THE CLEP SET: Natural Sciences

Freezing Point

temperature at which a substance changes from liquid to solid.

Melting Point

temperature at which a substance changes from solid to liquid form.

Migration

temporary movement out of one range into another and back.

Reflection

the bouncing of a wave of light off an object.

Codons

A 3-nucleotide sequence of DNA or mRNA that specifies a particular amino acid or start/stop signal

Fault

A break in the earth's crust Grouped based on type of slippage that occurs

Archimedes Principle of Buoyancy

A buoyant (upward) force on a submerged object is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the object

Tropical waves or easterly waves

Atmospheric troughs or areas of low air pressure that travel westward in the tropics Cause clouds and thunderstorms

Bone

Dense, rigid tissue that protects organs, produces blood cells, and provides structural support for body

Abiotic Limiting Factors

Density independent factors

Cold front

Mass of cold air Fast moving and dense, moves into warm air front, producing clouds

Molar mass

Mass of one mole of a substance (element or compound) grams per mole (g/mol)

Diamagnetic field

Material that has electrons that are paired, does not typically have magnetic moment

Mitochondria

center of cellular respiration

Condensation

change of a gaseous substance to liquid form.

Which of the following would be a reason for temperature changes as you travel up through the atmosphere?

changes in composition

Ions

charged atoms.

Hormones

chemicals produced in the endocrine glands of an organism, which travel through the circulatory system and are taken up by specific targeted organs or tissues, where they modify metabolic activities.

B Cells

class of lymphocyte cells that merge from the bone marrow mature and produce antibodies, which enter the bloodstream.

Domains

classification category even more general than kingdoms.

Regulatory Genes

code proteins that determine fictional or physiological events.

Structural Genes

code proteins that form organs and structural characteristics.

Hemoglobin

component of blood responsible for carrying oxygen.

Thyroid

Thyroxine, triiodothyronine, calcitonin All involved in brain development, reproductive tract functions, and metabolism regulation

Rosalind Franklin (1952)

Took the x-ray diffraction image used by Watson and Crick to develop the double-helix model of DNA

Nerve Tissue

carries electrical and chemical impulses to and from organs and limbs to the brain.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

carries impulses back from organs.

Sympathetic Nervous System

carries impulses that stimulate organs.

Visceral Sensory Nerves

carry impulses from body organs to the CNS.

Neurons

carry impulses via electrochemical responses.

Vitamin C

Ascorbic acid Citrus fruits and peppers Promotes cell cohesiveness, absorption of some minerals, brain function, and healthy bones, teeth, and gums.

International Space Station

Assembled in 1998 Largest manned object sent into space Orbits Earth every 90 minutes

Beaufort wind scale

Assigns numerical value to wind conditions and the appearance of the sea 0: calm sea, no wind 12: hurricane force winds, sea filled with foam

Isotope

Atoms that have the same number of protons as electrons, but different number of neutrons. Name of isotope: Name of element with mass number (i.e. carbon-12 or ^12C)

Radioisotopes

Atoms with unstable nucleus Nucleus has excess energy and can make radiation within the nucleus or undergo radioactive decay, which results in gamma rays

Electric force

Attractive force between the electrons and the nucleus Force of attraction or repulsion on a charged particle that is due to an electric field

Huntington's disease

Autosomal dominant disorder resulting in the degeneration of nerve cells

Plant hormones

Auxins: plant elongation, apical dominance, and rooting Gibberellins: plant height Ethylenes: help fruit ripen Cytokinins: cell division Abscisic acid: inhibits other hormones

Gibbs free energy

Available energy or maximum work of a closed system

Climate

Average weather for a particular area over time At least 30 years

Anything with pH higher than water (7)

Base OH- Ex: soap, baking soda, sea water

Sidereal rotation

Based on position of a fixed star, not the Sun Slightly shorter than 24 hour solar day

Cambrian Explosion

Beginning of Paleozoic Era Time with abundant life forms

Catastrophism

Belief that Earth was shaped by sudden, short-term catastrophic events

Endosymbiotic theory

Belief that eukaryotes (cells with nuclei) developed from prokaryotic cells (cells without nuclei). Chloroplasts in plants cells and mitochondria in animals cells evolved from smaller prokaryotes living within larger prokaryotes.

Charles Darwin (1809-1882)

Belief that evolution occurred by natural selection and species develop from common ancestors.

Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829)

Believed evolution was natural occurrence influenced by environment. Believed organisms become more complex by moving up ladder of progress.

Connective tissue

Binds, protects, supports, and stores fat Fills space 2 kinds: loose and fibrous Includes cartilage, bones, tendons, ligaments. blood, and protective layers

Biotic factors vs. Abiotic factors

Biotic: Living factors, such as other organisms, that affect a community or population Abiotic: Nonliving factors that affect a community or a population

Weather map symbols

Blue line: cold front Blue triangle: direction of cold front movement Red line: warm front Red semi-circle: direction of warm front movement

Redshift vs. Blueshift

Blueshift: decrease in wavelength as source moves closer Redshift: light or radiation to longer wavelength as source moves away

Skeletal system

Bones and joints Supports body, protects internal organs, makes organs motile

Incomplete dominance

Both dominant and recessive genes are expressed, phenotype is a mixture Example: Red (RR) and white (rr) flowers combine to make pink flowers (Rr).

Monocot vs. Dicots

Both flowering plants Monocot: only one seed leaf Dicot: two seed leaves

Nuclear Fission vs. Nuclear Fusion

Both: Release lots of energy, result in different elements Fission: Splits large nucleus into smaller pieces Fusion: Joining of 2 nuclei under extreme temperatures and pressure

Stratigraphy

Branch of geology studying rock layers and layering Primarily focused on sedimentary rocks

Thermodynamics

Branch of physics studying conversion of energy into work and heat Variables: temperature, volume, pressure

BTU

British Thermal Unit Measurement of amount of energy needed to raise temperature of pound of water by one degree Fahrenheit 1.054 joules 252 calories

Solar system plants Difference between inner and outer planets

Inner planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars -Small, dense, rocky, lack rings, few or no moons Outer (Jovian) planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune -Large, low density, rings and moons, -Also known as gas giants Between groups: asteroid belt

Nucleolus

Inside nucleus Involved in protein synthesis and synthesizes and stores RNA

Uses of bases

Insoluble catalysts in heterogeneous reactions Catalysts in hydrogenation

Electroscope

Instrument used to detect charged objects. Cannot determine whether charge is positive or negative.

