Texas Citizen Bee

Abigail Adams (1744-1818)

Abigail Adams was born in Massachusetts, a descendant of the distinguished Quincy family. She married young lawyer John Adams in 1764. They settled on a farm in Braintree, Massachusetts. The couple had four surviving children, including son John Quincy Adams. Abigail raised the children and ran the farm while John traveled as a circuit judge and later while he served overseas. She and John corresponded through their long separations and her letters tell of her loneliness, but she persevered with courage and industry. Abigail often shared her views with John on political matters. She famously requested of the members of the Continental Congress: "I long to hear that you have declared an independency. And, by the way, in the new code of laws which I suppose it will be necessary for you to make, I desire you would remember the ladies and be more generous and favorable to them than your ancestors. Do not put such unlimited power into the hands of the husbands. Remember, all men would be tyrants if they could. If particular care and attention is not paid to the ladies, we are determined to foment a rebellion, and will not hold ourselves bound by any laws in which we have no voice or representation." Later, while John was president, she also told him that she believed there was a need for the Alien and Sedition Acts.

Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865)

Abraham Lincoln taught himself the law by reading Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of England. He served in the Illinois House of Representatives and in 1846 was elected to US Congress. He served one term in the US House of Representatives before returning to his law practice. Lincoln's concerns about the Kansas-Nebraska Act lured him back into politics. Lincoln challenged its sponsor, Stephen Douglas, in the 1858 race for the Senate. Lincoln lost the election but his performance in debates with Douglas gained him national attention. In 1860 he was elected President of the United States. Upon his election, seven southern states seceded from the Union, and others followed suit. In his First Inaugural Address, he argued that secession was not proper under the Constitution. He cited the Articles of Confederation as creating a "perpetual Union," furthered by the Preamble's goal of a "more perfect Union." After the fighting began, Lincoln called for the suspension of writs of habeas corpus. This meant rebel fighters could be arrested and held without trial. The case of ex parte Milligan addressed the constitutionality of the suspension of habeas corpus. As the war continued, Lincoln consulted with Frederick Douglass about conditions faced by Army soldiers. He issued the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863 announcing that slaves in rebelling states were free and that the Union Army would enforce their freedom. Later that year Lincoln delivered the Gettysburg Address, invoking the spirit of the Declaration of Independence and its 23 promise of equality. At his Second Inaugural Address in March of 1865, the war was coming to an end. Lincoln urged his countrymen to "bind up the nation's wounds" and called the war God's punishment to a country that tolerated the evil of slavery. When the Confederate capital of Richmond was captured, Lincoln made the symbolic gesture of sitting at Jefferson Davis' desk. Five days after General Robert E. Lee's surrender in April of 1865, Lincoln was assassinated. His Vice President Andrew Johnson assumed the presidency. Later that year, the Thirteenth Amendment was ratified, abolishing slavery throughout the nation.

Alexander Hamilton (1757-1804)

Alexander Hamilton was born in the West Indies, the illegitimate son of a poor Scottish merchant and a woman of French descent. After being sent to America by a local businessman, he became active in New York's Patriot movement. General George Washington asked Hamilton to join his personal staff and made him a lieutenant colonel. He was admitted to the bar in 1782. In 1783 he served in the Confederation Congress, where he and James Madison both desired a stronger central government. At the 1787 Constitution Convention, Hamilton's nationalist views were not received well by the other delegates. He called for a strong executive branch with a president who would serve for life. Though it did not strengthen the national government as much as he had hoped, Hamilton took the lead in promoting ratification of the Constitution in New York. He teamed with Madison and John Jay to write The Federalist Papers, writing 52 of the 85 essays. In Federalist No. 70, he made the case that "the vigor of government is essential to the security of liberty." In Federalist No. 84, he argued that a bill of rights was not needed, because the government had only those powers listed: "why declare that things shall not be done which there is no power to do?" Hamilton served as Secretary of the Treasury under President Washington. He pressed for the establishment of a national bank—something not in Congress' enumerated powers. This plan was opposed by Thomas Jefferson and others who feared growing federal power. The first party 13 system in America formed around these two men. After leaving the Washington administration in 1795, Hamilton acted as the defense lawyer in People v. Croswell (1803), in which he made the argument that truth could be used as a defense for libel. Though he lost the case, his arguments led New York to change its law, protecting freedom of the press. Fifteen years after Hamilton's death in a duel with Aaron Burr Chief Justice John Marshall held in McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) that the creation of a national bank was an implied power of the federal legislature and was therefore constitutional.

Alexis de Tocqueville (1805-1859)

Alexis de Tocqueville was a French historian and political scientist. As French foreign minister, he traveled to the United States in 1831. It was the experiences during this visit that led him to write to his most famous work, Democracy in America. In this book, he details his observations of society and culture in the United States. He predicted that democratic institutions like those of the United States would eventually replace the aristocratic governments in Europe. Tocqueville criticized individualism and believed that associations among people would lead to the greatest happiness for society. He emphasized responsibilities of citizenship and the value of compromise. Further, he analyzed the American attempt to foster equality among citizens through the promotion of liberty, while contrasting that approach to more socialistic systems that attempt to foster equality through government control.

Alice Paul (1885-1977)

Alice Paul was born in New Jersey to a Quaker family. She became interested in women's suffrage while a graduate student in England. She came back to the United States in 1910 and turned her attention to winning the vote for women in America. She earned her PhD in economics, concentrating on the status of women in Pennsylvania. She wished to build on the efforts of earlier suffragists Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton. Paul organized a large parade to coincide with the inauguration of President Woodrow Wilson in 1913. She published leaflets and held daily pickets in front of the White House. She burned copies of Wilson's speeches, calling them "meaningless words" about democracy. In 1917 she and many others were arrested for peacefully marching. While in jail, she began a hunger strike and was force-fed by prison authorities. Paul's actions alienated some, including National American Woman Suffrage Association President Carrie Chapman Catt, who believed the women's suffragists were becoming too militant. On the other hand, those who were arrested for exercising their First Amendment rights to speak, publish, peaceably assemble, and petition won the public's sympathy. Wilson ordered them released from prison. He also soon lent his support to women's suffrage. Congress approved the Nineteenth Amendment within a year and it was ratified by the states in 1920. Paul continued her campaign for women's rights, leading a successful campaign to add gender as a protected category to the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The work of Paul and other women's suffragists illustrate the civic values of perseverance, courage, initiative, industry, and civic skills including volunteering.

Alvin York (1887-1964)

Alvin York, born in 1887, was a Congressional Medal of Honor winner who fought in World War I. He grew up learning to shoot and developed into an expert marksman. Although he was originally a pacifist, a friend convinced him that the Bible said it was okay to serve in the military. As a soldier in World War I, he gained notoriety by his performance in the Battle of Argonne Forest where he attacked the Germans. When members of his group were unable to proceed, he went after the Germans by himself. He killed 17 through sniper fire and then 7 by pistol. He was successful in taking 132 prisoners on his own. He died in 1964.

Andrew Carnegie (1835-1919)

Andrew Carnegie's rags-to-riches story is one of perseverance, initiative, and resourcefulness. Born in 1835 to a working-class Scottish family, Carnegie came to the US with his family when he was thirteen years old. In 1853 he took a job at a railroad corporation. He quickly advanced at the company. In 1889, he founded the Carnegie Steel Company. This business combined with others to create US Steel. US Steel helped meet the country's great demand for steel— used in railroads, skyscrapers, and other examples of great technological achievements. Concerned with the growing power of monopolies and their impact on economic rights, the federal government tried to break up the US Steel Company under the Sherman Anti-Trust Act. At the time, US Steel provided two-thirds of all steel produced in the country. However, the government was unable to show any misconduct on the part of the company and the case was dismissed. Later in life, Andrew Carnegie dedicated his life to philanthropy, and he advocated an idea he called the Gospel of Wealth in which he encouraged the wealthy to give away their fortunes to worthy causes. He used his fortune to found the Carnegie Corporation of New York, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, and Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh.

Andrew Jackson (1767-1845)

Andrew Jackson was born on the border between North and South Carolina but always considered himself to be a South Carolinian. His success as a self-taught lawyer allowed him to build a home in Tennessee and buy slaves. He was that state's first Congressman and also served in the Senate. Jackson was a general in the War of 1812, and he befriended Sam Houston. His defeat of the British at New Orleans made him a national hero. General Jackson also oversaw the military removal of many Indian Tribes in Georgia, Alabama, and Spanish Florida, and negotiated several treaties securing Indian land for the US. He was elected President in 1828 and two years later proposed the Indian Removal Act. As a result of the legislation, 46,000 American Indians were removed from their homes. Many died on the Trail of Tears heading west, and 25 million acres of land were opened to settlement by the US. Jackson saw himself as a populist—having been elected with a greater portion of the popular vote than any previous candidate—and proposed eliminating the Electoral College in his first 21 address to Congress. Jackson frequently exercised his veto power over Congress' legislation, which resulted in a split within Jackson's political party. Those who opposed his policies included John C. Calhoun, Daniel Webster and Henry Clay, who ran against him for president in 1832. Jackson was reelected in 1832 with five times more electoral votes than Clay.

Building of the Panama Canal

As the United States began to expand after the Spanish American War, the ability to navigate and control the new territorial acquisitions of Puerto Rico, Guam, the Philippines, and Hawaii became a primary concern of President Roosevelt. It became imperative that a canal be built in the narrow country of Panama connecting the Atlantic to Pacific Oceans. This would considerably shorten the time to move from one ocean to another without having to go around the tip of South America to do so. After negotiating a treaty with Panama to not only build the canal but control the zone around the canal, construction began in 1904. While most in the United States supported the construction, there was resentment among the Latin American nations over the method used by the U.S. to obtain control of the canal zone. In 1978 the U.S. Senate ratified a treaty negotiated by President Carter that began to gradually return control of the canal to the nation of Panama by 2000. Today the Panama Canal is a vital part of the global economy.

Spanish Flu Epidemic

At the close of World War I, an outbreak of influenza infected 500 million people before it finally came to an end. Known as the Spanish flu, the epidemic killed approximately 20 million people worldwide. More soldiers died from the flu than from combat in the war.

Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755)

Baron Charles de Montesquieu was a famous French nobleman who lived from 1689 to 1755. His ideas about government and law were recorded in several books. The most influential of these was The Spirit of the Laws written in 1748. In this work, he proposed separating the powers of government so that power would not be concentrated in the hands of one person or one group of people. His ideas inspired James Madison and were echoed in Federalist 47 in which Madison defended the division of power detailed in Articles I, II, and III of the U.S. Constitution. Madison went on in Federalist 51 to defend the checks and balances system as a way to further define the powers of the three branches. Montesquieu is thought to be the most quoted political philosopher by the men at the Constitutional Convention in 1787.

Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790)

Benjamin Franklin, born in Boston, took initiative as a publisher, inventor, entrepreneur, and statesman. Working as an apprentice at his brother's Boston newspaper, he began writing social commentaries under the pseudonym Silence Dogood. Wishing to work independently, Franklin left Boston and finally settled in Philadelphia where he purchased the Pennsylvania Gazette in 1729. In 1732 he published the first edition of Poor Richard's Almanack. In 1754 the prospect of war with France led several colonial governors to call a convention to create a plan to unify the colonies. Franklin's Gazette ran a "Join or Die" political cartoon urging governors to send delegates. Franklin wrote the Albany Plan of Union at the convention. Franklin lived in England from 1757 to 1775 serving as an agent of the colonies. He became famous there as a defender of American rights. The British branded him a traitor, but he escaped imprisonment in 1775 by returning to Philadelphia. He served on the committee that drafted the Declaration of Independence. He acted as commissioner to France from 1779-1785, and along with John Adams and John Jay, negotiated the 1783 Treaty of Paris. Franklin returned to the United States in 1785. He believed the Articles of Confederation to be too weak and joined the call for a Constitutional Convention. Because of some of his proposals at the Convention, a cabinet was established to advise the president, and Congress was given the power to override presidential vetoes. Franklin called for slaves to be counted as citizens hoping to encourage abolition, but this proposal was rejected. In 1787, Franklin was elected president of the Pennsylvania Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery. His last public act was signing a petition to Congress recommending the end of the slave system. He died at age 84. Franklin's Autobiography was published the year after his death, and covers the years of his life only to the 1760s.

Benjamin Rush (1745-1813)

Benjamin Rush was born near Philadelphia. He studied medicine in Pennsylvania, Scotland, England, and France. When he returned to Pennsylvania in 1769 he was named the first professor of chemistry at the College of Philadelphia. He gained a good reputation in the city, treating the poor and then expanding his practice. During the yellow fever epidemics of the 1790s, John and Abigail Adams were among his patients. He supported innovative techniques but was criticized for continuing to practice bloodletting even when it was shown to be ineffective. Rush encouraged Thomas Paine to write on behalf of independence, and even suggested the title for Common Sense. He signed the Declaration of Independence. He served as Surgeon General of the Continental Army during the Revolutionary War. He was appalled by the dreadful conditions of the military hospitals, and even questioned General George Washington, telling Congress that officers should be chosen annually. He resigned his post when Congress rejected his plea. Rush attended the Constitutional Convention and, along with James Wilson, helped secure ratification of the Constitution in Pennsylvania. Rush was also concerned with social reform. He courageously expressed views he knew would be controversial. He supported the new technique of vaccinations against smallpox. He helped establish the first abolitionist society in America. In his view, slavery was inconsistent with the principles of natural rights theory and the Declaration of Independence. His belief in equality also led him to urge public education for all, including women. President John Adams appointed Rush as Treasurer of the US Mint in 1799, a post he held until 1813. Rush's influence on the lives of two prominent Founders is also noteworthy. When the divisive political issues of the 1790s took their toll on the friendship of John Adams and Thomas Jefferson. Rush was instrumental in their reconciliation. Rush corresponded with the two men for 20 years. Upon hearing of his death in 1813, John Adams reflected, "I know of no character living or dead who has done more real good for his country."

Klondike Gold Rush

Between 1896 and 1899 approximately 100,000 prospectors rushed to the Klondike region of northwestern Canada after hearing reports by local miners of gold being discovered. A few of these prospectors did find gold and became wealthy, but most were unsuccessful. However, the economies of Seattle and San Francisco flourished because both cities were located where prospectors began their trips to the Yukon territory. The Klondike gold rush came to an end for several reasons. First, most prospectors did not find gold and lost their savings. Second, the Spanish-American War broke out in 1898. Eventually, gold and silver were discovered in the United States, including Colorado, the Black Hills of North Dakota, and the territory of Alaska.

Glenn Curtiss (1878-1930)

Born in 1878, Glenn Curtiss is known as the "Father of Naval Aviation" and the "Founder of the American Aircraft Industry." Always fascinated with machines, he first began with motorcycles. He became the fastest man in the world at the time when his motorcycle reached a speed of 136.3 mph. In 1908, Curtiss became the first person to fly a publicly viewed flight. In the next few years a legal battle with the Wright brothers began over the design of the flying machine. Even though the Wright brothers eventually won the suit, they did not push for monopoly status and the Curtiss company continued to manufacture airplanes. Curtiss' company went on to build the largest fleet of airplanes used during World War I. Curtiss later developed a seaplane that was the first to take off and land on the deck of a ship. In 1929 the Curtiss Aeroplane Company merged with the Wright Aeronautical Company to form the Curtiss-Wright Corporation. This corporation is today a leading producer of high-tech components for the aeronautical industry.

Henry Cabot Lodge, Sr. (1850-1924)

Born in Massachusetts, Henry Cabot Lodge, Sr. later earned his law degree from Harvard. He began his political career as a member of the state legislature and then moved to the U.S. House of Representatives. In 1893, he became a U.S. Senator where he served until his death. As a conservative Republican, he supported expansion for the United States as a way to establish the country as a world power. Forming a close alliance with Teddy Roosevelt, he endorsed the building of the Panama Canal, war with Spain in 1898, and acquisition of the Philippines as well as other territories in the Pacific. He believed for the United States to be a factor in international trade and diplomacy, it must have a strong army and navy. This would require the building of military bases to protect the merchant marines as they sailed to the Far East and points in between. He clashed often with President Wilson and later led the charge to reject the Treaty of Versailles and its League of Nations at the conclusion of WWI. Lodge feared joining the international League of Nations as it might force the U.S. into war without Congressional 29 approval. Lodge also worked for immigration restrictions during this time as he was worried that the growing number of immigrants would not be able to become what he called, "100 % American."

General John J. Pershing (1860-1948)

Born in Missouri, Pershing began his career as a school teacher. In 1882, he took a competitive exam for an appointment to West Point and won the appointment. There he made a name for himself as a person with excellent leadership qualities. His early military career included guarding the frontier against the Sioux and Apaches in the last days of the Indian wars, fighting in Cuba during the Spanish-American War, and fighting in the Philippines in 1903. In 1895, he took command of a troop of the 10th Cavalry Regiment, one of the original Buffalo Soldier regiments composed of African Americans. It was then that he got his nickname, "Black Jack." In 1915, he was sent to the Mexican border to capture the revolutionary Mexican leader, Pancho Villa. With America's entry into World War I in 1917, Pershing was named Commander-in-Chief of the American Expeditionary Forces. Upon arriving in Europe, he demanded that his troops fight as an independent American army rather than being blended in with the British and French. His troops were instrumental in the defeat of the Germans in the critical battle of Argonne Forest.

Thomas Edison (1847 - 1931)

Born in Ohio in 1847, Edison had little schooling, and was completely deaf in one ear from a young age. Despite these circumstances, he saw every obstacle as an opportunity. He pursued his interests with industry and passion. He loved science and mechanics and was driven to invent. By 1868, Edison had improved the telegraph and the typewriter. He made an electric vote recorder and a stock ticker. Two years later at the age of twenty-three, he had enough money to open his first "invention factory." He and his team of engineers and scientists prided themselves on their perseverance, thinking of every failed experiment as one that would bring them closer to success. They also cherished their economic rights, protecting their hard work by registering patents with the federal government. Within five years, he and his team had perfected the telephone and created the phonograph. Next, they became famous for the incandescent light bulb. Later, they worked on the motion picture camera, "talking" movies, a car battery, and an x-ray machine. In his lifetime, Edison registered 1,093 patents.

James Monroe (1758-1831)

Born in Virginia in 1758, Monroe was the 5th President of the United States. He attended the College of William and Mary, fought in the Continental Army, was a lawyer, and a politician. Monroe joined the Anti-Federalists in Virginia and opposed ratification of the new U.S. Constitution. He was an advocate of Jefferson's policies and was elected a U.S. Senator from Virginia. Monroe helped negotiate the Louisiana Purchase. During the War of 1812 he served as Secretary of War and Secretary of State under President Madison. His presidency was called the "Era of Good Feelings." He is known for the Monroe Doctrine in 1823 which provided that the Western Hemisphere should be free from future European colonization and that the U.S. should be neutral in European wars. This was the basis of American foreign policy for many years.

Alfred Thayer Mahan (1840-1914)

Born in West Point, New York, Alfred Thayer Mahan went on to become one of the most important military strategists of the 19th and early 20th centuries. He fought in the American Civil War as a Union naval officer and later served in the 1880s as President of the Naval War College at Newport, Rhode Island. Educated at the U.S. Naval Academy, he became an admiral and noted naval historian. His book, The Influence of Sea Power on History, published in 1890, detailed the important relationship between a strong navy and successful world commerce. Mahan asserted that the nation with the strongest navy would control the globe. His books were widely read in the U.S., Britain, Japan, and Germany and influenced the buildup of navies before World War I. Both Teddy Roosevelt and Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, Sr. were strongly influenced by Mahan's theory with regards to United States foreign policy.

Carrie Chapman Catt (1859-1947)

Carrie Chapman Catt, was born in Iowa, studied education and law, and became a high school principal. Later a superintendent and then a newspaper reporter, Catt soon became a lecturer for the woman's suffrage movement. Working closely with Susan B. Anthony, Catt succeeded Anthony as president of the National American Woman Suffrage Association in 1900. She urged President Woodrow Wilson to support an amendment to the Constitution securing the right to vote for women. Catt found the group's efforts disorganized and introduced a strategy to work for a suffrage amendment. The strategy was known as the "winning plan," and advocated working for reforms on both the state and federal levels. She opposed the efforts of Alice Paul to boycott Democratic 35 candidates who refused to support women's suffrage, as well as Paul's more militant strategies. Catt's perseverance in working to ensure state reforms giving women the vote were critical to securing adoption of the Nineteenth Amendment. This amendment illustrates the constitutional principle of equality. After its passage, Catt founded the League of Women Voters and advocated child labor laws.

Charles Carroll (1737-1832)

Charles Carroll was born in Maryland in 1737. Educated in Europe, he quickly became involved with the revolutionary spirit when he returned to America. When Maryland decided to send delegates to the Continental Congress, Carroll was one of those chosen. He wasn't in time to vote for the Declaration of Independence, but he was there to sign the document. He served on the Board of War during the Revolution. After the war, he was involved in setting up the state government of Maryland and served a brief time as the only Catholic in the U.S. Senate once the U.S. Constitution was ratified. He was the last surviving signer of the Declaration when he died in 1832 at the age of 95.

Zimmerman Telegram

Despite negotiations between Germany and the U.S., Germany refused to stop using submarine warfare against ships they suspected of carrying Allied weapons. American opposition to Germany continued to build in the United States. In 1917, British officials intercepted a telegram from the German Foreign Minister to officials in Mexico promising to return Mexican territories currently held by the U.S. if Mexico would help Germany fight the United States. This message, known as the Zimmerman Telegram, coupled with Germany's use of unrestricted submarine warfare finally culminated in President Wilson's decision to enter the war. On April 2, 1917, President Wilson asked Congress for a formal Declaration of War and the United States entered the war on the side of the Allies. The entry of the U.S. changed the outcome of the war and broke the stalemate between the two sides

Impeachment of Andrew Johnson (1868)

During Reconstruction, President Andrew Johnson and the Radical Republicans in Congress differed strongly on how to treat the South. Among other things, in opposition to President Johnson, Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act. This law required the President to consult with Congress before firing a cabinet member. When President Johnson fired his Secretary of War without consulting Congress, he violated the Tenure of Office Act. In 1868, the Radical Republicans in the House of Representatives impeached (voted charges against) President Johnson. Johnson was the first president to be impeached. In accordance with the Constitution, the Senate tried President Johnson on the charges voted by the House. The final vote in the Senate was one short of the two-thirds majority needed for conviction and removal from office, and thus, Johnson remained President.

