Test 4: PSYC 4220 (Notes only, No book Information)

Divorce on Kids

- greater risk: psychological problems, academic problems, social problems, behavioral problems - problems worse right after divorce up to 2 years - decline in mother-child relationships (spends most time with kids, punish them, rules) - Fathers spend less time with kids - fathers staying involved = kids with fewer problems

development in adolescence

- growth spurt - period of rapid growth when body takes on adult proportions - females - starts at 10, full height by 16 (2 years before boys) - males - start at 12.5, reach full height by 17 (some 18 to 20) - add around 10-11 inches and 50-75 pounds - cephalocaudal principle reverses (feet grow first, then legs) - awkward looking - gain adult proportions, males and female bodies differentiate - girls - more fat, boobs, butt etc. - boys - muscle mass, increase red blood cells, athletic ability - face takes on adult proportions

What affects timing of Puberty?

- heredity: identical twins most similar in timing of milestones - Race: age norms based on studies of white American and British teens - African American (6 months earlier) and latinx girls (5 months earlier) start earlier than white girls - differences can be striking outside of US. - access to nutrition and medical care: secular trend in puberty - average age of menstruation decreases over time as countries become more developed. - lowest in developed countries, highest in less developed countries - Body weight and BMI: correlation b/w higher weight/BMI and earlier onset of puberty in girls - Childhood stress: high levels of stress during childhood correlated with earlier onset of puberty

Male physical development

- males - start at 12.5, reach full height by 17 (some 18 to 20) - boys - muscle mass, increase red blood cells, athletic ability starts at 11.5 with enlargement of testes, pubic hair - spermarche (first ejaculation) = average 13.5

Same-sex parent kids

- no developmental differences in personality, peer relationships, or academic achievement - no differences in gender development or sexual orientation - Newest research: children of lesbian's parents are more likely to have same sex attraction & experiences - slightly better relationships with their parents

Same-Sex Parents

- over 1/3 of LGBT people have a child - ~114,000 same sex couples were raising a child in 2016 - ~68% of kids being raised by same sex couple are biologically related to one parent - ARTs, surrogacy, and fostering/adoption, other common routes to parenthood - 4x as likely to be raising an adopted kid than hetero couples

Physical development

- puberty: biological changes resulting in sexual, reproductive maturity - primary: directly related to reproduction - secondary: not directly related to reproduction

Girl's Friendships

1 to 3 "best friends", equality in status - More cooperation - More self-disclosure, social support, co-rumination (problems w/o solutions) - Play inside, in small areas closer to school/home

3 Stages of Friendship

1. Basing friendship on other's behaviors (4-7) - friends are who you have fun with!! Usually not enduring friendships, wishy washy 2. Basing friendships on trust (8-10) - friends are people are similar to you and friends trust each other - count on, no betrayal - selective (few) - positive (mostly) - depends on who (calm or aggressive) 3. Basing friends on psychological closeness (11 & up) - friends are people who share intimate thoughts & are loyal -

Girls Early & Late Maturity

1. early maturation: disadvantages more likely to have negative body image, low self-esteem, depression, anxiety, eating disorders more likely to be withdrawn from peers, have conflicts w/ parents higher risk of substance abuse, early sexual behavior some studies show that effects fade, while others show continued negative effects into adulthood 2. late maturation: advantageous or no effect more academic, more attractive to peers/boys

Gender Differences: Friendships

Become more flexible about gender during middle childhood but gender segregation continues, intensifies

Bullies and Victims

Bullying includes: aggression, repetition, and power imbalance Increases over middle childhood, peaks in early adolescence, declines after that Boys are more likely to be both bullies and victims and to use physical aggression Bullies are usually rejected-aggressive or controversial kids Have difficulty controlling aggressive impulses in all areas of life - most likely to get in trouble throughout life Higher risk of depression, ODD, CD, and ADHD Victims most likely to be rejected-withdrawn kids (lack social skills, low self-esteem, few friends) (cry, get upset) (depressed, lonely)

Influences on Middle Childhood Self-esteem

CULTURAL western cultures, especially the u.s., high value in self-esteem more than other cultures • China - high self-esteem = arrogance • Individualistic cultures tend to promote the independent self: value thinking about self, discovering uniqueness, being independent, having high self-esteem. • Collectivist cultures tend to promote the interdependent self: value thinking of the group, putting group needs before individual needs, engaging in self-criticism, being humble.

