TExES 231

6.2 Antithesis

Balanced writing about conflicting ideas, usually expressed in sentence form. Some samples are expanding from the center, shedding old habits. and searching but never finding.

3.4 Parallel Structure: Participial phrase/infinitive phrase

Incorrect: After hiking for hours and to sweat profusely, Joe sat down to rest and drinking water. Correct: After hiking for hours and sweating profusely, Joe sat down to rest and drink water.

9.7 Allusion

"an implied reference to a person, event, thing, or a part of another text." Allusions are based on the assumption that there is a common body of knowledge shared by poet and reader and that a reference to that body of knowledge will be immediately understood. EX: Allusions to the Bible and classical mythology are common in western literature on the assumption that they will be immediately understood.

8.7 Omniscient Point of View

"omniscient" because the reader is able to get into the mind of more than one character or sometimes all the characters. Knows what the characters think and feel too. 2 kinds of Omniscient POV: 3rd person omniscient and 1st person omniscient

6.7 Renaissance

- Chapbooks were condensed versions of mythology and fairy tales. (adventure to vulgar short stories) -Meanwhile, the Puritans' three most popular reads were the Bible, John Foxe's Book of Martyrs, and John Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress.

6.7 18th century:

-By and large, however, into the eighteenth century adolescents were finding their reading pleasure in adult books: Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe, Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's Travels, and Johann Wyss's Swiss Family Robinson. More books were being written for children, but the moral didacticism, though less religious, was nevertheless ever present.

6.5 The reign of Elizabeth I

-Drama was the principal form of literature in this age. -Courtyards of inns became favorite places for the presentation of plays, but in 1576 the Earl of Leicester's Men constructed their own building outside the city and called it The Theatre. -Writing was seen more as a craft than as an art in this period. -Balance and control were important in the England of this day and this is reflected in writing and in poetry in particular. -As for themes, some of the darkness, At the same time, a spirit of joy, gaiety, innocence, and lightheartedness, pastoral themes.

6.4 Emily Dickinson

-not much known about her -few poems published while she was alive, but once dead her sister found 2,000 poems and published them -Themes: sanity/insanity, doubt, death, individuality, defiance, feminism

Herman Melville

-the modern era -moby dick

9.5 Things a Conclusion Should Accomplish

1. Inspire the reader with a favorable opinion of the writer. 2. Amplify the force of the points made in the body of the paper. 3. Reinforce the points made in the body. 4. Rouse appropriate emotions in the reader. 5. Restate in a summary way what has been said.

6.2 Exposition

Background information about characters meant to clarify and add to the narrative or the initial plot element which precedes the buildup of conflict.

6.2 Conceit

A comparison, usually in verse, between seemingly disparate objects or concepts. John Donne's metaphysical poetry contains many clever conceits. Donne's "The Flea" (1633) compares a flea bite to the act of love and in "A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning" (1633) separated lovers are likened to the legs of a compass, the leg drawing the circle eventually returning home to "the fixed foot."

6.2 Oxymoron

A contradictory form of speech, such as jumbo shrimp, unkindly kind, or singer John Mellencamp's "It hurts so good."

6.1 Dramatic Monologue

A dramatic monologue is a speech given by an actor, usually intended for themselves, but with the intended audience in mind. It reveals key aspects of the character's psyche and sheds insight on the situation at hand. The audience takes the part of the silent listener, passing judgment and giving sympathy at the same time. This form was invented and used predominantly by Victorian poet Robert Browning.

9.2 Formal Essay

A formal essay, on the other hand, may be persuasive, informative, descriptive, or narrative in nature. The purpose should be clearly defined, and development must be coherent and easy to follow.

6.2 Soliloquy

A highlighted speech, in drama, usually delivered by a major character expounding on the author's philosophy or expressing, at times, universal truths. This is done with the character alone on the stage.

6.2 Motif

A key, oft-repeated phrase, name, or idea in a literary work. Dorset/Wessex in Hardy's novels and the moors and the harsh weather in the Bronte sisters' novels are effective use of motifs. Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet represents the ill- fated young lovers' motif.

6.1 Espistle

A letter that is not always intended for public distribution, but due to the fame of the sender or recipient becomes public domain. Paul wrote epistles that were later put in the bible.

9.7 Bathos

A ludicrous attempt to portray pathos—that is,to evoke pity, sympathy, or sorrow. It may result from inappropriately dignifying the commonplace, elevated language to describe something trivial, or greatly exaggerated pathos.

9.5 National Myth

A national myth is an inspiring narrative or anecdote about a nation's past. These often over-dramatize true events, omit important historical details, or add details for which there is no evidence. -Some national myths: • The legend of King Arthur in Great Britain • Sir Francis Drake in England • The Pilgrims and the Mayflower in the United States • Pocahontas, who is said to have saved the life of John Smith from her savage father, Powhatan • The legendary ride of Paul Revere • The last words of Nathan Hale • The person of George Washington and apocryphal tales about him, such as his cutting down a cherry tree with a hatchet and then facing up to the truth: "I cannot tell a lie."

9.7 Climax

A number of phrases or sentences are arranged in ascending order of rhetorical forcefulness. Here is an example from Melville's Moby Dick: "All that most maddens and torments; all that stirs up the lees of things; all truth with malice in it; all that cracks the sinews and cakes the brain; all the subtle demonisms of life and thought; all evil, to crazy Ahab, were visibly personified and made practically assailable in Moby Dick."

6.2 Caesura

A pause, usually signaled by punctuation, in a line of poetry. The earliest usage occurs in Beowulf, the first english Epic dating from the anglo-saxon era.

6.2 Quatrain

A poetic stanza composed of four lines. A Shakespearean or Elizabethan sonnet is made up of three quatrains and ends with a heroic couplet.

6.2 Terza Rima

A series of poetic stanzas utilizing the recurrent rhyme scheme of aba, bcb, cdc, ded, and so forth. The second-generation Romantic poets - Keats, Byron, Shelley, and, to a lesser degree, Yeats - used this Italian verse form, especially in their odes. Dante used this stanza in The Divine Comedy.

6.2 Octava Rima

A specific eight-line stanza of poetry whose rhyme scheme is abababcc. Lord Byron's mock epic poem, Don Juan, is written in this poetic way.

6.1 Legend

A traditional narrative or collection of related narratives, popularly regarded as historically factual but actually a mixture of fact and fiction.

6.2 Parallelism

A type of close repetition of clauses or phrases that emphasize key topics or ideas in writing. The psalms in the King James Version of the Bible contain many examples.

6.2 inversion

A typical sentence order to create a given effect or interest. Bacon's and Milton's work use inversion successfully. Emily Dickinson was fond of arranging words outside of their familiar order. For example in "Chartless" she writes "Yet know I how the heather looks" and "Yet certain am I of the spot." Instead of saying "Yet I know" and "Yet I am certain" she reverses the usual order and shifts the emphasis to the more important words.

9.7 Malapropism

A verbal blunder in which one word is replaced by another similar in sound but different in meaning. Comes from Sheridan's Mrs. Malaprop in The Rivals (1775). Thinking of the geography of contiguous countries, she spoke of the "geometry" of "contagious countries."

ad hominem fallacy

Ad hominem (Latin for "to the man" or "to the person"[1]), short for argumentum ad hominem, is a logical fallacy in which an argument is rebutted by attacking the character, motive, or other attribute of the person making the argument, or persons associated with the argument, rather than attacking the substance of the argument itself

6.4 Feminist Examples

Alcott, Louisa May. Little Women Friedan, Betty. The Feminine Mystique: The Second Stage Bronte, Charlotte. Jane Eyre Hurston, Zora Neale. Their Eyes Were Watching God Janeway, Elizabeth. Woman's World, Woman's Place: A Study in Social Mythology Chopin, Kate. The Awakening Rich, Adrienne. Poetry: Motherhood as Experience and Diving into the Wreck Woolf, Virginia. A Room of One's Own

Following the Arc

Although any performance may have a series of rising and falling levels of intensity, in general the opening should set in motion the events which will generate an emotional high toward the middle or end of the story. Then, regardless of whether the ending is happy, sad, bittersweet, or despairing, the resolution eases the audience down from those heights and establishes some sense of closure. Reaching the climax too soon undermines the dramatic impact of the remaining portion of the performance, whereas reaching it too late rushes the ending and creates a jarringly abrupt end to events.

7.11 Ambiguity

Ambiguity is any writing whose meaning cannot be definitively determined by its context. Ambiguity may be introduced accidentally, confusing the readers and disrupting the flow of reading. If a sentence or paragraph jars upon reading, there is lurking ambiguity. It is particularly difficult to spot your own ambiguities, since authors tend not to say what they mean rather than mean what they say.

6.5 Archetype

An archetype is an idealized model of a person, object, or concept from which similar instances are derived, copied, patterned, or emulated. Some examples of action archetypes: • The search for the killer • The search for salvation (or the holy grail) • The search for the hero • The descent into hell Some examples of character archetypes: • The double • The scapegoat • The prodigal son • The Madonna and the Magdalene

6.8 Argument Definition

An argument is a generalization that is proven or supported with facts. If the facts are not accurate, the generalization remains unproven. Using inaccurate "facts" to support an argument is called a fallacy in reasoning.

6.1 Ballad

An in medias res story told or sung, usually in verse, and accompanied by music. Literary devices found in ballads include the refrain, or repeated section, and incremental repetition, or anaphora, for effect. Earliest forms were anonymous folk ballads. Later forms include Coleridge's Romantic masterpiece, "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner."

3.4 Sentence completeness

Avoid fragments and run-on sentences. Recognition of sentence elements necessary to make a complete thought, proper use of independent and dependent clauses

6.4 Early American Writings

Barland, Hal. When the Legends Die Barrett, S.M. Editor: Geronimo: His Own Story - Apache Eastman, C. & Eastman E. Wigwam Evenings: Sioux Folktales Retold Riggs, L. Cherokee Night - drama Twentieth Century Writers Deloria, V. Custer Died for your Sins (Sioux) Dorris, M. The Broken Cord: A Family's on-going struggle with fetal alcohol syndrome (Modoc) Hogan, L. Mean Spirited (Chickasaw) Taylor, C.F. Native American Myths and Legends

6.7 Social Learning Theory

Behaviorists believe that intellectual, and therefore behavioral, development cannot be divided into specific stages. They believe that behavior is the result of conditioning experiences, a continuum of rewards and punishments. Environmental conditions are viewed as greater stimuli than inherent qualities. Thus in social learning theory the consequences of behavior - that is, the rewards or punishments - are more significant in social development than are the motivations for the behavior.

3.4 Capitalization

Capitalize all proper names of persons (including specific organizations or agencies of government); places (countries, states, cities, parks, and specific geographical areas); and things (political parties, structures, historical and cultural terms, and calendar and time designations); and religious terms (any deity, revered person or group, sacred writings). Capitalize proper adjectives and titles used with proper names. EX: California gold rush, President John Adams, French fries, Homeric epic, Romanesque architecture, Senator John Glenn Note: Some words that represent titles and offices are not capitalized unless used with a proper name.