Bernardo de Gálvez (1746-1786)

During the American Revolution, England was not only at odds with the colonists, but also with European superpower Spain. In 1776, Bernardo de Gálvez, a descendant of ancient Spanish nobility, became the acting Governor of the Louisiana Territory. Due to the "bad blood" between his home country of Spain and England, Gálvez naturally sided with the Americans throughout the war. He was instrumental in buying Spanish weapons, gunpowder, clothing and many other vital supplies that were essential to the colonial army. Galveston, Texas is named in his honor.

Origin of the Democratic-Republican Party (1790's)

During the debate over ratification of the U.S. Constitution, differences began to appear among some of the nation's political leaders. In the 1790's, Alexander Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury, and Thomas Jefferson, Secretary of State were both members of President Washington's Cabinet and had different visions of how the new government should function. These differences led to the development of the nation's first parties. Jefferson believed that the federal government's power should be limited to protect the powers of the states. He believed in strict interpretation of the Constitution, meaning that Congress and the President were restricted to doing only what the Constitution specifically said they could do. Jefferson and James Madison, another leader of the Democratic-Republicans, were strong supporters of agriculture and farming, and much of their support was in the South. They also supported France and opposed England with regards to foreign affairs. Jefferson, Madison, and their supporters became known as Democratic-Republicans.

Origin of the Federalist Political Party (1790's)

During the debate over ratification of the new U. S. Constitution in 1788, differences began to appear among some of the nation's political leaders. In the 1790's, Alexander Hamilton as Secretary of the Treasury and Thomas Jefferson as Secretary of State were both members of President George Washington's Cabinet and had very different visions of how the new government should function. These differences led to the development of the nation's first political parties. Hamilton preferred a strong federal government and a loose interpretation of the Constitution. He believed that Congress should have the power to make laws that were "necessary and proper" to carry out its duties. Many of Hamilton's supporters were large landowners, bankers, and businessmen in New England and the middle states. They also supported England and opposed France with regards to foreign affairs. Hamilton and his supporters became known as Federalists. John Adams was the last Federalist President and the party largely disappeared after 1800.

Henry Ford (1863-1947)

Even though he was born on a farm, Henry Ford showed more interest in mechanical things than in agricultural work. Early on, he alternated from working as an apprentice on steam engines to working on his father's farm tools to occasionally working in the fields. By 1891, he decided to become an engineer full time. Even though he was not the first to build a self-propelled vehicle with a gasoline engine, he became the most significant person in the development of the U.S. automobile industry, creating Ford Motor Company in 1903. In 1908 the Model-T was introduced as an affordable, reliable, and efficient auto for everyone. By 1918, half of the cars in the United States were Model-T's. To meet the demand, Ford installed a mass production system using standardized and interchangeable parts, a division of labor, and assembly lines. This totally revolutionized the industry and made his company the largest automobile manufacturer in the world during his lifetime. In 1918 he lost a bid for a seat in the U.S. Senate.

Grange Movement

Farmers organized under the Grange Movement to demand help from state and the federal government over high railroad rates and unfair practices by grain elevator operators that limited farmers' profits. They established farmer-owned co-ops where they graded, packed, shipped and sold their own crops, sharing the profits among themselves. In addition to organizing to fight unfair treatment as a result of having less power or influence than bigger industries, the Grange created opportunities for farmers to learn about new agricultural methods and the latest political events that might affect them. It also provided a place for wives and families to gather and socialize.

John Hancock (1737-1793)

Forever famous for his outsized signature on the Declaration of Independence, John Hancock was a larger than life figure in other ways as well. Born in 1737, in Braintree, Massachusetts, Hancock was part of the Boston Sons of Liberty that included Samuel Adams and James Otis. Hancock was a wealthy merchant whose bank account helped to finance the group's radical activities resisting British tyranny. After the violence that came to be known as the Boston Massacre, Hancock courageously took the lead in raising further opposition to the British. Not long after that, Hancock and Adams organized the Boston Tea Party. The British were seeking Hancock and Adams when the Minutemen fired on the British troops thus beginning the Revolutionary War. Hancock served as president of the Continental Congress. He signed the Declaration on July 4, 1776, and presided over Congress's signing of the document on August 2, 1776. Disappointed at being passed over for command of the Continental Army in 1777, he returned to Massachusetts, where he had a hand in writing the state constitution of 1780. He signed the Articles of Confederation. Despite his reservations about centralized government power, Hancock eventually agreed to support ratification of the Constitution.

Frances Willard (1839-1898)

Frances Willard, born in 1839, was an influential reformer in the early part of the 20th century. She was the founder of the Women's Christian Temperance Union, a group concerned about the destructive effects of alcohol. During this time, women would meet in churches and then march to saloons to try to get owners to close their establishments. In 1882, she was instrumental in organizing the Prohibition Party. This party advocated the passage of the 18th amendment which prohibited the manufacture and sale of alcohol. As a writer, she would become the first woman dean at Northwestern University and the first woman to be represented in Statuary Hall in the U.S. Capitol.

George Mason (1725-1792)

George Mason was born in Virginia. He was George Washington's supply officer in the French and Indian War, and served in the Virginia colonial legislature. Mason supported independence and was the primary author of the Virginia Constitution and Virginia Declaration of Rights. Both documents were adopted in June of 1776. Mason's words in the Virginia Declaration, which were based on the ideas of John Locke and natural rights theory, influenced Thomas Jefferson's writing in the Declaration of Independence. During the 1780s, Mason was among the many statesmen who believed the Articles of Confederation to be an inadequate form of government. Mason was called on to serve at the Constitutional Convention during the summer of 1787. There, he opposed the Constitution because he believed the central government was too strong. He argued that the document needed a bill of rights to protect the people from government abuses. He also called for an end to the importation of slaves. All these calls were rejected. Acting with integrity, Mason refused to sign the Constitution. He argued against its ratification, making enemies of James Madison and George Washington. Mason became a leading Anti-Federalist after the Convention, writing a pamphlet called Objections to this Constitution of Government. He argued that the Constitution gave "no security" to the "Declarations of rights in the separate States." At the Virginia Ratifying Convention, he joined Patrick Henry in opposing adoption. Madison promised that a bill of rights would be added, and Virginia voted to ratify. Three years later, many of the protections in the U.S. Bill of Rights would be based on Mason's Virginia Declaration of Rights. For this reason, Mason is known as the "Grandfather of the Bill of Rights."

George Washington (1732-1797)

George Washington is known as the "Father of his Country." Born in Virginia, Washington ran his family's 8000-acre farm, Mount Vernon. He studied ancient republics and read independently. Washington served as commander of the Virginia militia, the Virginia colonial legislature, and the Continental Congress. In 1775, Congress selected him to be Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army. He accepted Cornwallis' surrender at Yorktown in 1781, ending the Revolutionary War. Washington then resigned his commission and returned to Mount Vernon, intending no return to public life. 12 However, Washington soon grew concerned that the Articles of Confederation were inadequate for the new nation. Washington was selected to lead the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia in 1787. Once the Constitution was complete, Washington was unanimously elected to be the first president, with John Adams as Vice President. Washington's First Inaugural Address inspired the nation. Washington appointed Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton to his cabinet, and James Madison served as a chief advisor. He served two terms as president, discouraging political parties and working to keep the new nation out of foreign wars. He refused a third term. In his Farewell Address, Washington urged his fellow citizens to cherish the Constitution. Washington served his country with courage and responsibility, believing that liberty would endure.

Gouverneur Morris (1752-1816)

Gouverneur Morris was born in New York. During a visit home from King's College (now Columbia University), Morris's right arm was crippled when he was burned by an overturned pot of hot water. After being admitted to the New York bar, Morris became interested in politics and after initial resistance, took up the Patriot cause. He helped write New York's new constitution and served in the Continental Congress. He signed the Articles of Confederation in 1778 and soon after, lost his left leg in a carriage accident. He had to use a wooden leg for the rest of his life. In 1781 as Assistant United States Superintendent of Finance, Morris struggled to finance the Continental Army. He hinted that the Continental Army might employ force if Congress did not act. The officers assembled at a barn in Newburgh, New York to discuss marching on Philadelphia, but George Washington quelled the Newburgh Conspiracy by appearing at the gathering. Morris was a delegate to the Constitutional Convention. He was appointed, along with Alexander Hamilton, to the Committee of Style and was responsible for the final language of the Constitution. Some believe he glossed the wording to enhance the power of the federal government, including beginning the Preamble with the words "We the people" rather than "We the states," signifying that the Constitution was not the creature of the states, but the work of the nation as a whole. Morris turned down an offer from Alexander Hamilton to co-author a defense of the Constitution which became known as The Federalist Papers. He succeeded Thomas Jefferson as ambassador to France and courageously remained at his post during the bloody Reign of Terror—the only foreign diplomat to do so. In 1812 he became distressed by the war with Great Britain and called for the secession of New York and New England from the Union. This attempt was discredited, and Morris died four years later at the age of 64. Morris was a delegate at the Constitutional Convention. He was appointed, along with Alexander Hamilton, to the Committee of Style and was responsible for the final language of the Constitution. He rewrote the Preamble to begin with the words "We the People" rather than "We the States," signifying that the Constitution was not the creature of the states, but the work of the people as a whole.

Haym Salomon (1740-1785)

Haym Salomon was a Polish-born Jewish immigrant who played an important role in financing the American Revolution. He became a patriot and joined the New York Sons of Liberty. He was a member of the American espionage ring and helped convince many Hessians to desert the British military. He was arrested as a spy by the British but escaped before he could be hung. Salomon became a financial broker in Philadelphia. Using his own personal money, he went on 11 to help finance the Continental Congress and the overall patriot cause. Together with Robert Morris, Salomon is sometimes called the "financier of the American Revolution." Salomon died penniless in 1785.

Ida B. Wells (1862-1931)

Ida B. Wells exercised her rights to freedom of speech and press to bring national attention to the crime of lynching. Wells was born in Mississippi in 1862, the oldest of eight children. She put herself through college and became a teacher in Memphis, Tennessee. In 1892, Wells lost three close friends to a lynch mob. These gruesome killings made headlines, but no one was arrested or charged. As a journalist and a newspaper owner and editor, Wells 37 courageously wrote about the racism that motivated such murders. The press attacked her as a "black scoundrel" for saying that lynching had nothing to do with justice or honor. A mob ransacked her office and threatened her life, but she continued her crusade. Wells later moved to Chicago where she published The Red Record, the first documented statistical report on lynching. She became a respected public speaker, and traveled widely, lecturing on anti-lynching activities, speaking out against segregation, and advocating for women's voting rights. She co-founded the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909.

Crispus Attucks (1723-1770)

In 1770, Crispus Attucks, an African American former slave, was the first of five unarmed American civilians to be shot and killed by British soldiers in a riot known as the Boston Massacre. Attucks was credited as the leader and instigator of the heroic upheaval against the 3 British army. The events of that fateful day eventually led to the American Revolution and the fight for ultimate freedom. A "Crispus Attucks Day" was inaugurated by African American abolitionists in 1858. In 1888 the Crispus Attucks Monument was built on Boston Common. And in 1998 a commemorative Silver Dollar was minted honoring Crispus Attucks and the overall efforts of black patriots in the Revolutionary War. His death has forever linked his name with the cause of freedom.

