The Brain: How We Learn

What are the two types of declarative memories?

Sematic and episodic memory

The axons with white matter are made up of:

Commissural fibers: make connections between the two cerebral hemispheres Association fibers: make connections within a hemispheres Projection fibers: make connections between the cortex and the rest of the nervous system

Function of serotonin

Constricts blood vessels and brings on sleep; involved in temperature regulation

Describe the midbrain.

Controls some reflex actions and is part of the circuit involved in the control of eye movements and other voluntary movements

Learning requires coordination between:

Cortical Subcortical Deep cortical Functional neurochemical systems

What are the two types of memory?

Declarative/explicit and non-declarative/implicit

What are non-declarative memories?

Occurs earliest in human development

What technology is used in brain research?

PET: position emission topography MRI: magnetic resonance imaging fMRI: functional magnetic resonance imaging DTI: diffusion tensor imaging MEG: meganetoencephalography

Characteristics of the thalamus

Relay station All incoming sensory data except for olfactory data pass through the thalamus where they are processed and sent on to the appropriate parts of the brain for further processing Major clearinghouse for information going to and from the spinal cord and cerebrum

What are the three main functions of the cerebral cortex?

Sensation Integration Motion

What factors influence the degree to which stress can enhance or impeded memory?

Severity of the stress The phase of memory formation Type of task involved

Function of GABA

(Gamma-aminobutyric acid) an inhibitory neurotransmitter because it tends to make cells less excitable; control muscle activity and is an important part of the visual system

What are way you can help the older patient to learn?

Allow adequate time for them to process information Provide various learning tools - written, pictures, audio, etc Use mnemonic strategies to remember important information Use mnemonic cues Use personally relevant activities Use emotional stimulants to enhance learning and retention by making learning experience fun Minimize distractions Aerobic exercise Social contacts

Function of dopamine

An inhibitory neurotransmitter involved in mood and the control of complex movements

Describe the parietal lobe.

Associated with movement, orientation, recognition, perception of stimuli Parietal lobe located just behind the motor areas, are the primary sensory areas; these areas receive information about temperature, taste, touch, and movement from the rest of the body; reading and arithmetic are also functions in the repertoire of each parietal lobe

Describe the frontal lobe.

Associated with reasoning, planning, parts of speech, movement, emotions, and problem solving (two frontal lobes lie directly behind the forehead - executive functioning) Brocq's area allows thoughts to be transformed into words

Function requires neuronal communication between what?

Between and within hemispheres Between cortical and subcortical structures

Changes in memory occur with aging that contribute to cognitive function and memory. Explain.

Decline in sensory function - hearing, sight Decline in rate of processing information Decline in the ability to process information from multiple sources

Function of acetylcholine

EXCITATORY NEUROTRANSMITTER (makes cells more excitable); it governs muscle contractions and causes glands to secrete hormones

What factors influence learning?

Emotion Attention Past experiences Personal meaning

Explain how emotion can affect learning.

Emotionally arousing stimuli can increase level of alertness Emotionally arousing stimuli whether positive or negative are more easily remembered Emotional stress can assist in increasing memory Too much emotional stress can weaken chance of remembering

Characteristics of the amygdala

Evaluates sensory information on a subconscious level for any threat; connects emotional content (positive or negative to a person's memory of an experience to better allow it to be remembered)

What is sematic memory?

Factual information General knowledge about which one can speak or write Information available for conscious recall Allows one to remember something and describe it

How matter is caused by what?

From the myelin or white fatty covering of axons; myelin speeds up the transmission of electrical impulses along the axons

Age related changes in the brain

Frontal cortex Neuronal, neurochemical, metabolic, and receptor changes Subcortical areas, especially those involved in the production of dopamine Cellular and intercellular changes as a result of oxidative damage and neuroinflammation within the brain

The cerebral cortex is divided into four sections. What are they?

Frontal lobe Parietal lobe Occipital lobe Temporal lobe

Describe the hindbrain.

Includes the upper part of the spinal cord, the brainstem, and a wrinkled ball of tissue called the cerebellum Controls the body's vital functions such as respiration and heart rate The cerebellum coordinates movement and is involved in learned rate movements

Factors influencing the response to stress include:

Individual difference Intensity Frequency Duration of stress Predictability Controllability

Characteristics of the inner brain

Inner brain structures are the gatekeepers between the spinal cord and the cerebral hemispheres , determine emotional state Modify our perceptions and responses depending on the state Initiate movements without thinking about them The structures come in pairs: each is duplicated in the opposite half of the brain

What does the basal ganglia do?

Involved in the initiation of voluntary movements and in the formation of memories related to skills, habits, and routine behaviors

What is classical conditioning?

Involves learning a new behavior via the process of association

Describe the temporal lobes.

Lies in front of the visual and nest under the parietal and frontal lobes; receives information from the ears; the underside of each temporal lobe plays a crucial role in forming and retrieving memories, including those associated with music; other parts of this lobe seem to integrate memories and sensations of taste, sound, sight, and touch

Characteristics of the cerebellum

Located above the brainstem and under the occipital lobes Important for maintaining posture and balance and coordinating automatic movements Appears to be associated with frontal lobe for cognitive and executive functioning (coordinating thoughts, attention, and feelings, sequence information, prioritize plans, social skills)

Characteristics of the brainstem

Located at the base of the brain Joins spinal cord to the brain Coordinates sensory and motor information between the body and brain Regulates respiration, blood pressure, heart rate, and sleep Contains the midbrain, pons, medulla Also includes the reticular formation - a functional system that regulates level of arousal as well as sensory input and motor behavior

What are declarative memories?