Pancreas

Insulin-promotes absorption of glucose Glucagon-elevates glucose concentration in blood

Solvation

Intermolecular attraction between solute and solvent

Phases of Mitosis

Interphase: -Cell prepares for division by replicating its genetic and cytoplasmic material Prophase: -Chromatin thickens into chromosomes -Nuclear membrane disintegrates -Pairs of centrioles move to opposite sides of cell -Spindle fibers form Metaphase: -Spindle moves to center of cell and chromosome pairs align along center Anaphase - Pairs of chromosomes pull apart -Grooves appear in cell membrane -Cytokinesis (splitting of cells) begins Telophase -Spindle disintegrates -Nuclear membrane reforms -Chromosomes revert to chromatin -Plant cell wall forms, Animal cell membrane is pinched -Cytokinesis completed

Intrusive igneous rocks vs. Extrusive igneous rocks

Intrusive (i.e. granite) Come from magma within Earth's crust and cool slowly Extrusive (i.e. basalt) Formed from lava on Earth's surface and cool quickly

Oxidation/Reduction reactions

Involve transfer of one or more electrons Can occur as result of transfer of oxygen, hydrogen, or halogen atoms Species that loses electrons is oxidized

Nuclear pores

Involved in exchange of material between nucleus and cytoplasm

Respiratory system

Involved in gas exchange Includes nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs

Ionic bond vs. Covalent bond

Ionic Bond: electrons transferred from one atom to another Covalent Bond: electrons shared between atoms

Properties of salts

Ionic compounds Formed from acid base reactions Consist of metallic and nonmetallic ions Dissociate in water Comprised of tightly bounded ions

Double Displacement, Double Replacement, Substitution. Metathesis, or Ion Exchange reactions

Ions or bonds are exchanged by two compounds to form different compounds AB + CD → AD + CB

Non-Radioactive Isotopes

Isotopes that are stable and do not decay

Kuiper Belt

Just beyond Neptune Objects composed of frozen water, ammonia, and methane 5 dwarf planets: Ceres, Pluto, Haumea, Makemake, Eris

Which of the following is an explanation of how altruistic traits evolve?

Kin selection in mating would accomplish the proliferation of altruistic traits.

Kingdom classification system

Kingdom Phylum/division Class Order Family Genus Species King Phillip Came Over For Good Soup

Nonvascular plants

Lack vascular tissue Tend to be small Live in moist environments Individual cells are adjacent to environment

Subsurface currents are caused by...

Land masses, Earth's rotation, density of water High salinity water is denser than low salinity water, so water from denser areas flows towards less dense areas

Macromolecule

Large and complex Play important role in cell structure and function

Air masses

Large volumes of air in the troposphere Quickly and easily affected by the land they are above

Charles's Law

Law of volumes. Gases expand when they are heated.

Superposition

Law stating that underground layers closer to the surface were deposited more recently

Hydrosphere

Layer of water or ice covering much of Earth Mostly ocean water

Thunder and lightning

Lighting: discharge of electricity during a thunderstorm Thunder: sonic shock wave caused by rapid expansion of air around lightning

Like charges _____ and opposite charges ______

Like charges repel and opposite charges attract

Tropic of Cancer

Line of latitude about 23 degrees north of the equator Sun is directly overhead at noon on June 21st, marking beginning of summer in Northern hemisphere

Food chain

Linking of organisms based on how they use each other as food sources Each link consumes the link above it and is consumed by link below it

Cytosol

Liquid material in the cell. Mostly water, some floating molecules.

Emuslion

Liquid or solid that has liquid dispersed through it

Sol

Liquid or solid that has solids dispersed through it

Nucleoplasm

Liquid within the nucleus, similar to cytoplasm

Tropic of Capricorn

Located 23.5 degrees south of the equator Sun is directly overhead at noon on December 21st, marking beginning of winter in Northern Hemisphere

Trenches

Long, narrow troughs

Sills

Low parts of ridges separating ocean basins or other seas

Short circuit

Low-resistance connection between two nodes of an electrical circuit. Results in excessive electric current (overcurrent)

Compound

Made of 2 or more different types of atoms

Microtubules

Made of proteins. Part of the cytoskeleton and help support the cell.

Coulomb's Law

Magnitude of the force is... -Directly proportional to the magnitude of the charges. -Inversely proportional to the square distance between the two objects.

Coelem

Main body cavity

Excretory system

Maintains amount of fluids in the body Removes waste from bloody system and excess water through urine Includes: kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra

Autotrophic

Makes their own energy Uses organic carbon for growth Includes all plants

Nomenclature

Manner in which compound is named Different for ionic and non-ionic compounds.

John Dalton

Many contributions to atomic theory All matter consists of atoms Atoms cannot be created or destroyed (conservation)

Planet/moons that may have water

Mars (Curiosity Rover found some evidence) 3 of Jupiter's moons (Europa, Ganymede, Callisto) 2 of Saturn's moon s(Enceladus, Titan)

Physical properties that can be measured without chemical reactions

Mass Weight Volume Color Elasticity Temperature

Biomass

Mass of one and or all of the species in an ecosystem or area

Density

Mass per unit volume Objects more dense than water sink, objects less dense than water float. d=m/v

Mass Weight Volume

Mass: amount of substance Weight: Earth's gravitational pull of object Volume: amount of space occupied

Conductor

Material that provides little resistance to heat transfer between its particles. Metals are good conductors because valence electrons are loosely held, flow between atoms with little resistance.

Insulator

Material that provides resistance to heat transfer between its particles. Materials such as glass, electrons are tightly held to atoms and barely flow at all.

Thermal conductivity

Material's capacity to conduct heat.

Conductors

Materials that allow the movement of electrical charges Have free electrons that can move through object

Insulators

Materials that prevent the moment of electrical charges

Biotic potential

Maximum reproductive capacity of a population given ideal environmental conditions

Enthalpy

Measure of heat content in a system H

Population

Measure of how many individuals exist in a specific area

Latitudinal variation of solar radiation

Measurement of distance from the equator Indicates how much solar radiation that area receives Equator receives more sunlight, polar areas receive less

Mole (mol)

Measurement of molecular weight Avogrado's Number 6.02*10^23

pH (potential hydrogen)

Measurement of the concentration of hydrogen ions in a substance in terms of moles per liter of solution

Ohm

Measurement unit of electric resistance I=V/R Current flow (in amps) = Potential difference (in volts) / resistance (in ohms)

Richter magnitude scale

Measures how much seismic energy was released by an earthquake

Pineal glands

Melatonin-biological clock

Plastid

Membrane-bound organelle in plant cells. Used to make chemical compounds and store food. Contains pigments used during photosynthesis. Can develop into more specialized structures such as chloroplasts.

F1 Generation

Mendel's first generation of offspring.

P1 Generation

Mendel's term for the first generation of true-breeding plants; also known as the parent.

Heterotrophic

Method of getting energy by eating food that has energy-releasing substances

Viruses

Microorganisms that replicate in the cells of other organisms Head consisting of protein, and tail used to attach to and enter host cell Head of virus (protein capsid) contains genetic material (DNA, RNA, or enzymes) Reproduce by gaining control of host cell and making it replicate the viral DNA Some scientists do not consider viruses to be living organisms. Do not meet definition of cell because they are too small and do not have organelles.