Louisiana Purchase (1803)

In 1803, President Thomas Jefferson purchased over 800,000 square miles from Napoleon of France for $15 million. This very large section of land stretched from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains and doubled the size of the United States. Jefferson then sent Lewis and Clark on a military expedition to explore the new territory

Invention of the Telephone

In 1876, Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone, providing an opportunity for individuals to communicate with one another across long distances. This invention brought people closer together and led to innovative technological developments in communication. As individuals sought new ways to communicate, the free-enterprise system allowed the telecommunications industry to develop innovations to meet consumers' needs. The first cordless phones were introduced in the 1970s. By 1983, the first cell phone small enough to carry entered the market. Developments like the 2007 iPhone revolutionized access to information by providing the power of a computer in a hand-held device. Satellite technology enables GPS to operate in our phones as well.

1912 Presidential Election

In 1912, the Progressive Party made its first appearance in the nation's presidential elections. The popular name for the party was the Bull Moose Party and its candidate was former Republican president Theodore Roosevelt. Roosevelt had declined to run in the 1908 election, leaving his successor William Howard Taft to carry on his reforms. However, when Taft did not follow through, Roosevelt and his supporters bolted from the Republican party to form the Bull Moose Party. Roosevelt ran on a platform that pledged to continue the fight for tariff reform, regulation of large industrial corporations and interstate industries, and the political reforms that included direct primaries, popular election of U.S. senators. They also supported women's suffrage and prohibition of child labor. Many of these ideas came from the Populist Party. The Republicans nominated President Taft; the Democrats, Woodrow Wilson; and the Socialists, Eugene V. Debs. Roosevelt won 88 electoral votes and 27% of the popular vote, drawing most of this support away from Taft, the Republican candidate. As a result the Democratic candidate Woodrow Wilson won the election. This election continues to be the strongest effort by a third-party candidate in U.S. presidential history.

James Armistead (1748-1830)

In the Revolutionary War, one of General George Washington's most effective weapons against the British was an African American slave named James Armistead. Armistead was enlisted as a patriotic spy who worked as a "double-agent" on behalf of the United States. Pretending to be a runaway slave, Armistead was able to infiltrate the British defenses and acquire countless important British war secrets which helped turn the tide of the Revolution in favor of the Americans. Marquis de Lafayette helped him by writing a letter of recommendation for his freedom, which was granted in 1787. In gratitude, Armistead adopted Lafayette's surname and lived as a farmer in Virginia until his death in 1830.

Sinking of the Lusitania

In the first years of World War I, the U.S. struggled to stay neutral even though both Great Britain and Germany tried to persuade the U.S. to come to their aid. This changed when Germany began using "unrestricted submarine warfare" in the Atlantic. In May of 1915, German submarines attacked and sank The Lusitania, a British passenger ship, because they believed the British were using passenger ships to secretly carry weapons. After the loss of 128 American lives in the attack, the mood of many Americans shifted as they began to openly oppose Germany.

Populist Party

In the late 1800s farmers in much of the country experienced difficult times. Farmers felt that neither the Republicans nor Democrats were concerned about their problems. As a result, they created their own party, the Populist Party. In July of 1892, they issued the Omaha Platform at their founding convention in Omaha, Nebraska. The platform included ideas such as a graduated income tax, the use of the secret ballot, direct election of U.S. Senators, an eighthour workday, government ownership of the railroads, telegraph, and telephone, free, unlimited coinage of gold and silver, and a proposal that excess land held by the railroads and other corporations be reclaimed by the government. Although the Populist Party won one million popular votes and received twenty-two electoral votes, they were unsuccessful because their main support came from the South, Midwest, and the West. They received very little support from the densely populated Northeast. By 1896, the Democrats adopted some of the ideas in the Omaha Platform and the party largely disappeared. However, many of their proposals became law during the Progressive and New Deal eras.

Election of 1860

In the presidential election of 1860, there were four candidates: Abraham Lincoln of Illinois, Republican Party; Stephen Douglas of Illinois, Northern Democrats; John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky, Southern Democrats; and John Bell of Tennessee, Constitutional Union Party. Lincoln won a majority of the electoral vote, and thus became President even though he won only about 40 percent of the popular vote. His election prompted South Carolina immediately to secede from the Union on December 20, 1860. By the time Lincoln was inaugurated on March 4, 1861, seven states had seceded from the Union and formed the Confederate States of America.

James Otis (1725-1783)

James Otis was born in Massachusetts, the brother of Mercy Otis Warren. Otis went to Harvard and opened a law practice in Boston in 1750. Six years later, the royal governor appointed him an advocate general in the Vice Admiralty Court. Decisions in Vice Admiralty Courts were rendered by royal judges, not by citizen juries. Many cases involved smuggling, and Otis was troubled by British writs of assistance. (These general warrants gave broad authority to inspectors to search ships, warehouses, and even private homes for evidence of crimes.) In 1761, Otis resigned his post and took the case of Boston merchants who challenged the legality of the writs. In a five-hour long speech, Otis cited the traditional rights of Englishmen to "the freedom of one's house." He also based his argument on natural rights theory, asserting that the right to private property was inalienable. John Adams, who observed the speech, would later remark that it marked the start of the American Revolution. Indeed, many of the principles he championed were later enshrined in the Fourth Amendment. Otis soon became a Patriot leader, joining Samuel Adams and John Hancock in opposing British tyranny. In 1764 he published The Rights of the Colonists Asserted and Proved. This pamphlet criticized British taxation without representation, and denounced slavery: "The colonists are by the law of nature freeborn, as indeed all men are, white or black." In 1769, Otis was physically attacked in a Boston coffeehouse by a customs official whom Otis had criticized in the newspaper. The official beat Otis's head with a cane, fracturing his skull and causing permanent brain damage severe enough to force his retirement from public life. In 1783 he died after being struck by lightning.

James Wilson (1742-1798)

James Wilson was born in Scotland and came to Pennsylvania in 1765. He joined John Dickinson's law firm before opening his own practice. He became involved in Patriot activities and published pamphlets criticizing British policies. He served in the Second Continental Congress and signed the Declaration of Independence. As a delegate to the Constitutional Convention, Wilson advocated direct election of the president. This would have constituted a radical change from the system under the Articles of Confederation (which had no national executive) and from that supported by advocates of republican government. It also put him at odds with major figures from the Founding period, such as Patrick Henry and Thomas Jefferson, who believed that substantial power should be reserved to the individual states, and that a popularly-elected executive-among other changes-would concentrate power too heavily at the national level. Wilson is credited with the compromise that resulted in the formation of the Electoral College. Once the Constitution was sent to the states, Wilson joined with Benjamin Rush to secure ratification in Pennsylvania. In 1789, President George Washington appointed Wilson to the Supreme Court. His most important opinion, establishing that a citizen of one state could sue the government of another state, was overturned by the Eleventh Amendment. During his time on the Court, Wilson also served as the University of Pennsylvania's first professor of law. He lectured on the place of law in society, and cruel and unusual punishment as prohibited by the Eighth Amendment, and he urged moderation, swiftness, and certainty in punishment as a means of ensuring justice.

Jane Addams (1860-1935)

Jane Addams is best known as the founder of a settlement house, called Hull House, where she provided help for poor immigrants who had come to Chicago. The idea for Hull House came after she saw a similar institution in London. Hull House provided kindergarten and day care for the children of working mothers and after school activities for older children. Later an art gallery, employment bureau, library, public kitchen, music and art classes, as well as facilities for swimming and sports activities, were added. She was also involved in numerous organizations that promoted social reform involving the rights of children, African Americans and women. Jane Addams became active in the peace movement during World War I and was the first president of the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom. Because of her outstanding work, she was the first woman awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

Jean-Jacques Rousseau was born in Geneva, Switzerland. His political and philosophical writings, including The Social Contract (1762), were both influential and controversial. Banned in France and Geneva for criticizing religion, The Social Contract nonetheless had an influence on governments in Europe and on the Founders. Rousseau held that human nature was essentially good—that man was naturally a "noble savage"—but degrades into cruelty without a system of laws. Rousseau held that in a natural state, individuals must compete with each other, but they are also increasingly interdependent on each other. This contradiction was to blame for man's degradation. By uniting under a social contract, individuals surrender their natural freedom and agree to submit to the general will of the people, who are sovereign. While the Founders accepted some of Rousseau's philosophy, such as supporting freedom of religion, they rejected others. Rousseau criticized private property and asserted that the general will of the people was sovereign over the individual's body and property. This argument put him knowingly in opposition to other enlightenment philosophers including John Locke, Rousseau also advocated restraints on free speech in order to protect people from bad ideas. For this and other reasons, he is considered an intellectual ancestor of socialist systems.

John Adams (1735-1826)

John Adams was born in Massachusetts, the second cousin of Samuel Adams. He began his law practice after graduating from Harvard. A defining moment in his young life was watching James Otis's courtroom challenge of British writs of assistance, which was based on natural rights theory. The speech filled Adams with zeal for liberty, and Adams would remember it into his old age. Willing to take unpopular stands, Adams courageously defended the British soldiers accused in the Boston Massacre. Advising the courtroom to avoid relying on passion as a guide, he emphasized that "Facts are stubborn things." Adams drafted the Massachusetts Constitution and Declaration of Rights and served in the Continental Congress where he was a leading advocate of independence. He seconded the Lee Resolution and served on the committee to draft the Declaration of Independence (though the 2 writing was done by Thomas Jefferson). He signed the Treaty of Paris with Benjamin Franklin and John Jay, and completed diplomatic missions in Europe. He was serving overseas as the Constitution was being drafted. He and his friend Jefferson wrote to James Madison urging the addition of a bill of rights. Adams served as the country's first Vice President under George Washington from 1789-1797. He was elected the second President of the United States in 1796. As President, he kept the United States out of war with France but signed the controversial and probably unconstitutional Alien and Sedition Acts. He also signed the Judiciary Act of 1801. Six months before he died, Adams' son John Quincy Adams became the sixth president of the United States. Adams died fifty years to the day after the adoption of the Declaration of Independence.

John Dickinson (1732-1808)

John Dickinson was born in Maryland, and his family soon moved to Delaware. He practiced law in Philadelphia and served in both the Delaware and Pennsylvania assemblies. Historians believe him to be the author of Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania (1767-1768) which called for resistance to British policies while urging reconciliation. Dickinson also wrote America's first patriotic song, "The Liberty Song." In 1775, Dickinson and Thomas Jefferson wrote Declaration of the Causes of Taking Up Arms. In this document, Dickinson reassured the British King that the colonists were not raising an army with the intent of establishing independence. When Congress debated the Declaration of Independence the next year, Dickinson objected to its strong wording. In what many saw as a sign of integrity, he left Philadelphia when it became clear that Congress would approve the Lee Resolution. Once independence was declared, Dickinson dropped his objections and helped draft the Articles of Confederation. He served as governor of Delaware before being elected governor of Pennsylvania. In 1783, he lent his name to Dickinson College in Pennsylvania.