7.11 Connotation

Connotation refers to the ripple effect surrounding the implications and associations of a given word, distinct from the denotative or literal meaning. For example, "Good night, sweet prince, and flights of angels sing thee to thy rest," refers to a burial. Connotation is used when a subtle tone is preferred. It may stir up a more effective emotional response than if the author had used blunt, denotative diction.

3.4 Recognition of dangling modifiers

Dangling phrases are attached to sentence parts in such a way they create ambiguity and incorrectness of meaning. Participial phrase Incorrect: Hanging from her skirt, Dot tugged at a loose thread. Correct: Dot tugged at a loose thread hanging from her skirt. Incorrect: Relaxing in the bathtub, the telephone rang. Correct: While I was relaxing in the bathtub, the telephone rang. Infinitive phrase Incorrect: To improve his behavior, the dean warned Fred. Correct: The dean warned Fred to improve his behavior. Prepositional phrase Incorrect: On the floor, Father saw the dog eating table scraps. Correct: Father saw the dog eating table scraps on the floor.

9.7 Hyperbole

Deliberate exaggeration for effect or comice ffect

3.4 Dependent clauses

Dependent clauses, by definition, contain at least one subject and one verb. However, they cannot stand alone as a complete sentence. They are structurally dependent on the main clause. There are two types of dependent clauses: (1) those with a subordinating conjunction, and (2) those with a relative pronoun Sample coordinating conjunctions: Although When If Unless Because EX: Unless a cure is discovered, many more people will die of the disease. Dependent clause + Independent Clause Sample relative pronouns: Who Whom Which That EX:The White House has an official website, which contains press releases, news updates, and biographies of the President and Vice-President. (Independent clause + relative pronoun + relative dependent clause)

7.11 Diction

Diction is simply the right word in the right spot for the right purpose. The hallmark of a great writer is precise and memorable diction.

9.7 Simile

Direct comparison between two things. EX: "My love is like a red-red rose." -used like or as

6.4 The Transition between Romanticism and Realism

During this period such legendary figures as Paul Bunyan and Pecos Bill rose from the oral tradition. Anonymous storytellers around campfires told tales of a huge lumberman and his giant blue ox, Babe, whose adventures were explanations of natural phenomena like those of footprints filled with rainwater becoming the Great Lakes. Or the whirling-dervish speed of Pecos Bill explained the tornadoes of the Southwest. Like ancient peoples finding reasons for the happenings in their lives, these American pioneer storytellers created a mythology appropriate to the vast reaches of the unsettled frontier.

6.2 Hyperbole

Exaggeration for a specific effect. For example, "I'm so hungry that I could eat a horse."

9.7 Irony

Expressing something other than and particularly opposite the literal meaning such as words of praise when blame is intended. In poetry, it is often used as a sophisticated or resigned awareness of contrast between what is and what ought to be and expresses a controlled pathos without sentimentality. It is a form of indirection that avoids overt praise or censure. An early example: the Greek comic character Eiron, a clever underdog who by his wit repeatedly triumphs over the boastful character Alazon.

6.2 Personification

Giving human characteristics to inanimate objects or concepts. Great writers, with few exceptions, are masters of this literary device.

6.4 Willa Cather

Grew up on the western plains of Nebraska and interviewed immigrant women. Some Themes: • The American Dream • Prejudice • Coming of Age • Nostalgia

6.4 Gwendolyn Brooks

Gwendolyn Brooks was the first African-American to receive a Pulitzer Prize for Poetry with her acute images of African-Americans in the cities of America. Themes: • Poverty and Racism • Self-respect • Heritage • Community • Family • Black Unity • The Basic Humanness in Everyone • Black Solidarity • Pride

7.11 Imagery

Imagery engages one or more of the five senses. An author might use imagery to give the reader a greater, more descriptive picture of the scene the author is trying to depict. Imagery may conjure up a past experience that the reader had (the smell of the ocean, the feeling of their childhood blanket) thereby enriching their mental picture of the scene.

6.7 Theory of Multiple Intelligences

Howard Gardner's research in the 1980s has been recently influential in helping teachers understand that human beings process information differently and, therefore, communicate their knowledge through different modes of operation. It is important to present language and literature in visual, auditory, tactile, and kinesthetic ways to allow every child to develop good skills through his own mode of learning.

8.7 3rd person objective point of view

If the story is seen from this point of view, the reader watches the action, hears the dialogue, reads descriptions and from all of those must deduce characterization—what sort of person a character is. In this point of view, an unseen narrator tells the reader what is happening, using the third person, he, she, it, they. The effect of this point of view is usually a feeling of distance from the plot. More responsibility is on the reader to make judgments than in other points of view. However, the author may intrude and evaluate or comment on the characters or the action.

9.7 Personification

Human characteristics are attributed to an inanimate object, an abstract quality, or animal. For example, John Bunyan wrote characters named Death, Knowledge, Giant Despair, Sloth, and Piety in his Pilgrim's Progress. The metaphor of an arm of a chair is a form of personification.

9.7 Imagery

Imagery can be described as a word or sequence of words that refers to any sensory experience—that is, anything that can be seen, tasted, smelled, heard, or felt on the skin or fingers.

8.7 1st person omniscient POV

In first-person omniscient on the other hand, the narrator plays a role in the story but can also record what other characters are thinking.

6.4 Latino/Latina Literature

In the field of literature, we have two new expanding areas, Latino/a and feminist writers. These authors write to retain cultural heritage, share their people's struggle for recognition, independence, and survival, and express their hopes for the future.

8.7 3rd Person omniscient POV

In third-person omniscient, the narrator is not seen or known or acting in the story but is able to watch and record not only what is happening or being said, but what characters are thinking.

6.8 Inductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning begins with particulars and reasons to a generality. For example: "When I was a child, I bit into a green apple from my grandfather's orchard, and it was sour" (specific fact #1). "I once bought green apples from a roadside vendor, and when I bit into one, it was sour" (specific fact #2). "My grocery store had a sale on green Granny Smith apples last week, and I bought several only to find that they were sour when I bit into one" (specific fact #3). Conclusion: All green apples are sour. While this is an example of inductive reasoning, it is also an example of the weakness of such reasoning. The speaker has not tasted all the green apples in the world, and there very well may be some apples that are green that are not sour.

6.1 Tempo

Interpretation of dialogue must be connected to motivation and detail. During this time, the director is also concerned with pace and seeks a variation of tempo. If the overall pace is too slow, then the action becomes dull and dragging. If the overall pace is too fast, then the audience will not be able to understand what is going on, for they are being hit with too much information to process.

6.2 Sprung Rhythm

Invented and used extensively by the poet Gerard Manley Hopkins. It consists of variable meter, which combines stressed and unstressed syllables fashioned by the author. See "Pied Beauty" or "God's Grandeur."

3.4 Compound Sentence

Joyce wrote a letter and Dot drew a picture.

3.4 Simple Sentence

Joyce wrote a letter.

6.1 Epic

Long poem, usually of book length, reflecting values inherent in the generative society. Epic devices include a use for inspiration, purpose for writing, universal setting, protagonist and antagonist who posess supernatural strength and acumen, and intervention of a god or gods. Understandably, there are very few epics: Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, Virgil's Aeneid, Milton's Paradise Lost, Spenser's The Fairie Queene, Barrett Browning's Aurora Leigh, and Pope's mock- epic, The Rape of the Lock.

4.8 Metacognition

Metacognition refers to the ability of students to be aware of and monitor their learning processes. In other words, it is the process of "thinking about thinking." Provide students with a mental checklist of factors to keep in mind while reading: • Am I understanding what I read? • Am I reading words by sounding them out? • Am I paying attention to what I read? • Am I reading fast enough to keep up? • Does what I'm reading make sense? • Am I constructing the meaning of words I don't know?

3.4 Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers

Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers Particular phrases that are not placed near the one word they modify often result in misplaced modifiers. Particular phrases that do not relate to the subject being modified result in dangling modifiers. Example 1: Error: Weighing the options carefully, a decision was made regarding the punishment of the convicted murderer. Problem: Who is weighing the options? No one capable of weighing is named in the sentence; thus, the participle phrase "weighing the options carefully" dangles. This problem can be corrected by adding a subject of the sentence capable of doing the action. Correction: Weighing the options carefully, the judge made a decision regarding the punishment of the convicted murderer. Example 2: Error: Returning to my favorite watering hole brought back many fond memories. Problem: The person who returned is never indicated and the participle phrase dangles. This problem can be corrected by creating a dependent clause from the modifying phrase. Correction: When I returned to my favorite watering hole, many fond memories came back to me. Example 3: Error: One damaged house stood only to remind townspeople of the hurricane. Problem: The placement of the misplaced modifier "only" suggests that the sole reason the house remained was to serve as a reminder. The faulty modifier creates ambiguity. Correction: Only one damaged house stood, reminding townspeople of the hurricane.

7.10 Classical Mythoogy

Much of the mythology that produces allusions in modern English writings is a product of ancient Greece and Rome because these myths have been more widely translated. Some Norse myths are also well known. Children are fond of myths because those ancient people were seeking explanations for those elements in their lives that predated scientific knowledge just as children seek explanations for the occurrences in their lives. These stories provide insight into the order and ethics of life as ancient heroes overcome the terrors of the unknown and brought meaning to thunder and lightning, to the changing of the seasons, to the magical creatures of the forests and seas, and to the myriad of natural phenomena that can frighten mankind. There is often a childlike quality in the emotions of supernatural beings with which children can identify. Many good translations of myths exist for readers of varying abilities, but Edith Hamilton's Mythology is the most definitive reading for adolescents.