Sun

Mid-sized star May be in main sequence for 10 billion years

Hardness

Mineral's resistance to scratches Mohs Hardness Scale, 1-10

Mineraloids

Minerals lacking a crystalline structure

Activation energy

Minimum amount of energy required to start a chemical reaction

Unconformity

Missing layers of rocks A break in the geologic record created when rock layers are eroded or when sediment is not deposited for a long period of time.

Colloidal suspension

Mixture of large particles (dispersants)

Solution (homogenous mixture)

Mixture of two or more different substances that are mixed together, but not combined chemically. Uniform in their composition. Consist of solute (dissolved substance) and solvent (does the dissolving)

3 measures of concentration

Molarity Molality Parts per million (ppm)

Lipids

Molecules that are hydrophobic or amphiphilic. Several functions: storing energy, acting as building block of membrane Examples: fats, triglycerides, steroids, waxes

Nucleotides

Molecules that combine to form DNA and RNA

5 kingdoms

Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia

4 basic building blocks involved in catabolic reactions

Monosaccharides (glucose) Amino acids Fatty acids Nucleotides

Electric current

Motion of charged particles in a given direction Does not produce a net loss or gain of charge

Forms of asexual reproduction

Budding -Offspring starts as growth off parent's body -Ex: Jellyfish, corals, some echinoderms Fragmentation -Individual fragments into different parts, each of which mature into new individual -Ex: Some worms Parthenogenesis -Female produces eggs that develop without being fertilized -Ex: Some fish, insects, frogs, and lizards Self-fertilization -Hermaphroditic individuals has both male and female reproductive parts

Catabolic reactions

Build smaller and less complex molecules from larger ones. Release energy.

Anabolic reactions

Builds larger and more complex molecules from smaller ones. Require energy.

Periodic motion

Motion that is repeated at recurring intervals, such as swinging of a pendulum

Plate waves

Move in elliptical orbits and only occur in very thin pieces of material

Shear/Transverse Wave

Move perpendicular to direction of particle moment Only possible in solids Slower than longitudinal waves

Circular motion

Movement of an object in a rotating circular path

Simple circuit

Movement of electric charge along a path between areas of high electric potential and electric potential. Resistor or load device between them.

3 types of tornadoes

Multiple Vortex Tornado: two or more columns of air Satellite Tornado: weak tornado that forms near large one Waterspout: Tornado over water

A single DNA strand had the sequence GATACCA. Which of the following would complement that DNA strand?

CTATGGT

Vitamin D

Calciferol Salmon, tuna, mackerel, fish liver oil Promotes absorption of elements and strengthens bones

Pedigree analysis

Calculates the chances of a particular trait or combination of traits being expressed in an organism

Probability analysis

Calculates the chances of a particular trait or combination of traits being expressed in an organism

Joule's Law

Calculation for electric power P=V*I Power=volts (potentail difference) * amps (current)

Strong base

Can free protons in weak acids Mostly in first first and second groups on periodic table Ex: hydroxide compounds such as potassium, barium, and lithium hydroxides

Energy

Capacity to do work

4 basic organic macromolecules produced by anabolic reactions

Carbohydrates Nucleic acids Proteins Lipids

Carbohydrates vs. Fats vs. Fiber

Carbohydrates: primary source of energy, easily converted to glucose Fats: Processes vitamins A, D, E, and K, stores energy. Fiber/roughage: Helps excretory system, passes food through digestive system, regulates blood sugar levels

Classifications of animals based on food

Carnivores-meat eaters Herbivores-plant eaters Omnivores-eat plants and meat Parasite-lives off host, which does not benefit Detritivore-consumes organic dead matter

Enzymes 6 classes

Catalyze chemical reactions Oxidoreductase, Transferase, Hydrolase, Lyase, Isomerase, Ligase

Down syndrome

Caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21

Ionizing radiation (3 types)

Causes an electron to detach from an atom 3 types: alpha, beta, and gamma

Gametes

Cells that fuse with one another during sexual reproduction. Each contains half the genetic information of the parent. Haploid (23 chromosomes each), resulting zygote is diploid (46 chromosomes each)

3 scales of measuring temperature

Celsius: Base reference points of water freezing (0) and water boiling (100) Fahrenheit: Base reference points of water freezing (32) and water boiling (212) Kelvin: Absolute temperature scale. 0 marks absolute zero. Water freezing (273.15) and water boiling (373.15).

Proteins

Chains of amino acids linked together into polypeptide chain and folded into particular strucutre. Broken down into amino acids that are used for protein biosynthesis or fuel.

Deepest part of ocean

Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench

Electron affinity (atoms)

Change in energy when a negative ion is formed by adding an electron to a neutral atom.

Genetic drift

Change in frequency of an allele in a population

Motion

Change in the location of an object Result of unbalanced net force acting on the object

Acceleration

Change in the velocity of an object Constant value

Genetic engineering

Changing or manipulating an organism's genes Recombinant DNA, gene splicing, cloning, genetic modification,

Plasmodesmata

Channels between the cell walls of plant cells that allow for transport of cells.

Dietary minerals

Chemical elements that are involved with biochemical functions of the body

Direct current (DC) vs. Alternating current (AC)

DC: electric charge in one direction (i.e. batteries, solar cells) AC: current that periodically reverses direction

Transcription

DNA is copied to mRNA, which carries the information needed for protein synthesis.

Recombinant DNA (rDNA)

DNA that contains genes from more than one source One portion of DNA is removed and replaced with another

DNA bases vs. RNA bases

DNA: A, T, C, G, RNA: A, U, C, G

Diurnal variations

Daily changes in insolation

Mitosis

Daughter cell is exact replica of parent cell

Meiosis

Daughter cells have different genetic coding than parent cell. Only happens in gametes.

Electrolysis

Decomposition of a substance by electric current Ex: Electric current passes through sodium chloride (NaCl) causes sodium (Na) and chlorine gas (Cl2) to form

Mass extinction

Decrease in the number of species over a short period of time Can be classified as major or minor

Cell membrane

Defines cell by acting as barrier. Keeps cytoplasm in and other substances out. Determines what is allowed to enter and exit the cell.

Vectors

Deliver DNA to a cell, and can include viruses and bacterial plasmids

Soil profile

Depicts parallel layers of rock and soil in Earth's crust -Organic matter (non-decomposed organic material) -A: Surface soil (organic substances mixed with minerals) -B: Subsoil (clay and organic substances -C: Parent rock (large, unbroken rock layer) -R Bedrock (layer of primarily unbroken rock)

6 mechanisms of evolution

Descent Mutation Migration Natural selection Genetic variation Genetic drift

Ideal Gas Law

Describes the behavior of gases in terms of pressure, volume, temperature, and number of moles Used to explain properties of gas under ideal pressure, volume, and temperature.

