin, higher forehead, small incisors, etc), little artistic behavior, and some hunting habits.

Forelimb Size

intermembral index: upperlimb vs lower limb x 100. For Chimpanzee index = 105 (which means their arms are slightly longer than their legs). In humans, the index is 75 (which means the legs are proportionately longer than the arms.

Endocast

internal cast of a hollow object A natural feature that connects the face portion of a head to the skull

Foramen magnum

large opening of the cranium that is rotated under the skull and over the spinal cord. This puts the head directly over the center of gravity.

Homo Ergaster (Africa, workman)

lived in eastern and southern Africa during the early Pleistocene, between 1.8 -1.3 mya and considered to be the large body variation of H. Erectus from Asia. Turkana Boy. Believed to be the species that developed Archulean tools 200k years after H. Erectus migrated.

H. Erectus adaptability

lived through at least 15 ice ages (probably due to the innovation of fire use). Which mean the species experienced alternative cold and warm periods.

Spearthrower (atlatl)

major technological advancement 18 kya. Increased striking distance by 300% and magnified force.

Australopithecine Characteristics

more gracile (slender or fragile) compared to Paranthropus genus which has a heavily built skull and skeletal structure. Found in East & South Africa and includes several species: Anamensis, Afarensis, Africanus, and Garhi

Most "successful" hominin species

most likely the H. Erectus that migrated into Europe from Africa. Used refined stone axes and controlled use of fire. They would be the ancestor of H. Heidelbegensis and then Neanderthals which lead to anatomically modern humans.

Au. Africanus lifestyle

occupied woodlands and savannas, ate some meats and some plants, used microwear (physical property of teeth to show which foods have been eaten) tools to dig into termite mounds (earliest tool use).

Changes in habitat during this period

predominantly woodland or bushland environments

Upper Paleolithic Wrap up (120 - 50 kya)

rapid technological advance, environment exploitation, artistic expression, colonization of the New World (15 kya), and domestication of plant/animals in the Middle East.

Mousterian tools

sharp flakes tools with more cutting edge than the Oldowan tools. Required special preparation of core. Some prepared spear-heads were added to spears (not designed to be thrown yet). Bones/antlers were not used until they met AMH.

Basal Paleolithic climate (2.6 - 1.8 mya)

shift to dry & seasonal climate which means less trees and more grasslands. Increased the number of large herd animals that graze and less fruits or nuts. plant food becomes seasonal increasing Homo dependence on animal food sources.

Controlled Use of Fire

technological innovation. Several layers of ash in ancient caves, burned/unburned bones found in the thickest layers of ash, burned tools indicate manufacturing and/or lighting of fires.

Australopithecine Lifestyle

teeth are adapted for fruits and hard objects, primarily woodland habitats, and some evidence that bones were used as digging tools.

Paleolithic Period

the subperiods of the Pleistocene era dating back 2.6 mya to 12 kya

Homo heidelbergensis

transition between H. Erectus and Neanderthals. Found in Africa and Eurasia 700-200 kya. First discovered in 1908 in Germany with derived traits such as large brain size, more rounded skull, and a flatter face.

Neanderthal technology & lifestyle

used Mousterian technology found in 5 km radius of shelter. Low mobility, living sites were caves and rock shelters. Fires not enclosed by stone rings until 60 kya and no evidence of post holes; boiling stones have been discovered.