6.3 The Romantic Period

Nathaniel Hawthorne and Herman Melville are the preeminent early American novelists, writing on subjects definitely regional, specific and American, yet sharing insights about human foibles, fears, loves, doubts, and triumphs. Hawthorne's writings range from children's stories, like the Cricket on the Hearth series, to adult fare of dark, brooding short stories such as "Dr. Heidegger's Experiment," "The Devil and Tom Walker," and "Rapuccini's Daughter." His masterpiece, The Scarlet Letter, takes on the society of hypocritical Puritan New Englanders, who ostensibly left England to establish religious freedom, but who have been entrenched in judgmental finger wagging. They ostracize Hester and condemn her child, Pearl, as a child of Satan. Great love, sacrifice, loyalty, suffering, and related epiphanies add universality to this tale. The House of the Seven Gables also deals with kept secrets, loneliness, societal pariahs, and love ultimately triumphing over horrible wrong. Herman Melville's great opus, Moby Dick, follows a crazed Captain Ahab on his Homeric odyssey to conquer the great white whale that has outwitted him and his whaling crews time and again. The whale has even taken Arab's leg and according to Ahab, wants all of him. Melville recreates in painstaking detail and with insider knowledge the harsh life of a whaler out of New Bedford, by way of Nantucket. For those who don't want to learn about every guy rope or all parts of the whaler's rigging, Melville offers up the succinct tale of Billy Budd and his Christ- like sacrifice to the black and white maritime laws on the high seas. An accident results in the death of one of the ship's officers, a slug of a fellow, who had taken a dislike to the young, affable and shy Billy. Captain Vere must hang Billy for the death of Claggert, but knows that this is not right. However, an example must be given to the rest of the crew so that discipline can be maintained. Edgar Allan Poe creates a distinctly American version of romanticism with his sixteen-syllable line in "The Raven," the classical "To Helen," and his Gothic "Annabelle Lee." The horror short story can be said to originate from Poe's pen. "The Tell-Tale Heart," "The Cask of Amontillado," "The Fall of the House of Usher," and "The Masque of the Red Death" are exemplary short stories. The new genre of detective story also emerged with Poe's "Murders in the Rue Morgue." American Romanticism has its own offshoot in the Transcendentalism of Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau. One wrote about transcending the complexities of life; the other, who wanted to get to the marrow of life, pitted himself against nature at Walden Pond and wrote an inspiring autobiographical account of his sojourn, titled On Walden Pond. He also wrote passionately on his objections to the interference of government on the individual in "On the Duty of Civil Disobedience." Emerson's elegantly crafted essays and war poetry still give validation to several important universal truths. Probably most remembered for his address to Thoreau's Harvard graduating class, "The American Scholar," he defined the qualities of hard work and intellectual spirit required of Americans in their growing nation.

6.2 Figurative Language

Not meant in a literal sense, but to be interpreted through symbolism. Figurative language is made up of such literary devices as hyperbole, metonymy, synecdoche, and oxymoron.

4.4 Word Analysis: compound words

Occur when two or more base words are connected to form a new word. The meaning of the new word is in some way connected with that of the base word.

6.4 NeoClassicism

Patterned after the greatest writings of classical Greece and Rome, this type of writing is characterized by balanced, graceful, well-crafted, refined, elevated style. Major proponents of this style are poet laureates John Dryden and Alexander Pope. focus is on the group, not the individual

6.1 Drama

Plays - comedy, modern or tragedy - typically in five acts. Traditionalists and neoclassicts adhere to Aristolotle's unities of time, place and action. Plot development is advanced via dialogue. Literary devices include asides, soliloques, and the chorus representing public opinion. Greatest of all dramatists/playwrights is William Shakespeare. Other dramaturges include Ibsen, Williams, Miller, Shaw, Stoppard, Racine, Moliere, Sophocles, Aeschylus, Euripides, and Aristophanes.

3.4 Using colons

Place a colon at the beginning of a list of items. The teacher directed us to compare Faulkner's three symbolic novels: Absalom, Absalom; As I Lay Dying; and Light in August. Do not use a comma if the list is preceded by a verb. Three of Faulkner's symbolic novels are Absalom, Absalom; As I Lay Dying, and Light in August.

3.4 Using dashes

Place dashes to denote sudden breaks in thought. Some periods in literature - the Romantic Age, for example - spanned different time periods in different countries. Use dashes instead of commas if commas are already used elsewhere in the sentence for amplification or explanation. The Fireside Poets included three Brahmans - James Russell Lowell, Henry David Wadsworth, Oliver Wendell Holmes - and John Greenleaf Whittier.

6.4 Resources for Afro-American Literature

Pre-Civil War Bethune, Mary McLoed. Voice of Black Hope Fast, Howard. Freedom Ride Haskins, James. Black Music in America - A History through its People Huggins, Nathan Irving. Black Odyssey Lemann, Nicolas. The Promised Land Stowe, Harriet Beecher. Uncle Tom's Cabin Wheatley, Phyllis. Memoirs and Poems Post-Civil War and Reconstruction Armstrong, William. Sounder Bonham, Frank. Durango Street Childress, Alice. A Hero Ain't Nothin' But a Sandwich Gaines, Ernest. The Autobiography of Miss Jane Pittman Post Civil War - Present Angelou, Maya. I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings Baldwin, James. Go Tell It on the Mountain Haley, Alex. Roots Hansberry, Lorraine. A Raisin in the Sun Lee, Harper. To Kill a Mockingbird Hughes, Langston. I, Too, Sing America Wright, Richard. White Man Listen! and Native Son

3.4 Parallelism

Recognize parallel structures using phrases (prepositional, gerund, participial, and infinitive) and omissions from sentences that create the lack of parallelism.

7.11 Setting

Setting may be visual, temporal, psychological, social, or symbolic.

3.4 Do not confuse compound sentence elements with compound sentences.

Simple sentence with compound subject Joyce and Dot wrote letters. The girl in row three and the boy next to her were passing notes across the aisle. Simple sentence with compound predicate Joyce wrote letters and drew pictures. The captain of the high school debate team graduated with honors and studied broadcast journalism in college. Simple sentence with compound object of preposition Coleen graded the students' essays for style and mechanical accuracy.

6.1 Myth

Stories that are more or less universally shared within a culture to explain its history or tradiations

6.8 Style

Style, in literature, means a distinctive manner of expression and applies to all levels of language, beginning at the phonemic level—word choices, alliteration, assonance, etc.; the syntactic level—length of sentences, choice of structure and phraseology, patterns, etc.; and extends even beyond the sentence to paragraphs and chapters.

6.4 The Colonial Period in both New England and the South

Stylistically, early colonists' writings were neo-classical, emphasizing order, balance, clarity, and reason. Schooled in England, their writing and speaking was still decidedly British even as their thinking became entirely American. Early American literature reveals the lives and experiences of the New England expatriates who left England to find religious freedom. The Revolutionary Period contains non-fiction genres: essay, pamphlet, speech, famous document, and epistle. Thomas Paine's pamphlet, Common Sense, even though written by a recently transplanted Englishman, spoke to the American patriots' common sense in dealing with the issues in the cause of freedom. Other contributions are Benjamin Franklin's essays from Poor Richard's Almanac and satires such as "How to Reduce a Great Empire to a Small One" and "A Letter to Madame Gout."

6.1 Fable

Terse tale offering up a moral or exemplum (example or model). Chaucer's "The Nun's Priest's Tale" is a fine example of a bete fabliau or beast fable in which animals speak and act characteristically human, illustrating human foibles.

6.2 Epiphany

That moment when a profound insight and realization occurs.

6.5 Anglo Saxon

The Anglo-Saxon period spans six centuries but produced only a smattering of literature. The first British epic is Beowulf, anonymously written by Christian monks. This Teutonic saga relates the triumph three times over monsters by the hero, Beowulf. "

7.7 The Petrarchan Sonnet

The Petrarchan sonnet generally has a two-part theme. The first eight lines, the octave, state a problem, ask a question, or express an emotional tension. The last six lines, the sestet, resolve the problem, answer the question, or relieve the tension. The rhyme scheme of the octave is abbaabba; that of the sestet varies.

9.7 Parallelism

The arrangement of ideas in phrases,sentences,and paragraphs that balance one element with another of equal importance and similar wording. An example from Francis Bacon's Of Studies: "Reading maketh a full man, conference a ready man, and writing an exact man."

6.4 Uncle Tom's Cabin

The best-known of the early writers who used fiction as a political statement about slavery is Harriet Beecher Stowe, author of Uncle Tom's Cabin. This was her first novel, and it was published first as a serial in 1851 then as a book in 1852. It brought an angry reaction from people living in the South. This antislavery book infuriated Southerners. Stowe was angered by the 1850 Fugitive Slave Law that made it legal to indict those who assisted runaway slaves. It also took away rights not only of the runaways but also of the free slaves. She intended to generate a protest of the law and slavery. It was the first effort to present the lives of slaves from their standpoint. The novel is about three slaves, Tom, Eliza, and George, who are together in Kentucky. Eliza and George are married to each other but have different masters. They successfully escape with their little boy, but Tom does not, and is caught. Although he has a wife and children, he is sold, ending up finally with the monstrous Simon Legree, where he dies at last. Stowe cleverly used depictions of motherhood and Christianity to stir her readers. When President Lincoln finally met her, he told her it was her book that started the war.

6.2 Tone

The discernible attitude inherent in an author's work regarding the subject, readership, or characters. Swift's or Pope's tone is satirical. Boswell's tone toward Johnson is admiring.

6.2 Connotation

The emotional effects stemming from the implications and associations of a given word, distinct from the denotative, or literal meaning. For example, "Good night, sweet prince, and flights of angels sing thee to thy rest," literally refers to a burial; connotatively, it renders the harsh reality of death in gentle terms such as those used in putting a child to sleep.

6.1 Novel

The longest form of fictional prose containing a variety of characterizations, settings, local color and regionalism. Most have complex plots, expanded description, and attention to detail. Some of the great novelists include Austin, the Brontes, Twain, Tolstoy, Hugo, Hardy, Dickens, Hawthorne, Forster, and Flaubert.

7.11 Mood

The language used in all of these aspects of a story—plot, character, and setting—work together to create the mood of a story.

9.7 Onomatopoeia

The naming of a thing or action by a vocal imitation of the sound associated with it such as buzz or hiss or the use of words whose sound suggests the sense. A good example from "The Brook" by Tennyson: I chatter over stony ways, In little sharps and trebles, I bubble into eddying bays, I babble on the pebbles.

6.1 Poem

The only requirement is rhythm. Sub-genres include fixed types of literature such as the sonnet, elegy, ode, pastoral, and villanelle. Unfixed types of literature include blank verse and dramatic monologue.

6.3 Contemporary American Literature: American Poetry

The poetry of the twentieth century is multifaceted, as represented by Edna St. Vincent Millay, Marianne Moore, Richard Wilbur, Langston Hughes, Maya Angelou, and Rita Lone. Head and shoulders above all others are the many- layered poems of Robert Frost. His New England motifs of snowy evenings, birches, apple picking, stone wall mending, hired hands, and detailed nature studies relate universal truths in exquisitely simple diction, polysyllabic words, and rare allusions to either mythology or the Bible.

6.3 Contemporary American Literature: American Fiction

The renowned American novelists of this century include: John Updike -- Rabbit Run and Rabbit Redux Sinclair Lewis -- Babbit and Elmer Gantry F. Scott Fitzgerald -- The Great Gatsby and Tender is the Night Ernest Hemingway -- A Farewell to Arms and For Whom the Bell Tolls William Faulkner -- The Sound and the Fury and Absalom, Absalom Bernard Malamud -- The Fixer and The Natural

6.2 Consonance

The repeated usage of similar consonant sounds, most often used in poetry. "Sally sat sifting seashells by the seashore" is a familiar example.

9.7 Alliteration

The repetition of consonant sounds in two or more neighboring words or syllables. In its simplest form, it reinforces one or two consonant sounds. Example: Shakespeare's Sonnet #12: When I do count the clock that tells the time. Some poets have used more complex patterns of alliteration by creating consonants both at the beginning of words and at the beginning of stressed syllables within words. Example: Shelley's "Stanzas Written in Dejection Near Naples": The City's voice itself is soft like Solitude's

6.2 Diction

The right word in the right spot for the right purpose. The hallmark of a great writer is precise, unusual, and memorable diction.