John Jay (1745-1829)

John Jay was born in New York City to a prominent family and gained notoriety as a lawyer throughout the state. He served in the First Continental Congress and published Address to the People of Great Britain in which he argued that the colonists had the same rights as the British, including rights to private property, jury trials, due process, and religious liberty. Though he opposed many British policies, he favored a moderate approach to Britain. In what many believed to be a sign of integrity, he resigned from Congress rather than sign the Declaration of Independence. He joined his fellow Patriots once the rest of the colonists rallied behind the action. In 1777 Jay helped draft the New York constitution, served as state supreme court Chief Justice, and in the Continental Congress. He was elected President of the Assembly, the highest office under the Articles of Confederation. Together with Benjamin Franklin and John Adams, he traveled to Europe to negotiate the Treaty of Paris. While he was away, Congress appointed him Secretary of Foreign Affairs. He found the job difficult to execute because under the Articles each state could act alone, and he had no power to negotiate meaningful treaties. This experience strengthened his resolve for a stronger central government. He teamed with Alexander Hamilton and James Madison to write five essays of The Federalist Papers encouraging ratification of the Constitution. President George Washington appointed Jay the first Chief Justice of the Supreme Court in 1789. In 1794 he negotiated "Jay's Treaty" which was successful at avoiding war with Britain, but which received a negative reception in the United States because of the belief that Jay had made too many concessions to the British. The next year Jay resigned from the Supreme Court as he had been elected governor of New York—an office he neither requested nor sought. As governor, he signed an emancipation bill and continued to work for the abolition of slavery.

John Locke (1632-1704)

John Locke was an English philosopher and Oxford scholar. In one of his most important works, Second Treatise of Civil Government, Locke asserts that individuals unite into a society for the better protection of their natural rights, including life, liberty, and property. This work was of great influence on the Founders, including Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and George Mason. After William and Mary of Orange assumed the throne and the English Bill of Rights denied freedom of worship to Catholics and Protestants outside the Church of England, Locke wrote "A Letter Concerning Toleration." This essay argued for a new relationship between civil government and religion. Though Locke asserted that atheists and Catholics could not be tolerated, his ideas formed one basis of the First Amendment, which prevents the establishment of a national religion and protects an absolute freedom of belief.

John Marshall (1755-1835)

John Marshall was the fourth Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, serving from 1801 until his death. Born in Virginia, he served in the Virginia legislature and at the Virginia Ratifying Convention where he fought for ratification of the Constitution with James Madison. He also served in the US House of Representatives. Marshall was appointed to the Supreme Court by President John Adams. Marshall's most important decision was Marbury v. Madison (1803) which established the doctrine of judicial review. He also decided Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819), which clarified the Contracts Clause; McCulloch v. Maryland (1819), which examined implied powers of Congress under Article I, section 8 and affirmed the supremacy of the Constitution over state law; and Gibbons v. Ogden (1824) which affirmed that Congress had control of interstate waterways under the Commerce Clause. He also presided over the treason trial of Aaron Burr. Marshall's interpretations of the Constitution, including his understanding of federalism, proved definitive and laid the groundwork for much of current constitutional theory and a strong national government.

John Paul Jones (1747-1792)

John Paul Jones was born in 1747 in Scotland. After being accused of a crime he fled to America. In 1776 with his ship the Bonhomme Richard, he defeated the British warship Serapis, which raised American spirits. Jones' success against the best navy in the world angered the British and inspired the Americans. Jones' famous words during this battle were "I have not yet begun to fight!" which became a slogan for the U.S. Navy. Some consider him the "Father of the U.S. Navy."

John Peter Muhlenberg (1746-1807)

John Peter Muhlenberg was born in Pennsylvania. John was the son of a Lutheran minister. Eventually, he followed in his father's footsteps becoming a minister himself. While in Virginia, he became a follower of Patrick Henry. He is said to have supported the American cause in a 9 sermon in which he cited the verse from Ecclesiastes which begins with the words, "To everything there is a season...a time of peace and a time of war. And this is a time of war." He later served in the Continental Army fighting at Charleston, Brandywine, Stony Point, and Yorktown. He was also present during the winter at Valley Forge. After the war, he served in the Pennsylvania state government before being elected to the U.S. Congress. Even though he didn't serve as a Lutheran minister again, he was active as a Lutheran layman until he died in 1807.

John Witherspoon (1723-1794)

John Witherspoon was born in Scotland, and came in 1768 to the colonies to assume the presidency of Princeton University in New Jersey. He was also a prominent Presbyterian minister. While serving as the president of Princeton University, he strongly influenced the course of study. He believed that morality was crucial to all those holding public positions of leadership. Therefore, he instituted a required course called Moral Philosophy for the students. One of his most famous students was James Madison. Witherspoon was elected to the Continental Congress and was present to vote for and sign the Declaration of Independence. He served in the Congress all through the war and helped in the drafting of the Articles of Confederation. John Witherspoon, was a delegate from New Jersey at the Constitutional Convention, voting for its adoption, and advocating its ratification in New Jersey.

Jonathan Trumbull, Sr. (1710-1785)

Jonathan Trumbull Sr. was born in Connecticut. He studied theology at Harvard and later served as a colonial governor of Connecticut. During the American Revolution, he became the only colonial governor to support the American cause. He was a strong supporter of General Washington and spent the war doing what he could to recruit troops and raise supplies for the cause. General Washington is said to have depended on him for these things during the trying times of the Revolution. Since he supported the cause, he was the only colonial governor to remain in power after independence was declared. Governor Trumbull died in 1785 and is buried in Lebanon, Connecticut.

King George III (1738-1820)

King George III was born on June 4, 1738. He became heir to the throne upon the death of his father in 1751 and succeeded his grandfather George II in 1760. During his reign, there were many conflicts involving his kingdom. After the French and Indian War, the British Parliament angered the American colonists by taxing them to pay for military protection. In 1776 the American colonists declared their independence and listed their grievances against the king. The Treaty of Paris of 1783 ended the Revolutionary War and confirmed the independence of the United States. After 1784, George III largely retired from an active role in government. He suffered a nervous breakdown in 1789. After he was declared insane in 1810, his son was appointed to rule for him.

James Madison (1751-1836)

Madison was born in Virginia to a wealthy family. After graduating from Princeton, he served in the Virginia legislature. He worked closely with Thomas Jefferson and helped draft and win support for the Virginia Statue for Religious Freedom. In 1780 he joined the Continental Congress and became concerned that the Articles of Confederation were inadequate. In 1787, he was a leader at the Constitutional Convention. The author of the Virginia Plan, he suggested a system of checks and balances. He also worked to balance the reserved and concurrent powers of the states and federal government. He also took detailed notes through the convention. Because of his efforts, Madison is known as the "Father of the Constitution. 14 When the Constitution was sent to the states for ratification, Madison teamed with Alexander Hamilton and John Jay to write the Federalist Papers in support of ratification. He led the debate to approve the Constitution in Virginia, taking on Anti-Federalist leader Patrick Henry. When it became clear that the Constitution would not pass without the promise of a listing of rights, he proposed seventeen amendments, twelve of which were sent to the states for approval. Of those twelve, the states approved ten which became known as the Bill of Rights. Madison was elected to the US House of Representatives in 1789, where he became George Washington's chief supporter. Madison eventually split from Washington politically as Washington aligned himself with Alexander Hamilton and his plan for a Bank of the United States. Madison moved away from the Federalists and closer to Jefferson's Democratic-Republican Party. After leaving Congress in 1797, Madison and Jefferson wrote the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions in response to the Alien and Sedition Acts. Madison became Jefferson's Secretary of State and later succeeded him as President in 1809. As President, he allowed the nation to enter the War of 1812—called "Mr. Madison's War" by many at the time—a decision that many historians count as a historic failure. However, the war won respect for the new republic overseas and Madison emerged from the war with great popular support.

Brooklyn Bridge

Manufacturing steel using the Bessemer process was much more efficient than previous methods. Steel played a critical step in the industrialization of the United States as steel was used to manufacture equipment, tools, and railroads. In 1883 workers completed the Brooklyn Bridge across the East River, connecting Manhattan to Brooklyn. At the time, it was the longest steel-wire suspension bridge in the world. Skyscrapers built with a steel frame soon followed. Both changed the landscape of the nation.

Marquis de Lafayette (1757-1834)

Marquis de Lafayette was a French officer who came to help the Americans fight the Revolution against Great Britain. When he learned of the struggle of the Americans in their endeavor to secure independence, he resolved to come to the colonies to aid them in their efforts. He was given the rank of major general, since he represented the highest rank of French nobility. He developed a friendship with George Washington which lasted as long as Washington lived. His influence helped to secure support from France for the patriots' cause. Lafayette was also able to obtain troops and supplies from France. He was the first foreigner to be granted honorary United States citizenship. When he died on May 20, 1834 at the age of seventy-six, the United States government sent American soil to his gravesite.

Mercy Otis Warren (1728-1814)

Mercy Otis Warren was born in Massachusetts, the sister of James Otis. She was an early supporter of independence and anonymously published satirical plays designed to criticize the Massachusetts royal governor in 1772 and 1773. She corresponded with many Patriot leaders, exchanging hundreds of letters with Abigail Adams, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, and Alexander Hamilton. Believing in the natural rights theory expressed in the Declaration of Independence, she argued that women should have equal rights under the law. Warren opposed ratification of the Constitution. She authored an anonymous criticism of the document in 1788 called Observations on the New Constitution ... by a Columbian Patriot. Other than the lack of equal rights for women, her chief complaints were later addressed in the Bill of Rights. Some historians believe she was also the author of at least one Anti-Federalist paper attributed to Elbridge Gerry, and that she co-authored Letters from a Federal Farmer with Richard Henry Lee. In later years she argued for equality in education for girls and boys. She also published a volume of poetry and, in 1805, published a three-volume work, History of the Rise, Progress and Termination of the American Revolution. She is sometimes called "The Conscience of the American Revolution."

Paris Peace Conference

Once Germany surrendered in November 1918, crafting a peace treaty to resolve the issues that led to World War I at the 1919 Paris Peace Conference proved difficult. The Allies, especially the French, who had suffered greatly in the years prior to U.S. entry into the war, wanted to punish Germany. President Wilson previously outlined his plan for peace known as the Fourteen Points in a speech delivered to a joint session of Congress in January 1918. Designed to make the world "safe for democracy," the Fourteen Points included a plan for a League of Nations. The League of Nations was to be an international organization of member nations that would mediate disputes before armed conflict began. Members would also agree to come to each other's aid if conflict arose. President Wilson made concessions to Allied leaders concerning the harsh economic punishments given to Germany in order to achieve his idea for the creation of the League of Nations. Concerned that the U.S. might be forced into another war, Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, Sr., led the opposition to the Treaty in the Senate. Those opposing the Treaty and the League of Nations were known as isolationists. The main desire of the isolationists was to maintain U.S. neutrality in any future military conflicts in Europe. They believed this would keep them from becoming entangled in future disputes such as the one that had caused heavy American casualties in World War I. Despite Wilson's whirlwind train trip across the country to rally American support, the U.S. Senate refused to ratify the Treaty. Neither side would compromise. As a result, the U.S. did not join the League of Nations or sign the Treaty of Versailles.

Thomas Paine (1737-1809)

Paine was born in England and had little formal education. After working various jobs, he met Benjamin Franklin who convinced him to come to America in 1774. In January 1776, Paine published the best-selling pamphlet of the revolutionary era, Common Sense, which encouraged colonial independence. While serving with George Washington's troops in the Continental Army, Paine wrote a series of essays called The American Crisis. These essays helped improve morale among the troops during the Revolutionary War. Paine continued his defense of the American Revolution and natural rights theory in The Rights of Man when he returned to England in 1787. England charged him with seditious libel because of his critique of monarchy. He fled to France, where he became involved in the revolutionary assembly. He was imprisoned and sentenced to death for voting against the King's execution. 10 While in prison he wrote The Age of Reason, a controversial work criticizing organized religion while insisting on religious freedom for all. He was freed in 1794 due to the efforts of James Madison, the new American minister to France. Paine had blamed the previous minister, Gouverneur Morris, for what he saw as Morris' failure to secure his release. In 1796 Paine wrote an insulting open letter to George Washington. This letter won him many enemies. President Thomas Jefferson invited Paine to return to America in 1802, but he soon found he was unwelcome. His New York funeral was attended only by a few. His body was later stolen and taken to England, which denied its entry as Paine was still an outlaw. His remains were later lost.