Luster

Determined by reflected light Can be metallic (shiny), sub-metallic (dull), non-metallic (vitreous, like glass), or earthy (like dirt or powder)

Chordata

Deuterostomic Includes humans and all vertebrates

Echinodermata

Deuterostomic marine organisms Have radial symmetry and water vascular system Classes include: -Echinoidea (sea urchins, sand dollars) -Crinoidea (seal lilies) -Asteroidea (starfish) -Ophiuroidea (brittle stars) -Holothuroidea (sea cucumbers)

Transistor

Device made of semi-conductive material that can amplify or switch an electric charge.

Machine

Device that changes the force or increases the motion from work

Resistor

Device used in circuit that opposes flow of an electric charge

Chloride

Dietary element Cell homeostasis and neuron function Found in: Salt

Phosphorus

Dietary element Component of bones and nucleic acid Found in: Meat, nuts, beans

Iodine

Dietary element Component of tyroid hormones Found in: Dairy products, eggs, fish

Potassium

Dietary element Involved in ATP synthesis Found in: Beans., bananas, potatoes

Magnesium

Dietary element Involved in ATP synthesis Found in: Nuts and soy beans

Sodium

Dietary element Involved in cell homeostasis and neuron function Found in: Salt

Calcium

Dietary element Muscle function and bone structure Found in: Dairy products, nuts, leafy green vegetables

Iron

Dietary element Used by proteins (esp. hemoglobin) and enzymes Found in: Green leafy vegetables, red meat

Copper, manganese, molybdenum, selenium, and zinc

Dietary elements Enzyme function Found in: Nuts, whole grains, beans, shellfish, red meat and poultry

Heat of a reaction

Difference between the heat stored in the reactants and in the products ΔH

What causes different states of matter?

Differences in distances and angles between molecules or atoms, results in differences in energy that binds them. Solid: rigid, strong bonds Liquids: move around, weak bonds Gas: move independently, are far apart, do not have bonds Plasma: Ionized gas, electrons are not bound to atom or molecule

Dioecious plants vs. Monoecious plants

Dioecious: male and female flowers are on different plants Monoecious: male and female flowers in one individual -Sepal, petal, stamen (male), pistil (female)

Types of faults

Dip-slip fault: vertical movement along fault plane Strike-slip fault: horizontal movement along fault plane Oblique-slip fault: vertical and horizontal movement

Three basic quantities of motion

Displacement Velocity Acceleration

Atomic radius

Distance from the nucleus to the boundary of the electron cloud

Light year

Distance that light travels in a vacuum in one year 10 trillion km 64,341 AU

Polygenetic inheritance

Multiple genes and environmental factors can affect single trait Example: Genes can determine tall height, but lack of nutrients can prevent one from reaching that height

3 types of evolution

Divergent -2 species become different over time -One species adapting to a different environment Convergent -Two species that start out different, but evolve to share similar traits Parallel -Species that are not similar and do not become more or less similar over time

Lethal allele

Mutated gene that is capable of causing death Example: Cystic Fibrosis and Tay-Sachs disease

Inorganic Compounds

Do not contain carbon AND hydrogen. Examples: mineral salts, metals, alloys, non-metallic compounds High melting points

Invertebrates

Do not have backbone 98% of all species, 30 phyla in all Includes: worms, jellyfish, mollusks, slugs, insects, spiders

Weak base

Does not completely ionize in aqueous solution

Weak acid

Does not donate all of its protons or disassociate completely, does not ionize completely

Chromatins

During cell division, DNA is replicated. Chromatids are two identical replicated pieces of chromosomes that are joined at centromere to form an X.

tRNA anticodon

Each contains 3-nucleotide anticodon sequence that is complimentary 3-nucleotide codon sequence on mRNA Binds to associated codon and brings specified amino acid

Classifications of nutrients

Each supply a specific substance required for survival, growth, and reproduction Carbohydrates Fats Fiber Minerals Proteins Vitamins Water

Which of the following statements about magnets is false?

Earth does not behave as a huge magnet because it is not a magnet.

Neptune

Eighth planet from the Sun Third largest planet Atmosphere mainly composed of hydrogen and helium Very cold Great dark spot 12 moons and fragmented ring system

Special Theory of Relativity

Einstein's theory that states that the speed of light is a constant and the laws of physics are the same in all inertial (non-accelerating) reference frames.

2 categories of waves

Electromagnetic: can transmit energy through a vacuum Mechanical: transmit energy through matter

Cathode ray

Electron beams Negative electrode (cathode) and anode (which has positive charge). Separates electrons from their atoms

Diode

Electronic device used to conduct electric current in one direction. Rectifer

Outer/Valence electrons

Electrons in the farthest level from the nucleus, highest energy level Responsible for chemical properties of element Ones that are shared/transferred to other atoms

Aufbau Principle

Electrons of an atom occupy quantum levels/orbitals starting at the lowest energy level and proceeding to the highest. Each orbital can only contain a maximum of 2 paired electrons that have opposite spins.

Elements with high electronegativity are ___________ because _________

Elements with high electronegativity are highly reactivity because they can easily capture electrons.

3 Glycolic Pathways

Embden-Meyerhof Pathway: Creates pyruvic acid Entner-Doudoroff Pathway: Creates two pyruvate molecules Pentose Phosphate Pathwar: Creates nucleotides, nucleic acids, and amino acids

2 weeks after fertilization

Embryo starts to form yolk sac that will make blood cells, an embryonic disc, and a placenta

Parts of seed

Embryo-small plant that has started to develop, but is paused Endosperm-porteins, carbohydrates, and fats Seed coat-protection from disease, insects, and water

Permanent one-way movement out of the original range

Emigration

Nuclear envelope

Encloses nucleus Consists of inner and outer membrane made of lipids

Ionosphere

Encompasses mesosphere, thermosphere, and parts of exosphere Molecules are partially ionized by solar radiation Affects radio wave transmissions and auroras

Heterosphere

Encompasses thermosphere and exosphere Particles can move large distance without colliding Gas is stratified according to molecular weights -heavier gases (i.e. oxygen, nitrogen) are at bottom -lighter gases (i.e. hydrogen) are at top

Homosphere

Encompasses troposphere, stratosphere, and mesosphere Gases are well mixed

Permian Extinction

End of Paleozoic Era 90% of species became extinct

Endothermic reactions vs. Exothermic reactions

Endothermic: absorb heat Exothermic: release heat Both caused by bonds forming and breaking.