7.7 Sonnet

The sonnet is a fixed-verse form of Italian origin, which consists of 14 lines that are typically five-foot iambics rhyming according to a prescribed scheme. Popular since its creation in the thirteenth century in Sicily,

9.7 Euphemism

The substitution of an agreeable or inoffensive term for one that might offend or suggest something unpleasant. Many euphemisms are used to refer to death to avoid using the real word, such as "passed away," "crossed over," or nowadays "passe

6.2 Iambic Pentameter

The two elements in a set five-foot line of poetry. An iamb is two syllables, unaccented and accented, per foot or measure. Pentameter means five feet of these iambs per line or ten syllables.

6.2 Scansion

The two-part analysis of a poetic line. Count the number of syllables per line and determine where the accents fall. Divide the line into metric feet. Name the meter by the type and number of feet. Much is written about scanning poetry. Try not to inundate your students with this jargon rather allow them to feel the power of the poets' words, ideas, and images instead.

4.4 Word Analysis: contractions

These are shortened forms of two words in which a letter or letters have been deleted. These deleted letters have been replaced by an apostrophe.

6.4 Native American Works from various tribes

These were originally part of a vast oral tradition that spanned most of continental America from as far back as before the fifteenth century. • Characteristics of native Indian literature include - Reverence for and awe of nature. - The interconnectedness of the elements in the life cycle. • Themes of Indian literature often reflect - The hardiness of the native body and soul. - Remorse for the destruction of their way of life. - The genocide of many tribes by the encroaching settlement and Manifest Destiny policies of the US government.

7.11 Rhyme

Think about the success Dr. Suess had with his rhyming style. Rhyme is tricky, though; used ineffectively or unnecessarily, it can break up the entire rhythm of the piece or fog the reader's understanding of it. Rhyme should be used when it is purely beneficial to the format of the piece. Make sure it is not forcing you to use more words than needed, and that each verse is moving the story forward.

3.4 Avoidance of double negatives

This error occurs from positioning two negatives that in fact cancel each other out. Incorrect: Harold couldn't care less whether he passes this class. Correct: Harold could care less whether he passes this class. Incorrect: Dot didn't have no double negatives in her paper. Correct: Dot didn't have any double negatives in her paper. pg 47

deduction vs induction

To deduce is to draw a specific conclusion from a general principle. To induce is to derive a general principle from specific observations.

6.1 Dramatic Genres: Tragedy

Tragedy is comedy's other half. It is defined as a work of drama written in either prose or poetry, telling the story of a brave, noble hero who, because of some tragic character flaw, brings ruin upon himself. It is characterized by serious, poetic language that evokes pity and fear. In modern times, dramatists have tried to update its image by drawing its main characters from the middle class and showing their nobility through their nature instead of their standing. The classic example of tragedy is Sophocles' Oedipus Rex, while Henrik Ibsen and Arthur Miller epitomize modern tragedy.

6.4 The Modern Era

Twentieth-century American writing can be classified into three basic genres: • Drama • Fiction • Poetry

6.2 Couplet

Two rhyming lines of poetry. Shakespeare's sonnets end in heroic couplets written in iambic pentameter. Pope is also a master of the couplet. His Rape of the Lock is written entirely in heroic couplets.

6.1 Essay

Typically a limited length prose work focusing on a topic and propounding a definite point of view and authoritative tone. Great essayists include Carlyle, Lamb, De Quincy, Emerson, and Montaigne, who is credited with defining this genre.

6.2 Metonymy

Use of an object or idea closely identified with another object or idea to represent the second. "Hit the books" means "go study." Washington, D.C. means the U.S. government and the White House means the U.S. President.

3.4 Using semicolons

Use semicolons to separate independent clauses when the second clause is introduced by a transitional adverb. (These clauses may also be written as separate sentences, preferably by placing the adverb within the second sentence.) The Elizabethans modified the rhyme scheme of the sonnet; thus, it was called the English sonnet. or The Elizabethans modified the rhyme scheme of the sonnet. It thus was called the English sonnet. Use semicolons to separate items in a series that are long and complex or have internal punctuation. The Italian Renaissance produced masters in the fine arts: Dante Alighieri, author of the Divine Comedy; Leonardo da Vinci, painter of The Last Supper; and Donatello, sculptor of the Quattro Coronati, the four saints. The leading scorers in the WNBA were Haizhaw Zheng, averaging 23.9 points per game; Lisa Leslie, 22; and Cynthia Cooper, 19.5.

6.2 Metaphysical Poetry

Verse characterization by ingenious wit, unparalleled imagery, and clever conceits. The greatest metaphysical poet is John Donne. Henry Vaughn and other seventeenth-century British poets contributed to this movement as in, "I saw eternity the other night, like a great being of pure and endless light."

6.2 Denotation

What a word literally means, as opposed to its connotative meaning. For example, "Good night, sweet prince, and flights of angels sing thee to thy rest" refers to sleep, not death.

3.4 Compound/complex sentence

When Mother asked the girls to demonstrate their newfound skills, Joyce wrote a letter and Dot drew a picture.

3.4 Complex sentence

While Joyce wrote a letter, Dot drew a picture.

6.3 The colonial period

William Bradford's excerpts from The Mayflower Compact relate vividly the hardships of crossing the Atlantic in a tiny vessel, the misery and suffering of the first winter, the approaches of the American Indians, the decimation of their ranks, and the establishment of the Bay Colony of Massachusetts. Anne Bradstreet's poetry relates much concerning colonial New England life. From her journals, modern readers learn of the everyday life of the early settlers, the hardships of travel, and the responsibilities of different groups and individuals in the community, Early American literature also reveals the commercial and political adventures of the Cavaliers who came to the New World with King George's blessing. William Byrd's journal, A History of the Dividing Line, concerning his trek into the Dismal Swamp separating the Carolinian territories from Virginia and Maryland makes quite lively reading. A privileged insider to the English Royal Court, Byrd, like other Southern Cavaliers, was given grants to pursue business ventures.

6.5 Renaissance and Elizabethan

William Shakesphere - sonnets, plays, long narrative poems

6.2 Wit

Writing of genius, keenness, and sagacity expressed through clever use of language. Alexander Pope and the Augustans wrote about and were themselves said to possess wit.

6.5 Romanticism

Writings emphasizing the individual. Emotions and feelings are validated. Nature acts as an inspiration for creativity; it is a balm of the spirit. Romantics harken back to medieval, chivalric themes and ambiance. They also emphasize supernatural, Gothic themes and settings, which are characterized by gloom and darkness. Imagination is stressed. New types of writings include detective and horror stories and autobiographical introspection

elegy

a poem of serious reflection, typically a lament for the dead.

aside

a remark or passage by a character in a play that is intended to be heard by the audience but unheard by the other characters in the play.

3.4 SPELLING: Make the plurals of open or hyphenated compounds by

adding the change in inflection to the word that changes in number. fathers-in-law, courts-martial, masters of art, doctors of medicine

comic relief

comic relief. n. A humorous or farcical interlude in a serious literary work or drama, especially a tragedy, intended to relieve the dramatic tension or heighten the emotional impact by means of contrast.

3.4 SPELLING: Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant

change the y to i and add es. babies, corollaries, frugalities, poppies

7.7 English Sonnet

distinctive English sonnet, which was composed of three quatrains, each with an independent rhyme-scheme, and ending with a rhymed couplet.

deductive vs inductive reasoning

deductive (general to specific) inductive (specific to general)

assonance

in poetry, the repetition of the sound of a vowel or diphthong in nonrhyming stressed syllables near enough to each other for the echo to be discernible (e.g., penitence, reticence ).

expository

intended to explain or describe something

5. 11 Interpretive vs factual questions

interpretive: original thinking -hypothetical -prediction -solution -comparison or anaology -judgement factual: assuming reader knows nothing about the topic -who, what, when, where, why, how

6.2 synecdoche

is a figure of speech in which the word for part of something is used to mean the whole; for example, "sail" for "boat," or vice versa.

3.4 SPELLING:Nouns ending in y preceded by a vowel

just add s. boys, alleys

Phoneme

linguistics : the smallest unit of speech that can be used to make one word different from another word -ex: cat vs bat

7.7 Alliteration

lliteration occurs when the initial sounds of a word, beginning either with a consonant or a vowel, are repeated in close succession. Examples include: Athena and Apollo, Nate never knows, People who pen poetry. Note that the words only have to be close to one another: Alliteration that repeats and attempts to connect a number of words is little more than a tongue-twister. The function of alliteration, like rhyme, might be to accentuate the beauty of language in a given context, or to unite words or concepts through a kind of repetition. Alliteration, like rhyme, can follow specific patterns. Sometimes the consonants aren't always the initial ones, but they are generally the stressed syllables.

6.4 Four major time periods of writing

neoclassicism, romanticism, realism, and naturalism.

6.4 Realism

realistic writers deal with the common man and his socioeconomic problems in a non- sentimental way. Muckraking, social injustice, domestic abuse, and inner city conflicts are examples of realistic writings. Realistic writers include Thomas Hardy, George Bernard Shaw, and Henrik Ibsen.

denouement

the final part of a play, movie, or narrative in which the strands of the plot are drawn together and matters are explained or resolved. the climax of a chain of events, usually when something is decided or made clear.

6.4 Leslie Marmon Silko

traditions and stories of the Pueblo. At the same time, her father's role in his tribe also made her aware of the abuses her people had experienced at the hands of the government. The major issue was the land that had been stolen from her people. She believed that she could change things by writing about them. Some themes: • Evil • Reciprocity • Individual/Community • Native American Traditions • Native American Religion • Mixed Breeds • Scapegoats • Racism • Prejudice

5.12 is the student understanding nonliterary texts checklist

• Reading and considering the title. • Finding the author's name and any other information about the writer. • Identifying the source (i.e., the original publication and date) of the text. • Reading the introduction or opening paragraphs carefully, checking these against the title. • Skimming through the article and reading all boldface subheadings, pulling out quotes, or sidebar information. • Skimming through the article and reading the first sentence of each paragraph; if this sentence is clearly not the topic sentence, locating and reading the topic sentence. • Examining any other typographical features such as italicized words. • Examining any graphic content (e.g., maps, illustrations, images) • Reading the last paragraph carefully. • Studying any questions or additional information provided at the end of the text. • Reading the entire article, keeping in mind what they have gained from pre-reading and checking their new understanding against the initial understanding, revising as needed.