What is development crisis like?

Erikson believed teens would experience anxiety, confusion pain • research does not support this • teens in moratorium are happier, more hopeful than those in diffusion or foreclosure • But Erikson was correct that having an achieved identity is healthy

Influences on Middle Childhood Self-esteem

GENDER • US girls higher in reading, academics, relationships; US boys higher in math, physical appearance, & physical ability • Stereotypes In gender • Expectations - lower in math for women by parents • Boys' and girls' overall levels of self-esteem vary similar in middle childhood

Influences on Middle Childhood Self-esteem

PARENTING • Authoritative = high self-esteem • Authoritarian = lower self-esteem • Permissive = unrealistically high self-esteem, adjustment problems • US self-esteem has risen sharply as achievement has fallen; anti-social/narcissistic behaviors have increased. • Don't just praise: urge kids to set goals and achieve them

Influences on Middle Childhood Self-esteem

RACE/ETHNICITY • In early childhood, African American and latinx children have lower self-esteem than Caucasian children • By the end of middle-childhood, self-esteem increase in both groups • African American kids have highest self-esteem by age 11 • Large extended family w/ love and affection • Pride in ethnicity • Compare themselves to one another in each racial group • Asian American kids: higher self-esteem at beginning of middle childhood, lower than other groups by end of middle childhood • Living in neighborhoods with others of your race/ethnicity & higher SES = Higher self-esteem

What can we do about Bullies?!

Reducing bullying often takes a multi-faceted approach that will include changes made at an individual, classroom, and school level. Training other kids to intervene tends to be effective "zero tolerance" policies are not recommended in most situations

Brain Development

around 10-12, sharp increase in synaptic connections, especially in frontal cortex (decision making) myelination continues, lasting until mid-20s, helping to increase processing speed maturation of the limbic system happens before maturation of the prefrontal cortex (intense emotional experiences, acting on instinct/gut feelings are common) emotional control not fully developed until adulthood - may be very good at logical thought when calm, but emotions can overwhelm logical leading to impulsive and reckless behavior. --- especially when peers are around. neurons become more responsive to excitatory neurotransmitters (more sensitive to stressful, pleasurable, and novel stimuli) more sensitive to oxytocin: may help explain self-conscious, desire to please others Circadian rhythm shifts: gets sleepy later, want to wake up later (still need ~9 hours, but often don't get that)

imaginary audience (formal operations)

belief that everyone around is as interested in their thoughts and behaviors as they are.

Timing of identity crisis

believed "identity crisis" resolved by end of HS (ages 15-18) • Research does not support this: 21 & up most in moratorium or achievement • woman similar, but place more emphasis on gender roles, sexuality, and balancing careers/kids • may go back into moratorium or other stages later • Development is uneven: may be different stages for different aspects of identity

Border Work (Friendships)

briefly interacting with other gender groups to help define boundaries b/w groups

Motor Development

continued improvements in speed, balance, strength, hand-eye coordination boys and girls are similar in improvements until puberty boys continue to increase in strength, stamina, speed; girls often level or decline WHY?? - biological differences, gender role socialization difference in physical abilities has declined as our social expectations for females have changed girls who participate in sports during childhood and adolescence: increases in positive body image, perceptions of physical competence, positive "masculine" traits correlated with higher self-esteem

Learned helplessness

credit success to external factors (like luck), failure to low ability. (fixed mindset) (devalue topic) - Americans are bad about thinking we have a "fixed" mindset.

Mastery-oriented attributions

credit success to high ability and/or effort, failure to insufficient effort. (leads to high self-esteem & willingness to approach challenging tasks) - (growth mindset)

Dualism

every problem has one right answer, right comes from authority figures.