Kinetic energy

Energy of an object in motion KE=mv^2/2 KE=mass*velocity^2 divided by 2

Thermal energy

Energy present in a system due to temperature

Thermal contact

Energy transferred to a body by a means other than work Result: heat is spread out so all objects are in equilibrium and heat can no longer be transferred without additional work

3 layers of skin

Epidermis-thin, outermost, waterproof Dermis-contains sweat glands, oil glands, and hair follicles Subcutaneous-connective tissue and adipose (fat) tissue, nerves, arteries, and veins

4 types of animal tissue

Epithelial Connective Muscle Nervous

Shearline

Evolves from a stationary front that has gotten smaller Wind direction shifts over a short distance

Fungi Kingdom

Ex: mushrooms, yeasts, molds, rusts, mildews Cell walls that have chitin (long polymer of carbohydrate) Different from members of Plant Kingdom because they do not have cell walls made of cellulose

Nuclear isomers

Excited states of atomic nuclei

Dark matter

Existence has not been proven May account for proportion of mass of universe and gravitational forces exerted on visible objects 90% of mass of galaxies Undetectable and does not emit radiation

Types of endocrine glands

Exocrine glands: secrete fluid into ducts Endocrine glands: secrete fluids directly into blood stream

General Relativity

Explanation of gravity as a property of space, time, and space-time.

First American satellite to orbit Earth

Explorer 1 (1958)

Exponential growth vs. Carrying capacity

Exponential growth: Unlimited rising growth rate Carrying capacity: Population size that can be sustained

Co-dominance

Expression of both alleles, so that both traits are shown Example: ABO human blood typing system

Electric potential (voltage)

Expression of potential energy per unit of charge Measure of rate at which energy is drawn from a source to produce flow of electric charge V=E/Q V=electrical potential energy*charge

Tundra

Extreme cold, low precipitation, modified grassland, permafrost

Desert

Extreme hot or cold, sparse vegetation, very low precipitation, reptiles

Supergiant

Extremely bright star of very large diameter and low density Leave main sequence after few million years

Superbase

Extremely strong compared to sodium hydroxide and cannot be kept in an aqueous solution Organized into organic, organometallic, and inorganic classes

Fat soluble vitamins Water soluble vitamins

Fat soluble: A, D, E, K Water soluble: C, B

de novo mutation

Mutations happening only in sex cells or shortly after fertilization Not inherited from either parent

Increasing the temperature will increase the solubility of the ion in solution for this reaction.

NaSCN → Na+ + SCN-, ΔH = 345 kJ/mol

Cloning

Natural cloning: occurs in nature when organism reproduces asexually Unnatural cloning: Genetic engineering of portions of DNA, cells, or entire organisms

Sex-linked traits

Females cannot have genes on Y chromosomes, because they are XX Males can only pass on sex-linked traits to daughters, because get only one X from the mother Colorblindness is recessive on X chromosome, so more common in males because females have better chance of expressing dominant characteristic of not-colorblindness.

Hurricanes

Fierce tropical storms with strong winds Can result from tropical cyclone Classified with Saffir-Simpson Scale (1-5)

Moon

Fifth largest satellite in Solar System Orbits Earth every 27.3 days Phases repeat every 29.5 days Gravitational pull partially responsible for tides on earth Dark thin layers of dark basalt formed by volcanoes Numerous impact craters

Bolide

Fireball that burns up when it enters Earth's atmosphere

Element with highest electronegativity

Fluorine (F) Elements to the left and below have lower levels

Factors effecting population growth

Food Water Space Habitat destruction Competition Disease Predators

Collision theory

For a chemical reaction to occur, atoms or molecules must collide with each other

Law of Conservation of Momentum

For a collision between two bodies with no external forces, the vector sum of the momentums is not affected by the interaction and remains constant

Law of Action-Reaction

For every force, there is an equal and opposite reaction force Ex: when a hammer strikes a nail, the nail hits the hammer just as hard

Gravitational force

Force that causes every object to exert force on every other objects F=G*m1*m2/r^2 F=Gravitational constant*mass1*mass2/distance squared Earth: F=mg g=9.8m/s^2

Friction

Force that opposes motion between two surfaces are in contact

Sound

Form of kinetic energy. Pressure disturbance that moves through a medium in the form of mechanical waves Requires medium to travel through (i.e. air, water)

Thunderstorm

Form when there is moisture to form rain clouds, unstable air (warm air rising quickly), and lift (caused by fronts, sea breezes, and elevated terrains).

Orogeny

Formation of mountains Process of folding and faulting by plate tectonics

Ionic bond

Formed between ions of opposite charge, resulting compound is neutral

Molecule

Formed by chemical bond between atoms Bond occurs at valence level

Oligonucleotides

Formed by linking phosphate groups of individual nucleotides

Kelvin-Helmholtz clouds

Formed by winds with different speeds or directions Look like ocean waves

Hadley cell

Formed directly north and south of the equator

Stationary front

Forms when warm and cold front meet, but neither is strong enough to move the other

James Watson and Francis Crick (1952)

Formulated double-helix model of DNA and speculated about its importance in carrying and transferring genetic information.

Conditions to form a fossil

Fossil must not be damaged by predators and scavengers after death Must not fully decompose Usually happens with organism is quickly covered by sediment. Molecules in the organism's body are replaced by minerals

Fossil records

Fossils and where they are in rock strata

Epithelial tissue

Found on body surfaces and lining body cavities Functions: protection, chemical secretion, chemical absorption, responding to external stimuli Moves substances in, around, and out of body Cells contain no blood vessels, must receive nourishment from underlying tissue

Mars

Fourth planet from the Sun Reddish due to ion oxide on surface Thin atmosphere Similar orbit and seasonal cycles to earth Has volcanoes, valleys, deserts, ice caps, mountains, and canyons

Electromagnetic spectrum is defined by..

Frequency (f) Wavelength (λ) Frequency is inversely proportional to wavelength f=c/λ c=speed of slight

Geostationary orbit

Geosynchronous orbit that is circular and at zero inclination. Located directly above the equator. Useful for communications satellites because they are fixed in the same spot relative to earth.

Glycolysis

Glucose is converted to pyruvate and energy stored in ATP bonds is released

Which of the following statements is NOT true of glycolysis?

Glycolysis only occurs in plant cells.

Proteins involved in DNA replication

Helicase: Unwinds double helix SSB: Prevents strands from joining back together Primase: Forms short trands or RNA, starting point for replication DNA polymerase: Links nucleotides RNase H: Removes primers Ligase: Links existing shorter strands into longer strand

Zooplankton

Heterotrophic Feed on phytoplankton Can be single celled, or much larger (i.e. jellyfish, crustaceans, mollusks)

What distinguishes the animal kingdom from other kingdoms?

Heterotrophic-use organic carbon for growth, make their own energy Reproduce sexually (with some exception) Cells do not have cell walls or photosynthetic pigments Can move at some stage in life Specialized tissues like nerves and muscles allow rapid responses to environment

Cloud altitudes

High clouds: 5,000-13,000 meters Middle clouds: 2,000-7,000 meters Low clouds: Surface-2,000 meters

Biomes

High latitudes, least sunlight (tundra and taiga) Mid latitudes (grassland, temperate forest, chaparral) Close to equator, most sunlight/warmest (tropical rainforest and desert) Ocean: water that spans entire globe

Chromosomes

Highly condensed, threadlike rods of DNA

Solutions

Homogenous mixtures composed of 2 or more substances that have become one

Population dynamics

How a population changes over time and the factors that cause changes

Electronegativity

How capable an atom is of attracting a pair of bonding electrons. In a bond of 2 atoms, one exerts slightly more force than the other (dipole).