10.11 Uses of Language Assessment

• Diagnosis of language strengths and weaknesses • Detection of patterns of systematic errors • Appropriate bilingual/ESL program placement if necessary

6.7 Piaget's four stages of mental development

• Sensimotor intelligence (birth to age two) deals with the pre-language period of development. The child is most concerned with coordinating movement and action. Words begin to represent people and things. • Preoperational thought is the period spanning ages 2-12. It is broken into several substages. 1. Preconceptual (2-4) phase - most behavior is based on subjective judgment. 2. Intuitive (4-7) phase - children use language to verbalize their experiences and mental processes. • Concrete operations (7-11) - children begin to apply logic to concrete things and experiences. They can combine performance and reasoning to solve problems. • Formal operations (12-15) - adolescents begin to think beyond the immediate and to theorize. They apply formal logic to interpreting abstract constructions and to recognizing experiences that are contrary to fact.

9.11 Evaluating Sources Tips

• Title (How relevant is it to your topic?) • Date (How current is the source?) • Organization (What institution is this source coming from?) • Length (How in depth does it go?) -Check for signs of bias

4.4 Word Analysis: Root Words

A root word is a word from which another word is developed. The second word can be said to have its "root" in the first. This structural component nicely lends itself to a tree with roots illustration which can concretize the meaning for students. Students may also want to literally construct root words using cardboard trees and/or actual roots from plants to create word family models. This is a lovely way to help students own their root words.

6.2 Stream of Consciousness

A style of writing which reflects the loose, often irrational, mental processes of the characters expressing, at times, jumbled memories, feelings, and dreams. "Big time players" in this type of expression are James Joyce, Virginia Woolf, and William Faulkner.

9.7 Symbol

A symbol is an object or action that can be observed with the senses in addition to its suggesting many other things. The lion is a symbol of courage; the cross a symbol of Christianity; the color green a symbol of envy. These can almost be defined as metaphors.

3.4 Types of Clauses

Clauses are connected word groups that are composed of at least one subject and one verb. (A subject is the doer of an action or the element that is being joined. A verb conveys either the action or the link.) Students are waiting for the start of the assembly. Subject Verb At the end of the play, students waited for the curtain to come down. Subject Verb Clauses can be independent or dependent.

7.10 American Forklore

American folktales are divided into two categories. Imaginary tales, also called tall tales (humorous tales based on non-existent, fictional characters developed through blatant exaggeration) John Henry is a two-fisted steel driver who beats out a steam drill in competition. Rip Van Winkle sleeps for twenty years in the Catskill Mountains and upon awakening cannot understand why no one recognizes him. Paul Bunyan, a giant lumberjack, owns a great blue ox named Babe and has extraordinary physical strength. He is said to have plowed the Mississippi River while the impression of Babe's hoofprints created the Great Lakes. Real tales, also called legends (based on real persons who accomplished the feats that are attributed to them even if they are slightly exaggerated) For more than forty years, Johnny Appleseed (John Chapman) roamed Ohio and Indiana planting apple seeds. Daniel Boone - scout, adventurer, and pioneer - blazed the Wilderness Trail and made Kentucky safe for settlers. Paul Revere, a colonial patriot, rode through the New England countryside warning of the approach of British troops. George Washington cut down a cherry tree, which he could not deny doing, or did he?

9.2 Business Letter

Now email communications. A carefully written letter can be powerful. It can alienate, convince, persuade, entice, motivate, and/or create goodwill. You should clearly define for yourself what the purpose is before you craft the letter and it's good to include a deadline for the response. Business letters typically use formal language. They should be straightforward and courteous. The writing should be concise, and special care should be taken to leave no important information out.

6.1 Dramatic genres: Comedy

The comedic form of dramatic literature is meant to amuse and often ends happily. It uses techniques such as satire or parody, and can take many forms, from farce to burlesque. Examples include Dante Alighieri's The Divine Comedy, Noel Coward's play Private Lives, and some of Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales and William Shakespeare's plays.

6.4 American Indian Writings

The foundation of American Indian writing is found in story-telling, oratory, autobiographical and historical accounts of tribal village life, reverence for the environment, and the postulation that the earth with all of its beauty was given in trust, to be cared for and passed on to future generations.

6.4 Afro-American Literature

The three phases of Afro-American Literature can be broken down as follows: 1.Oppression, slavery, and the re-construction of the post-Civil War/rural South 2.Inner city strife/single parenting, drug abuse, lack of educational opportunities and work advancement etc. that was controlled by biased and disinterested factions of society. 3.Post-Civil Rights and the emergence of the Black movement focusing on biographical and autobiographical Black heroes and their contribution to Black and American culture.

7.3 Why Independent Reading is Important

• Allows a learner to read, re-read and engage with a text at their own pace • Allows learners to choose what subjects they want to read and so motivates them to read • Impacts on language development in the areas of vocabulary and syntax • Impacts on knowledge of sight words and phonics • Is important for second language learners as it provides a wealth of real language input

10.11 Common Language Errors

• Application of rules that apply in a student's first language but not in the second • Using pronunciation that applies to a student's first language but not in the second • Applying a general rule to all cases even when there are exceptions • Trying to cut corners by using an incorrect word or syntactic form • Avoiding use of precise vocabulary or idiomatic expressions • Using incorrect verb tense

8.4 Criteria for Evaluating own Written Work

• Is the reasoning coherent? • Is the point established? • Does the introduction make the reader want to read this discourse? • What is the thesis? Is it proven? • What is the purpose? Is it clear? Is it useful, valuable, interesting? • Is the style of writing so wordy that it exhausts the reader and interferes with engagement? • Is the writing so spare that it is boring? • Are the sentences too uniform in structure? • Are there too many simple sentences? • Are too many of the complex sentences the same structure? • Are the compounds truly compounds or are they unbalanced? • Are parallel structures truly parallel? • If there are characters, are they believable? • If there is dialogue, is it natural or stilted? • Is the title appropriate? • Does the writing show creativity or is it boring? • Is the language appropriate? Is it too formal? Too informal? If jargon is used, is it appropriate?

9.5 Introduction Ideas

• Show that the subject is important. • Show that although the points we are presenting may seem improbable, they are true. • Show that the subject has been neglected, misunderstood, or misrepresented. • Explain an unusual mode of development. • Forestall any misconception of the purpose. • Apologize for a deficiency. • Arouse interest in the subject with an anecdotal lead-in. • Ingratiate oneself with the readership. • Establish one's own credibility.

10.7 Tips for using films and TV

• Study programs in advance. • Obtain supplementary materials such as printed transcripts of the narrative or study guides. • Provide you students with background information, explain unfamiliar concepts, and anticipate outcomes. • Assign outside readings based on their viewing. • Ask cueing questions. • Watch along with students. • Observe students' reactions. • Follow up viewing with discussions and related activities.

6.5 World War I

-raged from July 1914 to the final Armistice on November 11, 1918. It was a world conflict between the Allied Powers led by Great Britain, France, Russia, and the United States (after 1917) and the Central Powers, led by the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and the Ottoman Empire. -The experiences of the war led to a sort of collective national trauma afterwards for all the participating countries. The optimism of the 1900s was entirely gone and those who fought in the war became what is known as "the Lost Generation" because they never fully recovered from their experiences. -Certainly a sense of disillusionment and cynicism became pronounced and nihilism became popular. The world had never before witnessed such devastation and the depiction in newspapers and on movie screens made the horrors more personal.

6.5 The Dissolution of the British Empire

- the most extensive empire in world history and for a time the foremost global power, beginning in 1867 -but lost most of colonies and rarely fought for any territories -Some Representative Literature: Heart of Darkness, novel by Joseph Conrad Passage to India novel by E. M. Forster "Gunga Din," poem by Rudyard Kipling

6.5 Nineteenth Century

-Alfred Lord Tennyson, who wrote Idylls of the King, twelve narrative poems about the Arthurian legend, and Robert Browning, who wrote chilling, dramatic monologues, such as "My Last Duchess," as well as long poetic narratives such as The Pied Piper of Hamlin. -Rudyard Kipling wrote about Colonialism in India in works like Kim and The Jungle Book that create exotic locales and a distinct main point concerning the Raj, the British Colonial government during Queen Victoria's reign. - Victorian drama is a product mainly of Oscar Wilde, whose satirical masterpiece, The Importance of Being Earnest

6.7 Middles Ages

-Anselm, the Archbishop of Canterbury, wrote an encyclopedia designed to instill in children the beliefs and principles of conduct acceptable to adults in medieval society. -each reading and religious lessons. William Caxton printed English versions of Aesop's Fables, Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur and stories from Greek and Roman mythology. -tales of adventures of Odysseus and the Arthurian knights were also popular with literate adolescents.

6.7 Theory of Psychosocial Development

-Erik Erikson, a follower of Sigmund Freud, presented the theory that human development consists of maturation through a series of psychosocial crises. The struggle to resolve these crises helps a person achieve individuality as he learns to function in society. Stage 1 (trust versus distrust), stage 2 (achieving autonomy), and stage 3 (developing initiative) relate to infants and young/middle children. Stages 4 and 5 relate to late childhood through adolescence. Stage 4 - Becoming Industrious. Stage 5 - Establishing Identity.

6.5 Romantic Period

-First Generation Romantics, William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge, who collaborated on Lyrical Ballads, which defines and exemplifies the tenets of this style of writing. The Second Generation includes George Gordon, Lord Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley, and John Keats. These poets wrote sonnets, odes, epics, and narrative poems, most dealing with homage to nature. -Byron's satirical epic, Don Juan -introspection -the essayist Charles Lamb and the novelist Jane Austin. The Bronte sisters, Charlotte and Emily, wrote one novel each, which are noted as two of the finest ever written, Jane Eyre and Wuthering Heights.

6.5 Medieval

-Geoffrey Chaucer, the father of English literature, whose Canterbury Tales -Next, Thomas Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur calls together the extant tales from Europe as well as England concerning the legendary King Arthur, Merlin, Guenevere, and the Knights of the Round Table.

6.7 19th Century

-Hans Christian Andersen's Fairy Tales were fanciful adaptations of the somber revisions of the Grimm brothers in the previous century. -Clement Moore's "A Visit from St. Nicholas" is a cheery, non-threatening child's view of the "night before Christmas." The humor of Lewis Carroll's books about Alice's adventures, -Other popular Victorian novels introduced the modern fantasy and science fiction genres: Jules Verne's Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea. Adventure to exotic places became a popular topic: Rudyard Kipling's Jungle Books, Verne's Around the World in Eighty Days, and Robert Louis Stevenson's Treasure Island and Kidnapped. In 1884, the first English translation of Johanna Spyre's Heidi appeared. -American Louisa May Alcott's Little Women and Canadian L.M. Montgomery's Anne of Green Gables ushered in the modern age of realistic fiction. American youth were enjoying the adventures of Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn. For the first time children were able to read books about real people just like themselves.