Peer Acceptance

extend to which a child is viewed by a group of peers as a worthy social partner. Researchers use sociometric techniques to determine peer acceptance (who would you MOST like to play with, who would you LEAST like to play with)

Boy's friendships

larger groups, clear dominance hierarchy - Attempt to maintain, improve status = competitive interactions - More accepting of newcomers - Play outside, cover large areas

Controversial Kids

liked by many, disliked by many o Aggressive, disruptive, socially skilled, class clown, often popular group, but bullies, rule breakers

Neglected Kids

neither liked nor disliked o Ignored by peers, Shy, withdrawn, but good social skills, happy with peer relationships even with fewer friends

Remarriage

o 5-15% of kids live with stepparent or in blended family o can be challenging, especially with role ambiguity o but kids can adjust very well o teens, girls often have a harder time adjusting (jealousy)

Self-concept

o Becomes less concrete, more abstract o More self-aware: see self from own & others' perspective o More multifaced: have different "selves" for different situations o 13: inconsistencies, did not notice & were not bothered o 15: had inconsistencies, noticed, were bothered, if engaging in false-self behavior o 17: had inconsistencies, noticed, weren't bothered (understand its normal)

Gender Development

o During early adolescence: gender intensification o Increased stereotyping about gender, movement toward more traditional gender identity o Declines by mid-late adolescence

Self-Esteem

o Further differentiate self-esteem ,evaluating different aspects of self separately o Relational self-worth: self-esteem in particular relationship contexts o Girls: being liked and accepted by friends o Boys: having influences over friends, attracting romantic partners o Self-esteem may show temporary declines during transitional periods, but generally increases over adolescent years o Much individual variation, however (how many transitions the person faces, the more the harder) o Early adolescent girls - slightly lower, more fragile self-esteem o More concerned with appearance, more negative body image after puberty o Concern with social success can conflict with concern about academic success

Changes in family structure

o In 1960, 73% of kids lived with married biological parents o In 2014, only 64% lived in this family type o 26% live with single parent, 7% with unmarried parents o African Americans and latinx kids are more likely to live with single parent o Kids who have parents who did not attend college are more likely to live with single parent o Single parent families more likely to live below poverty line o Older first-time parents (average age 26.4) o Teen birthrate has decreased, births to older mothers increasing

Grandparenthood

o More grandparents live with grandkids o 10% of kids live with grandparents o 6% are raised by grandparent o Grandparents headed households more likely to live in poverty o kids more likely to have behavioral, academic, and emotional problems

Families are:

o families are smaller o women with 4 of more kids have declined

Popular Kids

often liked, rarely disliked (socially and academically skilled, cooperative, helpful, low level of intense negative emotions)

personal fable (formal operations)

part of adolescent egocentrism that involves feeling special, unique, and invincible

If sleep deprived:

perform on worse cognitive tasks in the AM depression, emotional outbursts more high-risk behavior, auto accidents delaying start at school can help, but not completely

3 levels of moral development

preconventional, conventional, postconventional

precocious puberty

puberty that occurs earlier than age norms

Rejected kids (two types)

rarely liked, often disliked 1. Rejected-aggressive: hostile, disruptive, lacking social skills (assumptions) 2. Rejected-withdrawn: socially anxious, passive, often bullied (both may lead to academic problems, depression, loneliness)

Peer Groups

social units who generate values, standards for behavior and a social hierarchy. Membership stable for short periods of time but changes from year to year. As kids change classrooms.

Average Kids

some like, some dislike, in the middle

adolescent egocentrism (formal operations)

state of self-absorption in which the world is viewed from one's own point of view

Individualistic Cultures

tend to promote the independent self: value thinking about self, discovering uniqueness, being independent, having high self-esteem.

Collectivist cultures

tend to promote the interdependent self: value thinking of the group, putting group needs before individual needs, engaging in self-criticism, being humble.