Patrick Henry (1736-1799)

Patrick Henry was born in Virginia where he was educated by his father and expected to become a farmer. After failing at farming and storekeeping, he studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1760. As a member of the Virginia legislature in the 1760s, Henry opposed the Stamp Act. By the 1770s he had emerged as one of the most radical leaders of the opposition to British tyranny. He served in the Continental Congress and urged his fellow Virginians to take up arms against the British, famously uttering in 1775 as the British militia advanced in Massachusetts, "Gentlemen may cry 'peace!' but there is no peace...the war is actually begun!...I know not what course others may take, but as for me, give me liberty, or give me death!" Henry later led 150 colonists to Williamsburg demanding the return of gunpowder seized by the royal governor. After helping craft the Virginia Declaration of Rights, Henry was elected the first governor of Virginia. He would serve a total of five terms. In later years, he helped found Hampden-Sydney College, and attempted to expand government support of teachers—who were mainly ministers of the state's official church. His proposal was defeated and two years later Virginia adopted the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom bringing an end to the state church. 6 Wary of federal power and suspicious of the motives of the assembly, Henry declined to attend the Constitutional Convention. He became a leading Anti-Federalist critic of the Constitution. When it was sent to the states for ratification, he engaged in heated debates with James Madison at the Virginia ratifying convention. When the Bill of Rights was sent to the states, Henry believed the amendments were not enough and instead called in vain for a new constitutional convention. Henry retired from politics in 1791 and resumed his law practice. He turned down offers from President George Washington to serve as Secretary of State and then as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. Washington convinced Henry to run for the state legislature. He was elected, but he died before he could take office.

Tammany Hall

Political machines consisted of small groups of insiders who controlled the affairs of the local government without actually being elected to public office. Political bosses led the political machines. Although they often made infrastructure repairs and provided much needed services for immigrants and the economically disadvantaged, machines traded these services for votes in the local elections. Boss Tweed controlled Tammany Hall, the most infamous political machine in New York City. While Boss Tweed controlled the local NYC government, over $200 million taxpayer dollars were funneled to Tweed and his friends. The graft—political corruption that misdirects public funds—was finally exposed by Harper's Weekly cartoonist, Thomas Nast. Although the Tammany Hall machine continued after Boss Tweed was arrested, tried, and sent to prison, it slowly began to lose power and influence over New York politics.

Richard Henry Lee (1732-1794)

Richard Henry Lee was born to one of the wealthiest families in Virginia. He studied law and was elected to the Virginia legislature at age 25. There he was an outspoken opponent of slavery. He asserted that Africans, with the same natural rights as Europeans, were "equally entitled to liberty and freedom by the great law of nature." Nevertheless, Lee owned slaves and did not free them. In response to British policies, Lee condemned the Stamp Act and Townshend Acts, organized committees, and kept in contact with Samuel Adams, a Patriot leader in Boston. He served in the Continental Congress, and on June 7, 1776, introduced the Lee Resolution calling for independence from England. His resolution led to the writing and adoption of the Declaration of Independence. Lee signed the Articles of Confederation in 1781 and served in the Confederation Congress, serving as the body's first president. He helped guide the Northwest Ordinance through Congress in 1787. Lee was alarmed at the call for a stronger central government and refused to attend the Constitutional Convention in 1787. He attempted to persuade the delegates not to alter the Articles and became a leading opponent of ratification of the Constitution in Virginia. In 1787 and 1788, an anonymous series of Anti-Federalist essays called Letters from a Federal Farmer appeared, which closely mirrored Lee's arguments against the Constitution. Some historians believe that Lee and Mercy Otis Warren were the authors of these essays. 8 When the Constitution was adopted, Lee accepted a seat in the Senate where he was a leading advocate of laws and amendments limiting the power of the federal government. He was pleased when the Bill of Rights was ratified in 1791.

Robert Morris (1734-1806)

Robert Morris was born in England and came to Maryland in his youth. After apprenticing at a Philadelphia shipping and banking firm, he became a partner of the company at age 23. The firm was successful, trading in a variety of products, including tobacco, rum, wheat, and, for a brief time, African slaves. Morris became a prominent Philadelphia citizen, leading merchants to close the port of Philadelphia to British goods. He served in the state legislature and in the Continental Congress. Initially opposed to independence, he voted against the Lee Resolution, but he changed his mind and signed the Declaration of Independence. He also signed the Articles of Confederation. As chairman of Congress' Finance Committee, Morris persuaded reluctant states to contribute to the continental system and army. He obtained war supplies and risked his own ships in bringing these supplies past the British Navy. Morris' company received a commission on each shipment, though some criticized him for profiting at the country's expense. Some accused him of stealing money, but a committee of Congress found that he was not guilty of any wrongdoing and acted with "fidelity and integrity." Robert Morris is known as the "Financier of the American Revolution" in part because he risked and spent so much of his own money for the Patriot cause, putting up more than $1 million to finance the decisive Battle of Yorktown alone. Morris supported revising the Articles and attended the Constitutional Convention, though he rarely spoke during the proceedings. He was pleased with the Constitution and signed it. He turned down President George Washington's offer to be Secretary of the Treasury, instead accepting a Senate seat in the first Congress.

Connecticut Compromise OR The Great Compromise (1787)

Roger Sherman of Connecticut introduced the so-called Connecticut Compromise using ideas found in both the Virginia Plan and New Jersey Plan at the 1787 Constitutional Convention. Because there was general agreement among the delegates that Congress would be the more powerful of the three separate branches of the new government, representation for each state in this new Congress proved to be the most hotly disputed issue. For that reason, the Connecticut Compromise which eventually settled the issue is also called "the Great Compromise." It called for a bicameral U. S. Congress establishing a Senate and a House of Representatives. Each state would be equally represented in the Senate by two senators from each state regardless of the state's population. Each state's representation in the House of Representatives would be determined in proportion to the state's population as determined by the census to be conducted every ten years. The greater a state's population, the more members of the House of Representatives the state would be entitled to send. However, each state would be guaranteed a minimum of one member of the House regardless of the state's population. Historians agree that adoption of the Great Compromise was crucial to the success of the convention and the new Constitution.

Roger Sherman (1721-1793)

Roger Sherman was born in Massachusetts and moved to Connecticut in 1743. He owned a cobbler shop, published a series of almanacs, and studied the law independently. In the 1760's Sherman became a leader in the resistance to British tyranny. Dedicated to moderation, he urged peaceful forms of protest, including boycotts and petitions. In 1774 he was elected to the Continental Congress. He served on the committee in charge of drafting the 17 Declaration of Independence, including Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, Robert Livingston and Thomas Jefferson; it was the committee that chose Jefferson to draft the document. In 1776, Sherman helped frame the Articles of Confederation, and he later signed it. After leaving national politics to return to public service in Connecticut, Sherman returned to Congress in 1783 to approve the Treaty of Paris. Sherman was a delegate to the Constitutional Convention, where he worked to guard the power of states against the national government. He argued that the legislature should be the strongest branch of government, suggesting Congress should have the power to select the President. He suggested the Connecticut Compromise, or Great Compromise, which determined the method of representation in Congress. He initially opposed adding a bill of rights to the Constitution, but eventually supported James Madison's effort to add amendments. In 1791, the 70-year old Sherman was appointed to the US Senate, where he served until he died in 1793.

Samuel Adams (1722-1803)

Samuel Adams was born in Massachusetts, the second cousin of John Adams. He worked at various businesses after graduating from Harvard. During the 1760s, Adams became a leader of Patriot resistance to the British government's attempts to tax the colonies. Adams organized the Sons of Liberty with James Otis and John Hancock. This group took the lead in resisting the Stamp Act and Townshend Duties. Adams was soon famous throughout the colonies. In 1772 Adams authored The Rights of the Colonists, which appealed to the concepts of the rights of Englishmen and natural rights theory. When Parliament passed the Tea Act, Adams organized the Boston Tea Party. In this nighttime raid, 150 Sons of Liberty members dumped 342 chests of British Tea into Boston Harbor. The governor of Massachusetts pardoned all the members of the Boston resistance except for Adams and Hancock. The shots in Lexington that began the Revolutionary War were fired on British troops with orders to arrest the two men, but they escaped capture. Adams signed the Declaration of Independence and helped write the Massachusetts Constitution and the Articles of Confederation. Suspicious of strong governmental power, Adams rejected the purpose of the Constitutional Convention—to strengthen the central government— and did not attend. He eventually supported the Constitution after the Bill of Rights was added.

Sanford Dole (1844-1926)

Sanford Dole was born in Honolulu to missionary parents. After completing his education and receiving an honorary law degree, he returned to Hawaii as a businessman and public official when Hawaii was an independent kingdom, a republic, a protectorate and later a territory of the United States. At first, he was able to work with both the Hawaiian royalty and the immigrants who lived in the islands. Dole was named President of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Hawaii after Queen Liliuokalani was overthrown. When Grover Cleveland was elected president, Cleveland attempted to restore the monarchy, and plans for the annexation of Hawaii by the United States were delayed. When annexation finally occurred in 1898, Dole led negotiations requiring the U.S. government to pay off the accumulated national debt of both the Kingdom of Hawaii and the Republic of Hawaii. He successfully demanded that public lands be held as a public trust for the residents of Hawaii. He became Hawaii's first territorial governor and then a presiding judge for the U.S. District Court for Hawaii. His cousin John founded the famous Hawaiian Pineapple Company which later became Dole Pineapple Company.

Territorial Acquisitions of Guam, Hawaii, the Philippines, and Puerto Rico

Spanish and U.S. officials signed the Treaty of Paris that officially ended the Spanish-American War. This treaty granted Cuba independence under the protection of the United States. The former Spanish colonial possessions of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines were ceded to the United States. The acquisitions required the U.S. to make difficult decisions about the rights of people living in the newly acquired territories, as well as how to govern from a distance. Philippine nationalists fully expected that they would be able to govern themselves, which led to another war with the Philippines and resistance for several years. The territorial acquisitions also played a large part in the U.S. emergence as a world power due to their strategic geographic locations.

Susan B. Anthony (1820-1906)

Susan B. Anthony was born in Massachusetts, the daughter of Quaker abolitionists. At her first women's rights convention in 1852, she declared that voting was "the right which woman needed above every other." In 1869 Anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott and Lucy Stone founded the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA). This organization condemned the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments as injustices to women because they failed to clearly protect women's rights. She and Stanton also published a weekly newspaper, The Revolution. In 1872, Anthony decided to test the meaning of the Fourteenth Amendment by casting a vote. She argued that because the amendment protected the "privileges and immunities" of all citizens, that it should protect her right to vote. She was arrested, imprisoned, tried, and found guilty of voting. Anthony's trial gave her a chance to bring her message to a larger audience. In the 1880s, NWSA merged with another suffrage organization to form the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA). Stanton became its first president. In 1892, Anthony became its second president - a post she held for eight years. Anthony died in 1906, fourteen years before the Nineteenth Amendment would secure women's right to vote. The fight for women's suffrage was continued by others including Alice Paul and Carrie Chapman Catt.