Biochemical cycles

How chemical elements required by living organisms cycle between living and nonliving organisms

Fracture/Cleavage

How mineral reacts to stress or breaks

Nuclear Fusion

How stars produce energy Hydrogen converted to helium and energy released in form of gamma rays 4 hydrogen nuclei fused into one helium nucleus

Coriolis Effect

In Northern Hemisphere, gyres flow clockwise, in Southern Hemisphere, they flow counter-clockwise Due to fact that Earth is rotating object, gyres flow in opposite direction of Earth's poles

Lysosome

In animal cells, digests proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates, transports undigested substances to cell membrane to be removed.

Cancerous cells

In cancer cells, DNA or gene structure is disrupted. Abnormal numbers of chromosomes can develop, can create energy differently, etc. Overpopulate system and overload system resources.

Mendel's Laws

1. Law of Segregation -2 alleles, half of the total number of alleles are contributed by each parent 2. Law of Independent Assortment -Traits are passed on randomly and not influenced by other traits

DNA replication

1. Pair of chromosomes composed of tightly wound DNA, unwinds 2. Enzyme helicase causes hydrogen bonds to deform, thus splitting the two strands 3. Each strand is transcribed by mRNA onto itself

Sulfur-35 has a half-life of 87.51 days. How long will it take for 125 grams of sulfur-35 to decay into 50 grams of sulfur-35?

In order to calculate the elapsed time, you take the half-life x log (beginning amount / ending amount) / log 2. For the problem given, the elapsed time is calculated as follows: = 87.51 X (log [125 / 50] / log 2) = 87.51 X (log 2.5 / log 2) = 87.51 X (0.39794 / 0.30103) = 87.51 X 1.32193 = 115.68 days

Static electricity

A buildup of charges on an object Net electric charge is non-zero, motionless, and produces electrostatic discharge in two objects brought together Objects charged are changed to achieve balance.

Energy transformation

A change from one form of energy to another

Parallel circuit

A circuit that contains more than one path for current flow. Same voltage across all paths, though current may be different.

Series circuits

A circuit that has only one path for the electric current to follow. If path is broken then the current no longer will flow and all the devices in the circuit stop working.

North Atlantic Oscillation

A climatic occurrence that affects winter weather in the Northern Hemisphere.

Elastic collision

A collision in which colliding objects rebound without lasting deformation or the generation of heat. Total kinetic energy between the two bodies before the collision equals the total kinetic energy after the collision

Ecosystem

A community of species and all of the environmental factors that affect them

Blazar

A compact quasar associated with galaxies containing supermassive black holes

Protostar

A contracting cloud of gas and dust with enough mass to form a star Only becomes star if it achieves critical core temperature. Otherwise becomes brown dwarf or gas giant.

Monohybrid cross

A cross between two individuals, concentrating on only one definable trait

Dihybrid cross

A cross between two individuals, concentrating on two definable traits

Transformer

A device that increases or decreases the voltage of alternating current Uses induction to transfer current from one circuit to another

Van de Graaf generator

A device that produces a large amount of static charge Typically composed of hollow metal ball and belt

Quasar

A distant galaxy with a black hole at its center Quasi-stellar radio source Emit large amounts of electromagnetic energy (i.e. radio waves and light)

Waves (types)

A disturbance that transfers energy through matter or space. Types: -Longitudinal waves -Shear/Transverse waves -Surface (circular) waves -Plate waves

Electric field

A field of force surrounding a charged particle Direction of positive force: away Direction of negative force: towards it

Nebula

A large cloud of dust and gas Composed primarily of hydrogen (97%) and helium (3%)

Foam

A liquid that has gas dispersed through it

Triboelectric series

A list of materials that shows what materials are most likely to become positive or negative

Ferromagnetic material

A material that is strongly attracted to a magnet, and which can be made into a magnet.

Superconductor

A material that, at low temperatures, has almost zero resistance to heat transfer.

Entropy

A measure of disorder or randomness. Everything becomes less organized and orderly over time.

Refractive index

A measure of how greatly a substance slows the velocity of light The smaller the refractive index, the faster the light moves through medium

Watt

A measure of power Equal to one joule of work per second.

Calorimeter

A measuring instrument that determines quantities of heat

Suspension

A mixture in which particles can be seen and easily separated by settling or filtration

Anion

A negatively charged ion

Induction

A neutral conductive material can become charged by a positively or negatively charged object. Charged object is placed close to material without touching it. Produces force on the free electrons in material, either attracted to or repelled by charged object. Polarizes the charge within neutral object.

Karyotype

A picture of all the chromosomes in a cell arranged in pairs Based on sample of blood or skin

Cation

A positively charged ion

Fuse

A safety device with a thin metal strip that will melt if too much current passes through a circuit Must be replaced after one-time use.

Electrolyte

A substance that dissolves in water to give a solution that conducts electric current Substance that is ionized in water Good conductors of electricity Strong: salt Weak: acids and bases

Nonelectrolyte

A substance that dissolves in water to give a solution that does not conduct an electric current

Sedimentary rock

A type of rock that forms when particles from other rocks or the remains of plants and animals are pressed and cemented together Formed by process of lithification (intense compaction, expulsion of liquids from pores, and cementation of pre-existing rock) when under extreme temperatures and pressure 3 groups: detrital, biogenic, chemical

Displacement vector

A vector that spans the object's displacement in the direction of travel

4 possible blood types

A, B, AB, 0 Produced by combinations of three alleles 0 is recessive, A and B can be co-dominant

The biogeography of a tropical island is affected by numerous factors, including which of the following?

A. Volcanic activity and prevailing winds B. Distance from other land masses C. Human, insect, and plant populations D. Only A and C *E. A, B, and C

Gene migration

AKA "gene flow" Movement of alleles to another population. Can occur through immigration or emigration.

Homeostasis

Ability and tendency of an organism, cell, or body to adjust to environmental changes and maintain equilibrium

Absolute age vs. Relative age

Absolute age: specific number of years Relative age: refers to a time range

Acid/Base reactions

Acid is a compound that can donate a proton, base is a compound that can accept a proton Acid and base react to form a salt and water

Anything with pH lower than water (7)

Acidic H+ Ex: urine, vinegar, stomach acid

Lewis Theory

Acids are electron-pair acceptors and bases are electron-pair donors

Bronsted-Lowry Theory

Acids are proton donors and bases are proton acceptors

Dispersion

Action of distributing radiation according to wavelength, such as light into colors

Mimicry

Adaptation against predation Organism has appearance similar to another species, meant to fool predator into thinking it is more dangerous than it really is

Decreasing the temperature will increase the solubility of the ion in solution for this reaction.