Kohlberg

tested people by giving them moral dilemmas • actual decision isn't as important as reasons why. • reason why determines stage • developed stage theory of moral development

multiplicity

there are many answers & all are equally valid

relativism

there are many answers & we can use source of answers + evidence to determine which are more/less valid

moral reasoning

thinking process that occurs when we decide what is right or

commitment

we can integrate personal experiences/reflections with evidence to arrive at personal values/truths - but we can change view with new info/experiences

Implications (Formal Development)

• Ability to think abstractly + increases in metacognition = broader changes • richer understanding of people • ability to form identity (vet, OBGYN, salesperson) • increased complexity of thought (more than one way to solve issues) • ability to imagine hypothetical versions of reality • can lead to confusion, rebellion against "illogical rules," idealism (girls in tank tops)

Middle Childhood Self-esteem

• Also becomes differentiated (general, academic, social, physical competence, physical appearance) • Age 7 • Appearance is typically the most noticed (sad, but true) • May decrease slightly as social comparison becomes more common, but generally stays high for most in middle childhood • Individual differences in childhood become more stable as kids age

Factors that influence identity development

• Cognitive development: o mastery of formal operations • Relationships with parents o long-term diffusion correlated with being neglected or rejected o long-term foreclosure correlated with very close, rigid, and controlling parents o reaching achievement quickly correlated with affection, feelings of unconditional support • Scholastic Influences: o attending college o faster achievement of occupational identity o slower achievement of political and spiritual identity • Broader social and historical context: o culture plays role in formation of identity o Marcia's model: western view of identity

Identity Development

• James Marcia identified 4 identity statuses based on: • level of commitment to a particular aspect of identity • time spent exploring options regarding that aspect of identity For example: growing up "thinking" you know what you want to do, then changing your mind (crisis) and exploring options to decide what you want to do.

Peer Groups Stats

• Kids that stay in the same class = 50-70% of groups stable • View excluding kids as wrong, less likely to do so for superficial reasons as they age • Are ok with excluding due to disrupting group (super aggressive into a group that isn't) • Excluded kids turn to other low status kids or withdraw from peers • Chances to improve social skills decrease (the older, the worse)

Middle Childhood

• Self-concept becomes more complex, more abstract across middle childhood • More psychological descriptors • Begin dividing self-concept in multiple parts • Begin in engaging in social comparison (evaluating one's appearance, abilities, opinions, behavior) • Unrealistic optimism fades • But may engage in downward social comparison to protect self-esteem when threatened

Relationships with Peers

• Start spending a lot more time with peers, less with adults • Peers = highly important • Outweigh adult relationships • Learn emotions, emotional support, other perspectives, compromise • Friendships evolve, but can be long lasting if high quality

Development crisis

• achievement = closer relationships, higher self-esteem, achievement motivation, and moral reasoning • diffusion = increased depression, low self-esteem, academic problems, anti-social, drug abuse • foreclosure = happy, but greater need for social approval, dogmatic/inflexible thinking style

Peer Groups: Cliques

• by early adolescence, form cliques: small group of friends who interact regularly • usually same-sex groups 2-12 people • boys' cliques tend to be larger • mid-teens, cliques reform to include both genders • children in cliques similar to each other • over teen years, kids begin belonging to more than one clique • membership becomes more stable by tenth grade • during late adolescence: importance of being popular declines • more independent, spend more time on individual friendships, dating

Cognitive Development: Formal Operations (12 & older)

• can mentally manipulate abstract objects/concepts - algebra for example • hypotheticodeductive reasoning: can make hypotheses about objects/events that are not real • develop inductive reasoning: ability to go from specific observations to broad generalizations

3. Postconventional Morality

• develops broadly defined ethical principles not set by authority • recognizes laws are not always moral • looks beyond authority to take perspective of all, instead of one social group • Stage 5: social contract orientation: one's conduct is defined according to a "social contract" should be linked to common good, not just focusing on benefit to self (laws should be democratic, maximize welfare to all). • moral obligations to challenge law • Stage 6: Morality of individual principles of consequence: right and wrong based on self-generated principles, principles adhered to regardless of consequence to individual, value principles more than their own lives

Divorce & Kids

• divorces that happen early in life leads to kids believing it was their fault • middle childhood divorces decreases blame, but feel like they have to choose sides • teen years have fewer negative outcomes, but still feel some pressure • divided loyalty • adults whose parents got divorced have a higher chance of: divorce, not finishing college, low income, anxiety & mood • when high conflict couples divorce (~30% of divorces), kids show better psychological adjustment • most kids show no long-lasting problems (~2 years) - difference in outcomes are small