6.5 Seventeenth Century

-John Milton's devout Puritanism was the wellspring of his creative genius -Paradise Lost, written in balanced, elegant Neoclassic form, truly does justify the ways of God to man. - John Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress, which describes virtues and vices personified.

homonym

-Phonetics. a word pronounced the same as another but differing in meaning, whether spelled the same way or not, as heir and -(loosely) a word of the same written form as another but of different meaning and usually origin, whether pronounced the same way or not, as bear "to carry; support" and bear "animal" or lead "to conduct" and lead "metal

6.5 Eighteenth Century

-The Restoration and Enlightenment reflect the political turmoil of the regicide of Charles I, the Interregnum Puritan government of Oliver Cromwell, and the restoring of the monarchy to England by the coronation of Charles II. -New genres, such as The Diary of Samuel Pepys, the novels of Daniel Defoe, the periodical essays and editorials of Joseph Addison and Richard Steele, and Alexander Pope's mock epic, The Rape of the Lock, demonstrate the diversity of expression during this time.

6.5 Industrial Revolution

-The application of industrial processes to printing brought about a great expansion in newspaper and popular book publishing. This, in turn, was followed by rapid increases in literacy and eventually in demands for mass political participation. -Romanticism, the literary, intellectual, and artistic movement that occurred along with the Industrial Movement, was actually a response to the increasing mechanization of society, an artistic hostility to what was taking over the world. Romanticism stressed the importance of nature in art and language in contrast to the monstrous machines and factories. Blake called them the "dark, satanic mills" in his poem "And Did Those Feet in Ancient Time." -It stressed strong emotion, made individual imagination the critical authority, and overturned previous social conventions. Nature was important to the Romanticists and it elevated the achievements of misunderstood heroic individuals.

6.4 Immigration

-The recent Undaunted Courage by Stephen E. Ambrose is ostensibly the autobiography of Meriwether Lewis but is actually a recounting of the Lewis and Clark expedition. -John Steinbeck's Cannery Row and Tortilla Flats glorifies the lives of Mexican migrants in California. -Amy Tan's The Joy Luck Club deals with the problems faced by Chinese immigrants. -Leon Uris' Exodus deals with the social history that led to the founding of the modern state of Israel.

paradox

-a statement or proposition that, despite sound (or apparently sound) reasoning from acceptable premises, leads to a conclusion that seems senseless, logically unacceptable, or self-contradictory. -a seemingly absurd or self-contradictory statement or proposition that when investigated or explained may prove to be well founded or true. -a situation, person, or thing that combines contradictory features or qualities.

red herring fallacy

-changing the subject -Attempting to redirect the argument to another issue that to which the person doing the redirecting can better respond. While it is similar to the avoiding the issue fallacy, the red herring is a deliberate diversion of attention with the intention of trying to abandon the original argument.

4.2 Types of Responses to reading

-emotional -Interpretive Interpretive responses result in inferences about character development, setting, or plot; analysis of style elements - metaphor, simile, allusion, rhythm, tone; outcomes derivable from information provided in the narrative; and assessment of the author's intent. -Critical Critical responses involve making value judgments about the quality of a piece of literature. -Evaluative readers considerations of such factors as how well the piece of literature represents its genre, how well it reflects the social/ ethical mores of society, and how well the author has approached the subject for freshness and slant.

Basic Types of Conflict

-person vs. person -person vs. nature -person vs. self -person vs. society -person vs. supernatural -person vs. technology

8.6 Techniques to Create a Supportive Classroom Environment

1. Create peer response/support groups that are working on similar writing assignments. The members help each other in all stages of the writing process-from prewriting, writing, revising, editing, and publishing. 2. Provide several prompts to give students the freedom to write on a topic of their own. Writing should be generated out of personal experience and students should be introduced to in-class journals. One effective way to get into writing is to let them write often and freely about their own lives, without having to worry about grades or evaluation. 3. Respond in the form of a question whenever possible. Teacher/facilitator should respond non-critically and use positive, supportive language. 4. Respond to formal writing acknowledging the student's strengths and focusing on the composition skills demonstrated by the writing. A response should encourage the student by offering praise for what the student has done well. Give the student a focus for revision and demonstrate that the process of revision has applications in many other writing situations. 5. Provide students with readers' checklists so that students can write observational critiques of others' drafts, and then they can revise their own papers at home using the checklists as a guide. 6. Pair students so that they can give and receive responses. Pairing students keeps them aware of the role of an audience in the composing process and in evaluating stylistic effects.

4.6 Teaching vocab 4 steps

1. Evaluate to determine what the students know. 2. Devise a plan to teach the students what they must learn as part of a continuum. 3. Determine if students have heard the words to be studied and in what context. 4. Teach vocabulary for MASTERY.

6.7 The Humanistic Theory of Development

1. Need for physical well-being. 2. Need for love. 3. Need to belong. 4. Need to achieve competence. 5. Need to know. 6. Need for beauty and order.

9.7 Oxymoron

A contradiction in terms deliberately employed for effect .It is usually seen in a qualifying adjective whose meaning is contrary to that of the noun it modifies such as wise folly.

6.2 Aphorism

A focused, succinct expression about life from a sagacious point of view. Writings by Ben Franklin, Sir Francis Bacon, and Alexander Pope contain many aphorisms. "Whatever is begun in anger ends in shame" is an aphorism.

foil

A foil is another character in a story who contrasts with the main character, usually to highlight one of their attributes.

6.1 Romance

A highly imaginative tale set in a fantastical realm dealing with the conflicts between heroes, villains and/or monsters. "The Knight's Tale" from Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight and Keats' "The Eve of St. Agnes" are representatives.

6.2 Paradox

A seeming contradiction which is nevertheless true. John Donne's sonnet "Death Be Not Proud" postulates that death shall die and humans will triumph over death, at first thought not true, but ultimately explained and "proven" in this sonnet.

4.4 Word Analysis: base words

A stand-alone linguistic unit which cannot be deconstructed or broken down into smaller words. For example, in the word "re-tell," the base word is "tell."

6.1 Allegory

A story in a verse or prose with characters representing virtues and vices. There are two meanings: symbolic and literal. John Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress is the most renowned of this genre.

6.4 Walt Whitman

America's greatest Romantic Poet, many poems related to the civil war conflicts. Major work = Leaves of Grass -Themes: Imaginations vs Scientific process, Individualism

6.2 Irony

An unexpected disparity between what is written or stated and what is really meant or implied by the author. Verbal--, situational--, and dramatic are the three literary ironies. Verbal irony is when an author says one thing and means something else. Dramatic irony is when an audience perceives something that a character in the play does not. Irony of situation is a discrepancy between the expected result and actual results. Shakespeare's plays contain numerous and highly effective use of irony. O. Henry's short stories have ironic endings.

6.2 Kenning

Another way to describe a person, place, or thing so as to avoid prosaic repetition. The earliest examples can be found in Anglo-Saxon literature such as Beowulf and "The Seafarer." Instead of writing King Hrothgar, the anonymous monk wrote, great Ring-Giver, or Father of his people. A lake becomes the swans' way, and the ocean or sea becomes the great whale's way. In ancient Greek literature, this device was called an "epithet."

6.4 Vietnam

Catch-22 by Joseph Heller was a popular antiwar novel that became a successful movie of the time. Authors Take Sides on Vietnam, edited by Cecil Woolf and John Bagguley, is a collection of essays by 168 well-known authors throughout the world. Where is Vietnam? edited by Walter Lowenfels consists of 92 poems about the war. but the genre that had the most impact was rock music. Bob Dylan was an example of the musicians of the time

5.6 Organizational Structures

Cause and Effect: When authors write about why things happen, as well as what happens, they commonly use the cause and effect structure. For example, when writing about how he became successful, a CEO might talk about how he excelled in math in high school, moved to New York after college, and stuck to his goals even after multiple failures. These are all causes that lead to the effect, or result, of him becoming a wealthy and powerful businessman. Compare and Contrast: The examination of the merits of multiple concepts or products requires that they be compared and contrasted. For example, a person writing about foreign policy in different countries will evaluate those policies against each other to point out differences and similarities, easily highlighting the concepts the author wishes to emphasize. Problem and Solution: This structure is used in a lot of handbooks and manuals. Anything organized around procedure-oriented tasks, such as a computer repair manual, gravitates toward a problem and solution format, to offer a clear, sequential text organization.

7.11 Character

Character is portrayed in many ways: description of physical characteristics, dialogue, interior monologue, the thoughts of the character, the attitudes of other characters toward this one, etc. Descriptive language depends on the ability to recreate a sensory experience for the reader. If the description of the character's appearance is a visual one. A good test of characterization is the level of emotional involvement of the reader in the character. Dialogue will reflect characteristics.

6.4 Latino(a) writers

De Cervantes, Lora (Chicana). Starfish Cisneros, Sandra (Hispanic). House on Mango Street and other short story collections Marquez, Gabriel Garcia (Colombian). Hundred Years of Solitude Nunoz, A. Lopez (Spanish). Programas Para Dias Especiales Neruda, Pablo (Chile). Nobel Prize Winner- Collections of Poetry Silko, Leslie Marmon (Mexican). The Time We Climbed Snake Mountain Soto, Gary (Mexican). The Tales of Sunlight

6.8 Deductive Reasoning

Deductive reasoning begins with the generalization: "Green apples are sour" and supports that generalization with the specifics. An inference is drawn from an inductive line of reasoning. The most famous one is "all men are mortal," which is drawn from the observation that everyone a person knows has died or will die and that everyone else concurs in that judgment. It is assumed to be true and for that reason can be used as proof of another conclusion: "Socrates is a man; therefore, he will die."

6.4 The Romantic Period

Early American folktales, and the emergence of a distinctly American writing, not just a stepchild to English forms, constitute the next period. Washington Irving's characters, Ichabod Crane and Rip Van Winkle, created a uniquely American folklore devoid of English influences. The characters are indelibly marked as American by their environment and the superstitions of the New Englander. The early American writings of James Fenimore Cooper and his Leatherstocking Tales with their stirring accounts of drums along the Mohawk and the French and Indian Wars, the futile British defense of Fort William Henry and the brutalities of this time allow readers a window into the uniquely American world. Natty Bumppo, Chingachgook, Uncas, and Magua are unforgettable characters that reflect the American spirit in thought and action. The poetry of Fireside Poets - James Russell Lowell, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, and John Greenleaf Whittier - was recited by American families and read in the long New England winters. In "The Courtin'," Lowell used Yankee dialect to tell a narrative. Spellbinding epics by Longfellow such as Hiawatha, The Courtship of Miles Standish, and Evangeline told of adversity, sorrow, and ultimate happiness in a uniquely American character. "Snowbound" by Whittier relates the story of a captive family isolated by a blizzard, stressing family closeness. Holmes' "The Chambered Nautilus" and his famous line, "Fired the shot heard round the world," put American poetry on a firm footing with other world writers.