Memories that can be verbalized, declared, or made explict

What is episodic memory?

Memory on more specific data of event Specific time and place

All sensations, movements, thoughts, memories, and feelings are the result of signals that pass through ____.

Neurons

When the signal reaches the end of the axon it stimulates the release of tiny sacs. These sacs release chemicals known as ____ into the synapse.

Neurotransmitters *The neurotransmitters cross the synapse and attach to receptors on the neighboring cell; these receptors can change the properties of the receiving cell; if the receiving cell is also a neuron, the signal cal continue the transmission to the next cell

Explain Kolb's learning cycle.

Phase 1: concrete experience cortex; reception of sensory data in sensory Phase 2: integration of data; difference parts of the brain receive input Phase 3: connect with prior knowledge and make hypotheses; frontal lobe activation Phase 4: test hypothesis and implement plan; motor cortex stimulated implement plan

What does the hippocampus do?

Plays a role in the formation and retrieval of certain types of memory

Characteristics of the prefrontal cortex

Prefrontal cortex is the forward-most portion of the frontal lobe CEO of the brain - it coordinates and integrates almost every function of the brain

Selective attention is preserved with aging. Short term memory is more impaired than long term memory with aging. Declarative memory is more impaired than ____ memory with aging.

Procedural

What are the two types of non-declarative memories? Explain each.

Procedural memory - memory for a skill and habits, more difficult to forget Emotional memory - memory associated with either a positive or negative event

Describe the occipital lobe.

Process images from the eyes and link that information with images stored in memory

What does goal directed movement require?

Strategy: where we are in space, what is our goal, how do we reach that goal Tactics: involves sequence, timing, direction Execution: doing the activity

Signals from the brain to the body and vice-versa crossover on their way to and from the brain. Explain.

The R cerebral hemisphere controls the L side of the body and the L hemisphere primarily controls the R side

What is neuroplasticity?

The ability of the brain to change in structure and function based upon learning

The two hemispheres appear to be a mirror images of each other, but are different. Explain.

The ability to form words seems to lie primarily in the left hemisphere; the right hemisphere seems to control many abstract reasoning skills

Neurons consist of what three parts?

The cell body: contains the nucleus, where most of the molecules that the neuron needs to survive and function are manufactured Dendrites: extend out from the cell body like the branches of a tree and receive messages from other nerve cells; signals then pass from the dendrites through the cell body and may travel away from the cell body down a axon to another neuron, a muscle cell, or cells in some other organ The synapse: the place where a signal passes from the neuron to another cell

Characteristics of the cerebrum

The cerebrum or cortex is the largest part of the human brain, associated with higher brain function such as thought and action Located at the top of the brain The source of intellectual activities Holds your memories Allows you to plan Enables you to imagine and think Allows you to recognize friends, read books, and play games

What is the cerebral cortex? Elaborate.

The cortex is layer of tissue the thickness of 2-3 dimes stacked Greediest organ of body using up 20% of body energy Most of the actual information processing in the brain takes place in the cerebral cortex The cortex commonly known as the gray matter because nerves in this area lack the insulation that makes most other parts of the brain appear to be white The folds in the brain add to its surface area and increase the amount of gray matter and the quantity of information that can be processed Divided into 2 separate hemispheres but joined together by corpus callosum

The brain can be divided into three basic units. What are they?

The forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain

What is the hypothalamus?

The size of a pearl; directs a multitude of important functions, initiates the physiological response associated with fight or flight; plays a key role in the body's homeostasis or balance (body temp,. hormone secretion, sleep-wake cycle-wakes you up in the morning, food and water intake, makes the adrenaline flow during a test or job interview, emotional center, controlling the molecules that make you feel exhilarated, angry, or unhappy)

Describe the forebrain.

The uppermost part of the brainstem The largest and most highly developed part of the human brain Consists primarily of the CEREBRUM

The cerebrum is divided into two halves (hemispheres) by a deep fissures. How do they communicate with each other?

Through a thick tract of nerve fibers that lies at the base of this fissure

T/F Attention is needed during both formation and retrieval of explicit memories. Information related to survival or threat will be processed before information associated with emotions in general. Information with any emotional connection will receive higher priority for processing than neutral information.

True

T/F Stress can be used to optimize learning.

True

T/F The brain is the seat of intelligence, interpreter of the senses, initiator of body movement, and the controller of behavior.

True

T/F The interconnectedness of brain structures and systems enables the learning experience and the ability to function.

True

T/F The neuron is usually surrounded by many support cells. Some types of cells wrap around the axon to form an insulating sheath. This sheath can include a fatty molecule called myelin, which provides insulation for the axon and helps nerve signals travel faster and farther.

True

Characteristics of the frontal lobe

What makes us uniquely human Allows us to process, plan for and respond to threats and challenges Helps us to sequence thoughts and actions Ability to focus attention, reflect on the past and future Problem solve Plays a significant role in the planning, execution, and control of movement