AgI → Ag+ + I-, ?H = -15 kJ/mol

Mesozoic Era

Age of Dinosaurs Ended around 65 Ma Dinosaurs, mammals, birds Trees: gymnosperms and angiosperms Supercontinent Pangaea divided into continental pieces that exist today

Cenozoic Era

Age of Mammals Began around 65.5 Ma, continues to present day Began with Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event 3 periods: Paleogene, Neogene, Quaternary Mammals evolved

Rocks

Aggregates of one or more minerals, may also contain mineraloids

Cloud formation

Air cools and warm air must give up water vapor that it can no longer hold Vapor condenses and forms clouds

Tropospheric circulation

Air near equator is warmed by Sun and rises Cool air rushes under it and warmer air flows towards Earth's poles At poles, air cools down and descends, then flows back to equator

First American space flight

Alan Shepard (1961) Mercury-Redstone 3

In-Phase waves vs. Out-of-Phase waves

In-Phase: Waves originate at same point, crests and valleys are exactly aligned -displacement is doubled Out-of-Phase: Peak of one aligns with valley of another -cancel each other out In between: wave interaction is sum of amplitudes of all points along wave

Inclined Plane Lever Wheel/axle Single or Double Pulley

Inclined Plane: enables force less than object's weight to push object to greater height Lever: Enables multiplication of force Wheel and Axle: Allows for movement with less resistance Single or Double Pulley: Allows for easier direction of force

Nervous system

Includes brain, spinal cord, and nerves Intrabody communication, responses to stimuli, interaction with environment Uses electrochemical signals Controls voluntary and involuntary muscle movements

Insolation

Incoming solar radiation Greatest at noon

Biomagnification

Increase in concentration of a substance within a food chain Example: more mercury in water → more mercury eaten by fish → more mercury eaten in humans Effected by persistence of chemical and whether or not it is broken down by organisms

Catalyst

Increase reaction rates by decreasing number of steps it takes to form products

Alfred Russell Wallace (1823-1913)

Independently developed theory of evolution by natural selection. Believed in transmutation of species (one species develops into another)

Spectral lines

Indicate change in electrical level of an atom. When electron transitions from one orbit to another, photos are emitted (goes lower) or absorbed (goes higher)

Morgan-Keenan Classification System Letters

Indicate heat OBAFGKM "Oh be a fine guy, kiss me" O-blue A-white G-yellow M-red

Morgan-Keenan Classification System Roman numerals

Indicate luminosity/size I: Supergiants III: Giants V: Main sequence stars

Atomic Number

Indicates the number of protons

Polymorphism

Individual differences of form among the members of a species May have started as gene mutations, now part of normal variation in species

Big Bang Theory

All matter in universe was once in one place. Huge explosion spread that matter into space and it is still expanding. Other theories: Steady-State Theory, Intelligent Design

Vertebrates

All members of Phylum Chordata Have backbones and endoskeletons Two cavities: -Thoracic cavity (heart, lungs) -Abdominal cavity (digestive organs

Metabolism

All of the chemical reactions that take place within a living organism. Convert nutrients to energy and macromolecules

Nuclide

All the atomic nuclei containing a specified number of protons and neutrons. All the isotopes of all elements are nuclides.

Ion

An atom that has lost or gained an electron Cation: Positive, lost electron Anion: Negative, gained electron

Voltage

An electromotive force or potential difference expressed in volts. The difference in electrical potential energy between two places in a circuit.

Human Genome Project

An international collaborative effort to map and sequence the DNA of the entire human genome

Law of Acceleration

An object's acceleration is directly proportional to the net force acting on the object, and inversely proportional to the object's mass F=ma Net force=mass*acceleration

Doppler Effect

An observed change in the frequency of a wave when the source or observer is moving.

Fermentation

Anaerobic reaction in which glucose is only partially broken down. Releases energy through oxidation of sugars and other organic molecules.

Community

Any number of species interacting within a given area

Matter

Anything that has mass and occupies space (has volume) 4 states: solid, liquid, gas, plasma

Cilia

Appendages extending from the surface of the cell, help cell to move.

Biome

Area in which species are associated because of climate 6 main biome: -desert -tropical rain forest -grassland -coniferous forest -deciduous forest -tundra

Epicenter

Area on Earth's surface directly above the point where the earthquake originates

Types of muscle

Skeletal -Strong, fast, and capable of voluntary contraction -Striated and cylindrical, 25 nuclei -Consists of 2 types of myofilaments (actin and myosin) that slide against each other during contraction Smooth -Weak, slow, and usually involuntary -Smooth, not striated, spindle shaped, one nucleus -Examples: blood vessels, parts of eye, uterus Cardiac -Strong, fast, continuously contracts involuntarily -Found in myocardium of heart -More similar to skeletal muscle than smooth muscle

3 types of muscle tissue

Skeletal (striated) Smooth Cardiac

If electronegative difference between atoms is small... If electronegative difference between atoms is large... If there is no electronegativity...

Small difference: polar covalent bond Large difference: ionic bond No electronegativity: nonpolar covalent bond

Founder's effect

Small group breaks away from larger population and forms isolated population. Leads to greater expression of certain genetic traits than would be observed in larger population. Example: Amish are descended from 30 people and only breed with each other. One of the founders had extremely rare Ellis-Van Creveld Syndrome, now found in 1 in 200 Amish.

Monomer

Small molecule. Single compound that forms chemical bonds with other monomers to make a polymer.

Microbe

Small organism that is only visible through microscope Example: virus, bacteria, fungi, protozoa

Asteroid

Small rocky body orbiting the sun

Red dwarf

Small star, low temperatures, red color Burn hydrogen slowly and remain in main sequence for hundreds of billions of years

Atomic mass unit (amu)

Smallest unit of mass

Common salts

Sodium chloride (NaCl) Sodium bisulfate Potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) Calcium Chloride (CaCl2)

Solid state device

Solid materials in which charge carriers are contained entirely within the material.

Decreasing the temperature will increase the solubility of the ion in solution for this reaction: AgI → Ag+ + I-, ?H = -15 kJ/mol

Solubility decreases when the temperature is raised in an exothermic solution reaction.

Mineral

Naturally occurring, inorganic solids with definite chemical composition and orderly internal crystal structure

Centriole

Near nucleus in animal cells, involved in cellular division. Occur in pairs.

Nucleoside

Nitrogenous base bound only to sugar Any of the five bases of DNA/RNA can become nucleosides

Simple machine

No internal source of energy Ex: plane, lever, wheel, axle, pulley

Pauli Exclusion Principle

No more than two electrons can be in the same quantum state in one energy level.

Dielectric

Nonconducting substance of electric current that can sustain an electric field or maintain polarization. Different from insulator, which is used to prevent flow of current.

Bryophyta

Nonvascular mosses and liverworts Have root-like parts called rhizoids Live in moist environments

Mutations

Normal gene sequence is altered The source of all genetic diversity Can result from environmental factors (chemicals, radiation) or errors during replication

Particle size effect on solubility

Solubility increases when solute particle size decreases

Vitamins (and 2 classifications)

Not made by the body, but obtained through the diet. 2 classifications: water soluble or fat soluble

Nucleoid

Nucleus-like, irregularly shaped mass of DNA that contains chromatin in prokaryotic cells.