7.10 Fairy Tales

Fairy tales are lively fictional stories involving children or animals that come in contact with super-beings via magic. They provide happy solutions to human dilemmas. The fairy tales of many nations are peopled by trolls, elves, dwarfs, and pixies, child-sized beings capable of fantastic accomplishments. Among the most famous are "Beauty and the Beast," "Cinderella," "Hansel and Gretel," "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs," "Rumplestiltskin," and "Tom Thumb." In each tale, the protagonist survives prejudice, imprisonment, ridicule, and even death to receive justice in a cruel world. Older readers encounter a kind of fairy tale world in Shakespeare's The Tempest and A Midsummer Night's Dream, which use pixies and fairies as characters. Adolescent readers today are as fascinated by the creations of fantasy realms in the works of Piers Anthony, Ursula LeGuin, and Anne McCaffrey. An extension of interest in the supernatural is the popularity of science fiction that allows us to use current knowledge to predict the possible course of the future. Angels (or sometimes fairy godmothers) play a role in some fairy tales, and Milton in Paradise Lost and Paradise Regained also used symbolic angels and devils. Biblical stories provide many allusions. Parables, moralistic like fables but having human characters, include the stories of the Good Samaritan and the Prodigal Son. References to the treachery of Cain and the betrayal of Christ by Judas Iscariot are oft-cited examples.

Dramatic Arc

Good drama is built on conflict of some kind — an opposition of forces or desires that must be resolved by the end of the story. The conflict can be internal, involving emotional and psychological pressures, or it can be external, drawing the characters into tumultuous events. These themes are presented to the audience in a narrative arc that looks roughly like this:

7.7 Assonance

If alliteration occurs at the beginning of a word and rhyme at the end, assonance takes the middle territory. Assonance occurs when the vowel sound within a word matches the same sound in a nearby word, but the surrounding consonant sounds are different. "Tune" and "June" are rhymes; "tune" and "food" are assonant. The function of assonance is frequently the same as end rhyme or alliteration; all serve to give a sense of continuity or fluidity to the verse. Assonance might be especially effective when rhyme is absent: It gives the poet more flexibility, and it is not typically used as part of a predetermined pattern. Like alliteration, it does not so much determine the structure or form of a poem; rather, it is more ornamental.

3.4 Using terminal punctuation in relation to quotation marks

In a quoted statement that is either declarative or imperative, place the period inside the closing quotation marks. "The airplane crashed on the runway during takeoff." If the quotation is followed by other words in the sentence, place a comma inside the closing quotations marks and a period at the end of the sentence. "The airplane crashed on the runway during takeoff," said the announcer. In most instances in which a quoted title or expression occurs at the end of a sentence, the period is placed before either the single or double quotation marks. "The middle school readers were unprepared to understand Bryant's poem 'Thanatopsis.'" There is an instance in which the final quotation mark would precede the period - if the content of the sentence were about a speech or quote so that the understanding of the meaning would be confused by the placement of the period. The first thing out of his mouth was "Hi, I'm home." but The first line of his speech began "I arrived home to an empty house". In sentences that are interrogatory or exclamatory, the question mark or exclamation point should be positioned outside the closing quotation marks if the quote itself is a statement or command or cited title. Who decided to lead us in the recitation of the "Pledge of Allegiance"? Why was Tillie shaking as she began her recitation, "Once upon a midnight dreary..."? I was embarrassed when Mrs. White said, "Your slip is showing"! In sentences that are declarative but the quotation is a question or an exclamation, place the question mark or exclamation point inside the quotation marks. The hall monitor yelled, "Fire! Fire!" The hall monitor asked, "Where's the fire?" Cory shrieked, "Is there a mouse in the room?" (In this instance, the question supersedes the exclamation.)

6.1 Drama:

In its most general sense, a drama is any work that is designed to be performed by actors onstage. It can also refer to the broad literary genre that includes comedy and tragedy. Contemporary usage, however, denotes drama as a work that treats serious subjects and themes but does not aim for the same grandeur as tragedy. Drama usually deals with characters of a less stately nature than tragedy. A classical example is Sophocles' tragedy Oedipus Rex, while Eugene O'Neill's The Iceman Cometh represents modern drama.

9.7 Metaphor

Indirect comparison between two things. The use of a word or phrase denoting one kind of object or action in place of another to suggest a comparison between them. While poets use them extensively, they are also integral to everyday speech. For example, chairs are said to have "legs" and "arms" although we know that it's humans and other animals that have these appendages.

3.4 Parallel Structure: Prepositional phrase/ single modifier

Incorrect: Coleen ate the ice cream with enthusiasm and hurriedly. Correct: Coleen ate the ice cream with enthusiasm and in a hurry. Correct: Coleen ate the ice cream enthusiastically and hurriedly.

3.4 Independent clause

Independent clauses can stand alone or can be joined to other clauses. Independent clause for, and, nor -Independent clause; Independent clause --Dependent clause, Independent clause but -Independent clause but/or/yet/so ; Independent clause

6.2 Spenserian Stanza

Invented by Sir Edmund Spenser for usage in The Fairie Queene, his epic poem honoring Queen Elizabeth I. Each stanza consists of nine lines, eight in iambic parameter. The ninth line, called an alexandrine, has two extra syllables or one additional foot.

6.7 Kohlberg's Theories of Moral Development

Level I. Moral values reside in external acts rather than in persons or standards. Stage 0. Premoral - No association of actions or needs with sense of right or wrong. Stage 1. Obedience and punishment orientation. Child defers to adult authority. His actions are motivated by a desire to stay out of trouble. Stage 2. Right action/self-interest orientation. Performance of right deeds results in needing satisfaction. Level II. Moral values reside in maintaining conventions of right behavior. Stage 3. Good person orientation. The child performs right actions to receive approval from others, conforming to the same standards. Stage 4. Law and order orientation. Doing one's duty and showing respect for authority contributes to maintaining social order. Level III. Moral values reside in principles separate in association from the persons or agencies that enforce these principles. Stage 5. Legalistic orientation. The rules of society are accepted as correct but alterable. Privileges and duties are derived from social contact. Obedience to society's rules protects the rights of self and others. Stage 6. Conscience orientation. Ethical standards, such as justice, equality, and respect for others, guide moral conduct more than legal rules. Values clarification education based on Piaget's and Kohlberg's theories imply that development is inherent in human socialization. Becoming a decent person is a natural result of human development.

6.2Apostrophe

Literary device of addressing an absent or dead person, an abstract idea, or an inanimate object. Sonneteers, such as Sir Thomas Wyatt, John Keats, and William Wordsworth, address the moon, stars, and the dead. For example, in William Shakespeare's Julius Caesar, Mark Antony addresses the corpse of Caesar in the speech that begins: "O, pardon me, thou bleeding piece of earth, That I am meek and gentle with these butchers! Thou art the ruins of the noblest man that ever lived in the tide of times. Woe to the hand that shed this costly blood!"

6.4 Local Color

Local Color is defined as the presenting of the peculiarities of a particular locality and its inhabitants. -when humor began to permeate the writing of those who were focusing on a particular region of the country. -Mark Twain is generally considered to be not only one of America's funniest writers but one who also wrote great and enduring fiction.

9.2 News Articles

News articles are written in the "inverted pyramid" format—they are deductive in nature: the opening statement is the point of the article; everything else is details. "Who, what, why, when, and where" are usually the questions to be answered in a news article.

9.2 Complaint Letter

No matter how much in the right you may be, maintaining self-control and courtesy and avoiding demeaning or blaming language is more likely to be effective. Abruptness, condescension, or harshness of tone will not help achieve your purpose, particularly if you are requesting a positive response such as reimbursement for a bad product or some help in righting a wrong that may have been done to you. It's important to remember that you want to solve the specific problem and to retain the good will of the receiver if possible. Beginning with the details and building to the statement of the problem generally has the effect of softening the bad news. It's also useful to begin with an opening that will serve as a buffer. The same is true for the closing. It's good to leave the reader with a favorable impression by writing a closing paragraph that will generate good rather than bad will.

7.7 Slant Rhyme

Occurs when the final consonant sounds are the same, but the vowels are different. Occurs frequently in Irish, Welsh, and Icelandic verse. Examples include: green and gone, that and hit, ill and shell.

3.4 Using periods with parentheses or brackets

Place the period inside the parentheses or brackets if they enclose a complete sentence independent of the other sentences around it. Stephen Crane was a confirmed alcohol and drug addict. (He admitted as much to other journalists in Cuba.) If the parenthetical expression is a statement inserted within another statement, the period in the enclosure is omitted. Mark Twain used the character Indian Joe (he also appeared in The Adventures of Tom Sawyer) as a foil for Jim in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. When enclosed matter comes at the end of a sentence requiring quotation marks, place the period outside the parentheses or brackets. "The secretary of state consulted with the ambassador [Albright]."

6.2 Free Verse

Poetry that does not have any predictable meter or patterning. Margaret Atwood, e. e. cummings, and Ted Hughes write in this form.

6.2 Blank Verse

Poetry written in Iambic Pentameter but unrhymed. Works by Shakespeare and Milton are epitomes of blank verse. For example, in Paradise Lost Milton writes: "Illumine, what is low raise and support/That to the height of this great argument I may assert Eternal Providence/ And justify the ways of God to men."

3.4 Recognition of syntactical redundancy or omission

Redundancy Incorrect: Joyce made sure that when her plane arrived that she retrieved all of her luggage. Correct: Joyce made sure that when her plane arrived she retrieved all of her luggage. Incorrect: He was a mere skeleton of his former self. Correct: He was a skeleton of his former self. Omission Incorrect: Dot opened her book, recited her textbook, and answered the teacher's subsequent question. Correct: Dot opened her book, recited from the textbook, and answered the teacher's subsequent question.

7.11 Rhythm

Rhythm refers to the "beat" between the words chosen and the smoothness, rapidity, or disjointedness of the way those words are written. Sentences that are too long may disrupt the rhythm of a piece, as may sentences that are too short. Reading text out loud is an easy way to impart understanding of literary rhythm.

6.3 The Transition between Romanticism and Realism

The Civil War period ushered in the poignant poetry of Walt Whitman and his homages to all who suffer from the ripple effects of war and presidential assassination. His "Come up from the Fields, Father" about a Civil War soldier's death and his family's reaction and "When Lilacs Last in the Courtyard Bloom'd" about the effects of Abraham Lincoln's death on the poet and the nation, should be required readings in any American literature course. Further, his Leaves of Grass gave America its first poetry truly unique in form, structure, and subject matter. Emily Dickinson, like Walt Whitman, leaves her literary fingerprints on a vast array of poems, all but three of which were never published in her lifetime. Her themes of introspection and attention to nature's details and wonders are, by any measurement, world-class works. Her posthumous recognition reveals the timeliness of her work. American writing had most certainly arrived. Mark Twain also left giant footprints with his unique blend of tall tale and fable. "The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County" and "The Man who Stole Hadleyburg" are epitomes of American short story writing. Mark Twain again stands head and shoulders above others by his bold, still disputed, oft-banned The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, which examines such taboo subjects as a white person's love of a slave, the issue of leaving children with abusive parents, and the outcomes of family feuds. Written partly in dialect and southern vernacular, The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is touted by some as the greatest American novel.