Battle of Argonne Forest

The American Expeditionary Force (AEF) were the U.S. troops under the command of General John J. Pershing. The AEF was sent to Europe to fight the Central Powers after the U.S. entered World War I in April of 1917. Eventually, the U.S. sent more than two million men overseas to fight. Many of these men were drafted into the military as a result of the Selective Service Act (1917), requiring eligible males to register for the draft. This infusion of troops tipped the balance of the war in favor of the Allies, and eventually ended the stalemate in the trenches. The Battle of Argonne Forest (1918), fought along the Belgian border in the northeast of France, demonstrated the importance of the additional American troops. The entire battle lasted over a month and resulted in heavy casualties for both sides. However, due to the American forces, the battle resulted in a victory for the Allies and marked the beginning of the end for the Central Powers.

Constitutional Convention

The Congress of the Articles of Confederation in February,1787, adopted a resolution calling for a convention of delegates from the thirteen states to be held in Philadelphia beginning in May "for the sole purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation." Twelve of the states chose convention delegates. Only Rhode Island declined to do so. Fifty-five men attended some or all of the convention. The convention was supposed to begin on May 14 but did not do so because 18 not enough delegates had arrived to constitute a quorum. James Madison arrived early on May 3, and he and other delegates from Virginia and Pennsylvania then met informally and prepared a new plan of government to present to the convention once it began. Finally, on May 25, enough delegates had arrived to constitute a quorum, and the convention began. The delegates unanimously elected General George Washington to preside as the President of the Convention. The delegates soon decided that instead of simply "revising the Articles of Confederation," they would write a completely new constitution with a very different system of government from that which the nation had under the Articles. After spending the entire summer behind closed doors in secrecy dealing with several difficult issues, on September 17, 1787, the new Constitution of the United States was completed. Thirtynine delegates present at the end of the convention signed the Constitution. Three delegates - Edmund Randolph of Virginia, Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts, and George Mason of Virginia—refused to sign it. The new Constitution was then sent to the states for ratification.

Election of 1800

The Election of 1800 is considered a revolution due to the change in control of the American government for the first time from one political party to another political party. In the Election of 1800, President John Adams ran for a second term as the candidate of the Federalist Party. He was defeated by Thomas Jefferson, the candidate of the Democratic-Republican Party. The election actually had to be decided in the House of Representatives since Jefferson and his Vice-Presidential candidate Aaron Burr tied with the same number of electoral votes. Jefferson finally won when Alexander Hamilton threw his support to him because he didn't trust Burr. This later led Burr to challenge Hamilton to a duel in which Hamilton was killed. This election marked the first time the Federalists lost control of both houses of Congress. The United States had experienced a change in control of its government without a single drop of blood being spilled.

Midnight Appointments (1801)

The Election of 1800 signaled a loss of power for the Federalist Party. However, in the time between Thomas Jefferson's victory over John Adams in November 1800, and Jefferson's actual inauguration as the third President of the U.S. in March 1801, the outgoing Federalist controlled Congress passed laws increasing the number of judges in the federal court system. President Adams appointed as many Federalist judges as he could before leaving office, thus securing a legacy for the Federalists in government since they had lost power in the other two branches. Adams was busy signing appointment papers for these positions, including several as Justices of the Peace for the District of Columbia, right up until midnight. Some of the Federalist appointees had their appointment papers delivered to them by the outgoing Secretary of State John Marshall, but a few did not get their papers. When Jefferson took office the next day, he forbade his new Secretary of State, James Madison, to deliver these midnight appointments, sparking the landmark Supreme Court case, Marbury v. Madison.

Battle of Wounded Knee

The Indian Wars began at the end of the Civil War as more people moved west looking for opportunities to mine, farm, and ranch. There they encountered indigenous tribes who had lived on the Great Plains since they were removed from the eastern United States in the 1830s by President Andrew Jackson. Prior to the final conflict at Wounded Knee in 1890, the Lakota put 28 up one final effort to halt expansion of the Americans moving west, known as the Ghost Dance. The Battle of Wounded Knee in 1890, in which more than 250 Lakota people on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation were massacred, marked the end of the Indian Wars and the defeat of the Lakota Sioux tribe.

Open Door Policy

The United States became a world power following its defeat of Spain and its willingness to use force to protect its interests in the Spanish-American War. Having acquired territory in the Pacific, the United States sought more opportunities to trade in that region, especially in China. The Chinese government had been weakened in an earlier war with Japan, and the United States was concerned about other countries laying claim to areas of China as part of their "spheres of influence." In 1899, Secretary of State John Hay sent notes to these governments explaining that the United States would support an "open door policy" with China; meaning all foreign nations would have equal trading rights in China. This policy was designed to provide equal opportunity for international trade and commerce among the various powers operating in China.

The Virginia Plan (1787)

The Virginia Plan was prepared by James Madison of Virginia, but Edmund Randolph of Virginia introduced this proposal for a new government at an early meeting of the 1787 Constitutional Convention. The Virginia Plan illustrates Baron de Montesquieu's influence on Madison since, like Montesquieu in 1748, it called for three separate, independent branches of government: legislative, executive, and judicial. It also provided for a bicameral legislative branch with members of one chamber chosen by the people and members of the other chamber elected by the first chamber. Representation for each state in both chambers would be in proportion to the number of free inhabitants in the state: the larger the number of free inhabitants in a state, the greater the number of members of both chambers that state would receive. The national legislature would have the power to overrule any state law that conflicted with "the articles of union" and to use force against states that resisted. The national legislature would choose a national executive as well as a national judiciary consisting of one or more supreme courts and lower courts. Finally, the executive and "a convenient number of the national judiciary" would comprise a Council of Revision with the authority to examine every act of the national legislature before it takes effect and every act of a state legislature before a veto thereof would be final. The Virginia Plan was supported by delegates from the more populous states. The U. S. Constitution as written and adopted at Philadelphia included several provisions of the Virginia Plan.

Invention of Electricity

The development of electric power by Thomas Edison in 1879 changed the way people lived and worked. The light bulb led to longer workdays because laborers were no longer limited to working during daylight hours. By 1900, industries began to use electricity to run machines. This led to an increase in the number of factories and the growth of cities as people left their farms seeking factory work. Electric streetlights made the streets safer and were much more efficient than lamplighters lighting individual gas lamps nightly. Electric streetcars 27 made travel easier in cities. Electricity powered appliances such as washing machines, toasters, electric irons, and vacuum cleaners, making life easier for women who did most of the domestic work.

Transcontinental Railroad

The federal government subsidized the growth of the railroad industry by providing land grants to railroad companies between 1850 and 1870. Among others, Chinese immigrants and Irish Civil War vets worked on the railroads, which at times led to tension among the laborers. As a result of increased immigration from China, Congress passed the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1887. Although the Civil War slowed construction of the first transcontinental railroad, the race to complete it ended in 1869 when the Union Pacific and Central Pacific railroads met in Utah, completing the route from Nebraska to California. This provided faster transportation between the east and west coasts. The ability to move goods, resources, and people had a significant effect on the economy. Demand for goods spurred the growth of factories and businesses, creating jobs and putting more people to work. By 1883, refrigerated railroad cars carried meat and farm products to eastern urban markets, while manufactured goods headed west. Mass-produced factory items were available in urban department stores or through mail-order catalogs such as Sears and Roebuck for those living in rural areas. Western settlement and business-friendly government policies like land grants to railroads, protective tariffs, low corporate taxes and the lack of industry regulation helped create a national economy.

The Spanish American War

The war between Spain and the United States, known as the Spanish-American War, began in 1898. The two nations fought over economic and humanitarian concerns in the Spanish colonies of Puerto Rico and Cuba in the Caribbean and the Philippines in the Pacific. The United States 31 sent the U.S.S. Maine to Cuba to protect the lives and economic interests of Americans on the island. When the Maine was attacked, sensationalistic reporting in newspapers owned by William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer fueled American outrage against Spain who was blamed for the attack. When President William McKinley proposed war to Congress, he had support from the American citizens. The brief conflict resulted in a U.S. victory and marked an end to Spain's colonial empire. As a result of the Spanish American War, the U.S. began to emerge as a world power as a result of the decisive victory. As evidence of this new status in the world, President Theodore Roosevelt, one of the heroes of the Spanish-American War, invoked the principles of the Monroe Doctrine in his 1904 Roosevelt Corollary. The Corollary declared the United States to be the international policeman of the Western Hemisphere.

Theodore Roosevelt (1858-1919)

Theodore Roosevelt, born in New York in 1858, was serving as Vice President when President William McKinley was assassinated. With this event, Roosevelt became the youngest person ever to become President. His views on foreign affairs were summed up with the proverb he often called his motto, "Speak softly and carry a big stick." Roosevelt was willing to interfere in the affairs of other nations when it benefited the United States. At home, Roosevelt expanded the federal government's power of eminent domain. He signed laws establishing five national parks. Explaining his fight for a "square deal" for Americans, he used authority under the Sherman Anti-Trust Act to take on consolidated companies that took away consumers' choices. He worked to protect companies from extreme demands from labor unions. He urged federal lawmakers to enact legislation protecting workers, including child labor laws and a bill providing workmen's compensation for all federal employees. He proposed laws regulating the nation's food supply. In response, Congress passed the Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906, paving the way for the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Roosevelt became famous for using the "bully pulpit" to advance his ideas. 30 Roosevelt had his critics. While the Founders believed that powers not granted to the federal government were forbidden, Roosevelt claimed that powers not forbidden were granted. Many charged that the many regulatory agencies he proposed threatened liberty. President William Howard Taft, who succeeded Theodore Roosevelt as President in 1908, said that Roosevelt's view of "ascribing an undefined ... power to the President" was "an unsafe doctrine" that could do "injustice to private right." Some later historians have called Roosevelt an activist president, because of the way his actions increased the power of the federal government over states and individuals' lives.

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

Thomas Hobbes was an English philosopher, considered to be among the founders of modern political philosophy. His landmark work of political philosophy is Leviathan. His political philosophy influenced later thinkers including Jean Jacques Rousseau and John Locke. He asserted that the natural state of humanity is war, and that people must enter into a compact for their safety and betterment. The Founders, including James Madison, accepted Hobbes's premise that individuals must unite into a society for their own protection. However, they disagreed with Hobbes on many important matters. Hobbes advocated a strong monarch as the enforcer of the law. Hobbes rejected the ideas of freedom of religion and separation of powers in government, which are fundamental parts of the Constitution.

Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826)

Thomas Jefferson was born in Virginia. He studied law, was elected to the Virginia legislature, and became known for his writing. Many of his writings reveal the influence of John Locke as well as Jefferson's belief in natural rights theory. In Notes on the State of Virginia and Summary View of the Rights of British America, he expressed his ideas about religious freedom, education, and property rights, among other things. While the Continental Congress debated the Lee Resolution in 1776, Jefferson was selected to draft the Declaration of Independence. He authored the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom in 1786. Jefferson did not take part in the Constitutional Convention as he was serving as minister to France at the time, but he wrote to James Madison expressing his view that the document should include a bill of rights. 7 In 1789 George Washington appointed Jefferson the first Secretary of State. He and Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton soon became bitter rivals. The nation's first political parties formed around the two men. Jefferson resigned his post after three years and ran for president in 1796 but lost to John Adams by three electoral votes. Under the system in place at the time, he became Adams' Vice President. He disagreed sharply with many of Adams' policies. He and James Madison wrote the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions in 1798 in opposition to the Alien and Sedition Acts. Two years later, Jefferson was elected president. He purchased the Louisiana Territory from France in 1803. His second term as President was beset by foreign and domestic troubles. After two terms as president, he retired to Monticello. In 1819, he founded the University of Virginia, which he noted as one of his proudest achievements. He died fifty years to the day after the adoption of the Declaration of Independence.