2. conventional morality

• guided by internal morals, punishments, rewards become more abstract, typically reached in early adolescence • most adults stay at this level • Stage 3: "good boy" or "good girl" morality ("meaning well", being nice is valued, intentions now considered) - seeking approval, avoiding disapproval now a factor • stage 4: authority and social-order maintaining morality • morality associated with "will of society", laws, rigid sense of right and wrong based on law

Divorce

• it depends on how you calculate divorce rate • longitudinal studies of specific cohorts suggest the divorce rate is decreasing • Divorce rate estimated to be 40-50% • declines in rate concentrated among college educated adults • divorce rates higher for subsequent marriages • 6 million kids with divorced parents • more likely to live with mom

Crowds

• large group of peers who have similar stereotyped reputations, values, attitudes, behaviors, ways of expressing themselves • crowds often decide by consensus of peers • can influence reputation, treatment • kids in higher status crowds tend to have high self-esteem • can also influence identity development

Implications of Formal Operations Continued...

• not all adults reach formal operations: only around 40-60% of college students and adults can solve all of Piaget's tasks • formal schooling increases ability to use formal thought • most likely to show abstract thought on areas that are interesting, relevant to your life • today consensus: all adults can reach this level if taught • developed cultures = better chances of passing all tasks of Piaget • growth beyond formal operations: postformal thought (ways of thinking that are more complex than formal operational thinking) • teens are absolutists: there is only one truth, correct solution • adults develop relativistic thinking: realizing knowledge is subjective and relative

Is moral reasoning related to moral behavior??

• not really in early childhood • moderately related after early childhood • higher level of reasoning positively correlated with altruistic behavior, keeping promises • lower level of reasoning correlated with moral • tempted to cheat (morality of students) • Preconventional: 70% cheated • conventional: 55% cheated • postconventional: 15% cheated • moral behavior affected by many other factors, both personal factors and context

1. preconventional morality

• rules are external rather than internalized • what is right is what you can get away with, personally satisfying • most kids before 9 • stage 1: obedience and punishment orientation (avoid punishment, intentions are ignored) • stage 2: instrumental hedonism (desire to gain rewards or satisfy needs, external)

Relationships w/ parents

• teens strive for independence • shift focus from family to peers • more freedom, responsibility • de-idealize parents • conflict increases (typical arguments are over everyday issues) • more tension b/w parents and daughters • ~20% of families have very rough time during child's adolescence • good parent-child relationship, extremely important for teens (most consistent predictor of teen mental health) • most balance warmth, control, and increasing independence (be supportive and accepting, monitor activities with teen's willing participation, democratic decision making, discipline with explanation, providing needed information, remain open/honest) • coercive/controlling parents = more likely to have negative outcomes • some conflict is normal, adaptive (distance, and develop own identity, disagree but still love them) • agree on most issues (research finds that teens and parents have the same attitudes on certain topics) • by mid-late adolescence, conflict declines

Advantages of being an older parent

- More financially secure - Smaller, more planned - Lower divorce rate - More positive, less harsh parenting

Boys' early & late maturation

- early maturation: can be advantageous, but has some drawbacks - more socially competent, better body image, greater popularity - viewed as independent, confident, physically attractive - more likely to be successful athletes, leadership positions - 40 years later, have more successful careers, higher marital satisfaction - may get involved with sex earlier, alcohol, drugs - late maturation: - more anxious, less athletic - lower scores, higher rates of substance use, even as young adults

Female Physical development

- females - starts at 10, full height by 16 (2 years before boys) - more fat, boobs, butt etc. starts at 8-11 with development of breast buds, and pubic hair • menarche (first period) average in US = 12.5 (menstruating but not ovulation)

Precocious puberty continued...

- girls: breast/menarche before age 8 - boys: testes or penis growth before age 9 - Both: other signs of puberty before these ages - more common in girls than boys - delayed puberty: puberty that occurs later than norms - girls - breast by 13, pubic hair by 14, period by 16 - boys: no testes growth by 14, pubic hair 15