6.3 Contemporary American Literature: American Drama

The greatest and most prolific of American playwrights include: Eugene O'Neill -- Long Day's Journey into Night, Mourning Becomes Electra, and Desire Under the Elms Arthur Miller -- The Crucible, All My Sons, and Death of a Salesman Tennessee Williams -- Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, The Glass Menagerie, and A Street Car Named Desire Edward Albee -- Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?, Three Tall Women, and A Delicate Balance

6.4 The Realistic Period

The late nineteenth century saw a reaction against the tendency of romantic writers to look at the world through rose-colored glasses. Writers like Frank Norris (The Pit) and Upton Sinclair (The Jungle) used their novels to decry conditions for workers in slaughterhouses and wheat mills. In The Red Badge of Courage, Stephen Crane wrote of the daily sufferings of the common soldier in the Civil War. Realistic writers wrote of common, ordinary people and events using detail that revealed the harsh realities of life. They broached taboos by creating protagonists whose environments often destroyed them. Romantic writers would have only protagonists whose indomitable wills helped them rise above adversity. Crane's Maggie: A Girl of the Streets deals with a young woman forced into prostitution to survive. In "The Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge," Ambrose Bierce relates the unfortunate hanging of a Confederate soldier.

informative connotations vs affective connotations

The two types of connotations are informative and affective. An informative connotation is a word's socially agreed upon meaning. An example I can think of would be the word nosey. Everyone in society knows that a nosey person is always interested in business that doesn't pertain to them. The second type is affective which is the aura of personal feelings that word arouses. The perfect example of a word with this type of connotation would be the n-word.

8.7 1st person narrator point of view

The voice of the first-person narrator is often used also. The reader sees the action through the eyes of an actor in the story who is also telling the story. In writing about a story that uses this voice, the narrator must be analyzed as a character. What sort of person is this? What is this character's position in the story—observer, commentator, actor? Can the narrator be believed, or is he/she biased? The value of this voice is that, while the reader is able to follow the narrator around and see what is happening through that character's eyes, the reader is also able to feel what the narrator feels. For this reason, the writer can involve the reader more intensely in the story itself and move the reader by invoking feelings—pity, sorrow, anger, hate, confusion, disgust, etc.

6.8 Tone

There are three places to look for tone: • Choice of form: tragedy or comedy; melodrama or farce; parody or sober lyric. • Choice of materials: characters that have human qualities that are attractive; others that are repugnant. What an author shows in a setting will often indicate what his/her interests are. • The writer's interpretation: it may be explicit—telling us how he/she feels. • The writer's implicit interpretations: the author's feelings for a character come through in the description. For example, the use of "smirked" instead of "laughed"; "minced," "stalked," "marched," instead of walked. A piece of writing is an integrated whole. It's not enough to just look at the various parts; the total entity must be examined. It should be considered in two ways: • As an emotional expression of the author • As an artistic embodiment of a meaning or set of meanings. This is what is sometimes called tone in literary criticism. It's important to remember that the writer is a human being with his/her own individual bents, prejudices, and emotions. A writer is telling the readers about the world as he/she sees it and will give voice to certain phases of his/her own personality. By reading a writer's works, we can know the personal qualities and emotions of the writer embodied in the work itself.

6.3 The Revolutionary Period

There were great orations such as Patrick Henry's Speech to the Virginia House of Burgesses -- the "Give me liberty or give me death" speech - and George Washington's Farewell to the Army of the Potomac. The Declaration of Independence, the brainchild predominantly of Thomas Jefferson, with some prudent editing by Ben Franklin, is a prime example of neoclassical writing -- balanced, well crafted, and focused. Epistles include the exquisitely written, moving correspondence between John Adams and Abigail Adams.

4.4 Word Analysis: Prefixes

These are beginning units of meaning which can be added (the vocabulary word for this type of structural adding is "affixed") to a base word or root word. They cannot stand alone. They are also sometimes known as "bound morphemes," meaning that they cannot stand alone as a base word.

4.4 Word Analysis: suffixes

These are ending units of meaning which can be "affixed" or added on to the ends of root or base words. Suffixes transform the original meanings of base and root words. Like prefixes, they are also known as "bound morphemes," because they cannot stand alone as words.

4.4 Word Analysis: inflectional endings

These are types of suffixes that impart a new meaning to the base or root word. These endings in particular change the gender, number, tense, or form of the base or root words. Just like other suffixes, these are also termed "bound morphemes."

6.4 Naturalism

This is realism pushed to the maximum, writing which exposes the underbelly of society, usually the lower class struggles. This is the world of penury, injustice, abuse, ghetto survival, hungry children, single parenting, and substance abuse. Émile Zola was inspired by his readings in history and medicine and attempted to apply methods of scientific observation to the depiction of pathological human character, notably in his series of novels devoted to several generations of one French family.

7.10 Fables and Folktales

This literary group of stories and legends was originally orally transmitted to the common populace to provide models of exemplary behavior or deeds worthy of recognition and homage. In fables, animals talk, feel, and behave like human beings. The fable always has a moral and the animals illustrate specific people or groups without directly identifying them. For example, in Aesop's Fables, the lion is the "King" and the wolf is the cruel, often unfeeling, "noble class." In the fable of "The Lion and the Mouse" the moral is that "Little friends may prove to be great friends." In "The Lion's Share" it is "Might makes right." Many British folktales - How Robin became an Outlaw and St. George: Slaying of the Dragon - stress the correlation between power and right.

6.1 Short Story

Typically a terse narrative, with less developmental background about characters. May include description, author's point of view, and tone. Poe emphasized that a successful short story should create one focused impact. Considered to be great short story writers are Hemingway, Faulkner, Twain, Joyce, Shirley Jackson, Flannery O'Connor, de Maupasssant, Saki, Edgar Allen Poe, and Pushkin.

6.2 Onomatopoeia

Word used to evoke the sound in its meaning. The early Batman series used pow, zap, whop, zonk and eek in an onomatopoetic way.

7.7 Onomatopoeia

Word used to evoke the sound in its meaning. The early Batman series used pow, zap, whop, zonk and eek in an onomatopoetic way.

6.7 Influence of Theories on Literature

Written by adults who determined either what they believed children needed or liked or what they should need or like, most books, stories, poems, and essays dealt with experiences or issues that would make children into better adults. The fables, fairy tales, and epics of old set the moral/social standards of their times while entertaining the child in every reader/listener.

3.4 Use italics to punctuate the titles of

long works of literature, names of periodical publications, musical scores, works of art and motion picture television, and radio programs. (When unable to write in italics, students should be instructed to underline in their own writing where italics would be appropriate.) EXs:The Idylls of the King Hiawatha The Sound and the Fury Mary Poppins Newsweek The Nutcracker Suite

6.4 Maxine Hong Kingston

parents were Chinese immigrants who lived in Stockton, California. Her fiction is highly autobiographical and she weaves Chinese myths and fictionalized history with the aim of exploring the conflicts between cultures faced by Chinese-Americans. Her writing exposes the ordeals of the Chinese immigrants who were so exploited by American companies, particularly railroad and agriculture industries. She also explores relationships within the Chinese families, particularly between parents who were born in China and children who were born in America. In a 1980 New York Times Book Review interview, she said, "What I am doing in this new book [China Men] is churning America." Some Themes: • Discovery • The American Dream • Male/Female Roles • Metamorphosis • Enforced Muteness • Vocal Expression • Family

7.11 Plot

plot is sometimes called action. If the plot does not move, the story quickly dies. Therefore, the successful writer of stories uses a wide variety of active verbs in creative and unusual ways. the development of believable conflicts is also vital.

6.4 Richard Wright

set out to portray African Americans to white readers that the myth of the uncomplaining, comic, obsequencious black man would be replaced. Some themes: • The environment of the South is too small to nourish human beings, especially African-Americans • Rejection of black militancy • Violent, battered childhood and victorious adulthood • Suffocation of instinct and stifling of potential • Mature reminiscences of a battered childhood • Black mother's protective nurture and the trauma of an absent or impotent father • Each is responsible for everyone and everything (in his later works)

3.4 Use quotation marks to enclose the titles of

shorter works: songs, short poems, short stories, essays, and chapters of books. (See "Using Italics" for punctuating longer titles.) "The Tell-Tale Heart" "Casey at the Bat" "America the Beautiful"

6.4 Civil Rights

the The best-known of the early writers who used fiction as a political statement about slavery is Harriet Beecher Stowe, author of Uncle Tom's Cabin. This was her first novel, and it was published first as a serial in 1851 then as a book in 1852. It brought an angry reaction from people living in the South. This antislavery book infuriated Southerners. Stowe was angered by the 1850 Fugitive Slave Law that made it legal to indict those who assisted runaway slaves. It also took away rights not only of the runaways but also of the free slaves. She intended to generate a protest of the law and slavery. It was the first effort to present the lives of slaves from their standpoint. The novel is about three slaves, Tom, Eliza, and George, who are together in Kentucky. Eliza and George are married to each other but have different masters. They successfully escape with their little boy, but Tom does not, and is caught. Although he has a wife and children, he is sold, ending up finally with the monstrous Simon Legree, where he dies at last. Stowe cleverly used depictions of motherhood and Christianity to stir her readers. When President Lincoln finally met her, he told her it was her book that started the war.

3.7 Language Skills to evaluate

• The ability to talk at length with few pauses and fill time with speech • The ability to call up appropriate thing to say in a wide range of contexts • The size and range of a student's vocabulary and syntax skills • The coherence of their sentences, the ability to speak in reasoned and semantically dense sentences • Knowledge of the various forms of interaction and conversation for various situations • Knowledge of the standard rules of conversation • The ability to be creative and imaginative with language and express oneself in original ways • The ability to invent and entertain and take risks in linguistic expression

3.8 Language Skills to Evaluate:

• The ability to talk at length with few pauses and fill time with speech • The ability to call up appropriate thing to say in a wide range of contexts • The size and range of a student's vocabulary and syntax skills • The coherence of their sentences, the ability to speak in reasoned and semantically dense sentences • Knowledge of the various forms of interaction and conversation for various situations • Knowledge of the standard rules of conversation • The ability to be creative and imaginative with language and express oneself in original ways • The ability to invent and entertain and take risks in linguistic expression

10.10 Oral Language skills to evaluate

• The ability to talk at length with few pauses and fill time with speech • The ability to call up appropriate thing to say in a wide range of contexts • The size and range of a student's vocabulary and syntax skills • The coherence of their sentences, the ability to speak in reasoned and semantically dense sentences • Knowledge of the various forms of interaction and conversation for various situations • Knowledge of the standard rules of conversation • The ability to be creative and imaginative with language, and express oneself in original ways • The ability to invent and entertain, and take risks in linguistic expression

10.7 Tips for using media and visual aids

• Use pictures over words whenever possible. • Present one key point per visual. • Use no more than 3-4 colors per visual to avoid clutter and confusion. • Use contrasting colors such as dark blue and bright yellow. • Use a maximum of 25-35 numbers per visual aid. • Use bullets instead of paragraphs when possible. • Make sure it is student-centered, not media-centered. Delivery is just as important as the media presented.