Upton Sinclair (1878-1968)

Upton Sinclair was born in Maryland in 1878. He believed unregulated capitalism was responsible for much of the poverty he saw, and so he joined the Socialist Party. He decided to write a series of articles on the Chicago meat-packing industry. The series told the fictional story of an immigrant family who found work in the stock yards. The stories first appeared in a socialist newspaper. In 1906, Sinclair combined them into a fictional novel, The Jungle. It was a worldwide best-seller. Americans were shocked and horrified at the working conditions Sinclair described. President Theodore Roosevelt read The Jungle and ordered inspections of the meatpacking industry. Soon after, Congress passed the Pure Food and Drugs Act (1906) and the Meat Inspection Act (1906). Sinclair exercised his right to freedom of the press in order to bring about what he saw as a needed change.

Edmund Randolph (1753-1813)

Virginian Edmund Randolph, born in 1753, is sometimes called a "Forgotten Founder" because his name is not familiar to many Americans despite his many contributions to the United States. During the Revolutionary War, he served as an aide-de-camp to General George Washington. He also served in several public offices including delegate to the Continental Congress, delegate to the Annapolis Convention, as well as the Constitutional Convention. At the Constitutional Convention, Randolph introduced the Virginia Plan. By the Convention's end, though, Randolph refused to sign the Constitution. He believed his integrity required him to refuse. He thought the final version had strayed too far from what he called the "republican propositions" of the Virginia Plan. He also feared that a single President would lead to tyranny. Instead he supported a three-person executive council. James Madison later persuaded Randolph to support ratification at the Virginia Ratifying Convention. The compromise was made easier for Randolph because eight states had already ratified by the time of Virginia's Convention. Randolph was appointed to serve as the nation's first Attorney General by President George Washington.

W.E.B. DuBois (1868-1963)

W.E.B. DuBois was a leader in the struggle for civil rights for African Americans in the first years of the 20th century. In 1895, he became the first African American to receive a PH.D from Harvard. DuBois broke from Booker T. Washington's philosophy which preached that African Americans should work hard for economic gain and the respect of whites, even though it might mean they had to endure discrimination for the time being. DuBois believed Washington's philosophy would perpetuate the oppression of African Americans. In 1903, DuBois published perhaps his most famous book, The Souls of Black Folks. In 1909, he helped create the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People). His later Pan-Africanism ideas were based on the belief that people of African descent from all over the world should unite to fight oppression. When he left the NAACP in 1934, he favored complete black separatism. After moving to Ghana, he became a citizen of Ghana and a member of the Communist Party. He died in Ghana on August 27, 1963, the eve of the March on Washington.

Wentworth Cheswell (1746-1817)

Wentworth Cheswell was a beloved and respected patriot. He was a grandson of the first African American land owner in New Hampshire. Cheswell's life revolved around freedom, justice and the betterment of American citizens. At an early age, Cheswell became an influential town leader, judge, historian, schoolmaster, archeologist and soldier in the American Revolution. After his studies at Dummer Academy, he became a schoolteacher and was then elected town messenger for the regional Committee of Safety, one of the many groups established in Colonial America to monitor events pertaining to public welfare. As an enlisted man in the American Revolution, he served under Colonel John Langdon in the Company of Light Horse Volunteers at the Saratoga campaign. Cheswell and his wife had 13 children. He was very active in public life in New Hampshire.

Prohibition Movement

While the temperance movement began in the 1850s, the desire to prohibit the drinking of alcoholic beverages intensified in the early years of the 20th century. Leader Carrie Nation dedicated her life to the prohibition of alcohol even if it meant staging a march into a saloon or bar and destroying it with a hatchet, which she called "Hatchetations." Although she was arrested and fined, she continued to conduct these marches. The temperance movement intensified, and by January 1919 Congress ratified the 18th Amendment that prohibited the manufacture, sale, or transportation of alcohol in the United States except for certain medical uses. Congress passed the Volstead Act in an attempt to enforce the 18th Amendment. However, during the 1920s, speakeasies—establishments that sold illegal alcoholic beverages—grew and became the place where people went to buy alcohol. The illegal activity that developed around the manufacture and distribution of alcoholic beverages soon persuaded the nation to repeal the 18th Amendment with the 21st Amendment in 1933.

The Wright Brothers

Wilbur and Orville Wright's industry and perseverance changed a nation—and the world. Many had tried but no one had been able to perfect a machine that could be controlled in flight. The Wright brothers observed birds, studied wings and engines, physics and dynamics. They conducted wind tunnel tests on more than 200 kinds of wings. They continued in their research and experiments over several years, during which time they suffered some disappointing failures. In 1900, they traveled to Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, a location they selected after extensive study of weather data. Its ocean breezes and soft landing sites would be perfect. On December 17, 1903, they succeeded. Their engine-powered airplane flew 120 feet, landing twelve seconds after takeoff. The Wright brothers knew that citizens had the ability to protect their inventions through patents. They patented their invention as a "flying machine," and almost immediately had to begin defending their work from rival inventors. Wilbur spent much of the last years of his life in this endeavor, traveling to consult with lawyers and testifying in court. He saw it as his responsibility to defend not only his own economic rights, but those of other citizens. Orville persevered in the legal battle until the case was decided in the Wrights' favor in 1914.

William Blackstone (1723-1780)

William Blackstone was an English Jurist, the first Vinerian professor of law at Oxford, and Solicitor General to the Queen. Before Blackstone joined the faculty, English universities had focused exclusively on the study of Roman law. Blackstone authored Commentaries on the Laws of England widely regarded as the most complete and readable commentary on English law. The Supreme Court often references Blackstone's writing as a source for determining the intent of the Founders when interpreting the Constitution.

William Jennings Bryan (1860-1925)

William Jennings Bryan was born in Illinois and moved to Nebraska in 1887 where he practiced law. Running on a populist platform, he was the first Democrat elected from Nebraska to the House of Representatives. He lost his bid for the Senate in 1894 and became editor of the Democratic newspaper, the Omaha World-Herald. Bryan became an advocate of "Free Silver" policy, delivering his "Cross of Gold" speech at the 1896 Democratic National Convention. His charisma impressed many of the delegates. He ran unsuccessfully for president 3 times, taking progressive and anti-imperialist stances. He 24 supported President Woodrow Wilson, who appointed Bryan Secretary of State. He served for 2 years but resigned in protest when Wilson led the country into World War I. In his later life, Bryan worked to secure prohibition and women's suffrage. He became concerned about the teaching of evolution, calling it "consummately dangerous." He argued for a literal interpretation of the Bible and in opposition to the teaching of evolution against Clarence Darrow in what became known as the Scopes Monkey Trial. He died five days after that trial ended.

The New Jersey Plan (1787)

William Patterson of New Jersey introduced the New Jersey Plan at the 1787 Constitutional Convention. It was in large part a response to the Virginia Plan introduced earlier at the convention. According to the New Jersey Plan, in addition to the powers Congress had under the Articles of Confederation, Congress would have the power to raise revenue by taxing imported goods, "by stamps on paper, vellum or parchment," and by postage on all letters passing through the post office. Unlike the Congress of the Articles, Congress would now also have the power to regulate trade and commerce. In addition, Congress would elect an executive to enforce all national acts and to direct military operations. The New Jersey Plan said nothing about changing the structure of Congress or the representation of states therein, and thus, Congress would remain a unicameral body in which each state would have one vote as it was under the Articles of Confederation. A national judiciary would be established consisting of a 19 supreme court whose judges would be appointed by the executive and who would hold their offices during good behavior. Finally, the New Jersey Plan provided that acts of Congress and treaties would be the supreme law, and state judicial rulings and state laws to the contrary would be void. The New Jersey Plan was supported by delegates from the less populous states. The U. S. Constitution as written and adopted at Philadelphia included several provisions of the New Jersey Plan.

American Federation of Labor Union

With the rise of big business in steel and railroads, workers joined together into labor unions to protect their interests regarding pay and working conditions. The major weapon the Union used to make their protests known was to "strike" by refusing to work until negotiations took place between the employer and the employees. The largest labor union was the American Federation of Labor Union founded in 1881. It began as a federation of skilled workers from various trades, rather than an organization of workers in the same trade. The founder of the AFL hoped to secure higher pay, an 8-hour work day, and improved working conditions for all members of the union. Opposition to labor unions intensified because many people believed that demands for higher wages would increase the price of goods. The most notable strikes included the Great Railroad Strike of 1877, Haymarket Riot in 1886, the Homestead Strike in 1892, and the Pullman Strike of 1894. Sometimes labor strikes ended in violence. Following the death of workers during the Pullman Strike, President Cleveland attempted to improve relations with the labor unions. One of the outcomes of this effort was the creation of a federal holiday known as Labor Day to celebrate the contributions and achievements of American workers. Labor Day is traditionally observed on the first Monday in September.

Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924)

Woodrow Wilson was born in Virginia. He earned law and doctoral degrees at prestigious universities before becoming a political science professor and later president of Princeton University. He served as Governor of New Jersey, and in 1912 was elected President of the United States. Alice Paul organized a women's suffrage parade for the day before his inauguration. A number of Progressive reforms took place during his administration, in the form of legislation and amendments to the Constitution. The Sixteenth Amendment was ratified a month before he took office; President Wilson gained Congress's approval for a graduated federal income tax. The Seventeenth and Eighteenth Amendments followed. Congress heeded Wilson's call to amend the Sherman Anti-Trust Act. Finally, Wilson lent his support to women's suffrage, and in 1920 the Nineteenth Amendment was ratified. Though he initially attempted to keep the United States out of World War I, he asked Congress to declare war on Germany in 1917. He acted as Commander in Chief of the military and two years later negotiated the Treaty of Versailles, which included his plan for the League of Nations. The Senate did not approve the treaty, however, so the League of Nations began without the United States as a member. President Wilson won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1920.

Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand

World War I began with the 1914 assassination of the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife by a Serbian nationalist. Fueled by strong feelings of nationalism, an imperialist desire for colonies to support a strong economy, a buildup of arms, and an entangling system of alliances for protection, the assassination quickly developed from an isolated incident between Austria-Hungary and Serbia into a worldwide conflict. During the next four years the Allied powers of Great Britain, France, Russia, Italy, and eventually the United States fought the Central Powers of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire.

World War I

World War I, the first modern war, was particularly deadly because of the concept of total war and the use of new and improved weapons created as a result of industrialization. These weapons included the machine gun, poison gas, submarines, tanks, and airplanes. Another reason for the casualties was the stalemate created by the use of trench warfare on the Western Front along the border of France and Germany. Trench warfare involved both sides digging trenches and dugouts opposite each other to protect soldiers from enemy fire. The land between the trenches, called "no man's land," was fortified with barbed wire and land mines. Neither side was able to make significant advances, which resulted in stalemate and a war of attrition that caused massive damage to the land and tremendous loss of life.