Isobar

Nuclides that have the same mass number/same number of nucleons but differing numbers of protons and neutrons.

Isotone

Nuclides that have the same number of neutrons but different numbers of protons Example: carbon-14, nitrogen-15, and oxygen-16 all have 8 neutrons, so they are isotones of each other

What does row number on periodic table refer to?

Number of electron shell layers in use by those elements

Group/Family (periodic table)

Number of electrons in outermost shell is the same for all members of group. Similar properties.

Atomic number

Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom Z

Charge of an atom

Number of protons minus number of electrons

Species diversity

Number of species within a community and their populations

Vitamin E

Nuts, seeds, vegetable oils Antioxidant and plays roles in enzyme catalysis

Thermodynamic equilibrium

Objects that have the same temperature because heat is transferred between them

Farell cell

Occur at about 30* to 60* Jet streams run between Farell cells and polar cells

Intermolecular forces

Occur between stable molecules or functional groups of macromolecules Weaker than ionic and covalent bonds and quickly formed and broken

Rift valleys

Occur when plates spread apart and depression is formed Happen on land and in ocean

Eclipse of the Moon

Occurs during Full Moon Moon passes through shadow of Earth and blocks sunlight from illuminating it 2 parts of shadow: -Umbra: dark inner region, Sun is completely blocked -Penumbra: Partially lighted area

Eclipse of the Sun

Occurs during New Moon Moon passes in front of Sun and blocks it from view

Equinox

Occurs twice a year when Sun crosses plane of Earth's celestial equator. Earth is not tilted away from or towards the Sun. Length of day and night are equal.

Diffraction

Occurs when an object causes a wave to change direction and bend around it

Projectile motion

Occurs when object thrown into air near the earth's surfaces moves along an arched path under the effect of gravity alone

Positron Decay

Occurs when the nucleus emits a particle that degrades into a positron as it passes out of the atom.

Neutralization, Acid-Base, or Proton Transfer reaction

One compound acquires H+ from another Usually also double displacement reaction Forms a salt

Single Substitution, Displacement, or Replacement reactions

One reactant is displaced by another to form the final product A + BC → B + AC

Bottleneck

Only small percentage of population survives a disaster/population is greatly reduced Reduced allele diversity, leads to entire alleles being eliminated from species Can lead to increased inability to adapt (Ex: hurricane killed all but 30 people on an island, one survivor had recessive color blindness. Now 10% of the 2,000 descendents are colorblind)

Multiple alleles

Only two alleles make up a gene, when there are three or more, it is known as multiple alleles. Gene where two alleles or more alleles are possible is polymorphic.

3 types of thermodynamic systems

Open: Can interact with surrounding environment and can exchange heat, energy, and matter outside the system Isolated: Can exchange heat and energy, but not matter Closed: Cannot exchange heat, energy, or matter. Total energy and mass stay the same.

Electrical generator

Opposite of a motor Does not create electricity, convert mechanical energy into electric energy Like a motor: uses electromagnetic field and permanent magnet to achieve electromagnetic induction

Inverter

Opposite of rectifier. Converts direct current to alternating current.

Electrons

Orbit different levels around atom's nucleus Changing or releasing energy can change location of their orbit or allow them to break free of atom

Halley's Comet

Orbits the Sun every 76 years 80% water, also includes carbon dioxide, ammonia, and methane

Ecologic succession (2 types)

Orderly progression of change within a community Primary Succession: over hundreds of years -Ex: rock turns to sand, leads to soil, leads to trees Secondary Succession: major disturbance -Ex: wildfire or construction of a dam

5 major extinction events

Ordovician-Silurian Permian-Triassic Late Devonian Triassic-Jurassic Cretaceous-Tertiary

Chloroplasts

Organelle involved in photosynthesis, transfers sunlight into food energy. Contains chlorophyll, which gives it the green color.

How oxygen came to Earth

Original atmosphere did not contain molecular oxygen (O2) Oxygen combined with irons in ocean to form iron formations Oxygen began to "gas out" of ocean, then the great oxygen event lead to large amounts of oxygen Led to extinction of anaerobic organisms and increase in aerobic organisms. Eventually led to development of eukaryotic cells and more complex life forms

Valence layer

Outermost electron shell of atom in its uncombined state Number of electrons in shell determines atom's bonding behavior Can hold 8 electrons

Valence shell

Outermost electron shell, contains the valence electrons

Hormones secreted by ovaries, testes, and placenta

Ovaries: estrogen and progesterone Testes: testosterone Placenta: chorionic gonadotropin

Most abundant elements on Earth

Oxygen (O) Silicon (Si) Aluminum (AI)

How electrons effect magnetic fields

Pairs of electrons that spin and orbit in oppsoite directions cancel each other out, net magnetic field fo zero Materials with unpaired electrons are magnetic

Parsec

Parallax of one arcsecond 31 trillion km 3.26 lightyears

Meristem

Part of plants where new cells are formed through mitosis Lateral (cambium) meristems: meristems responsible for secondary growth/girth Apical meristems: on tip of stem, vegetative propagation results in stems, leaves, and lateral meristems

Radioactivity

Particles emitted from nuclei as a result of nuclear instability

Quarks

Particles of matter that make up protons and neutrons

Electron configuration

Pattern by which electrons fill shells and subshells in an element in a particular order and with a particular number. Energy levels do not have to be completely filled before the next one can began. Seven shells: Shell 1 is closest to nucleus and Shell 2 is farthest

To melt this substance, metallic attractions must be overcome

Pb

To melt this substance, ionic attractions must be overcome.

PbS

Lead and Sulfur (PbS)

PbS is held together with ionic attractions, which will need to be overcome in order to melt that substance.

Vesicle

Performances various functions, including moving materials within a cell.

Perihelion vs. Aphelion

Perihelion: Point in object's orbit when it is closest to the Sun Aphelion: Point in object's orbit when it is farthest from the Sun

3 major processes used by plants

Photosynthesis -Uses sunlight to make food for plants Transpiration -Evaporates water out of plants -Mainly during photosynthesis, water released through stomata -Helps cool leaves Respiration -Metabolizing sugars to create energy for growth and reproduction -Sugars are burned, energy is released, oxygen is used, and water and carbon dioxide are produced (Oxygen+Glucose →Carbon Dioxide+Water+Energy)

Deuterostomic phyla

Phylas of animals that have anuses formed from blastopores 2 phyla: Echinodermata and Chordata

Vitamin K

Phylloquinone Leafy green vegetables Involved in blood formation

Platyhelminthes

Phylum of flatworms Organs and bilateral symmetry Three layers of tissue: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm Classes include: -Turbellaria (planarian) -Trematoda (lung, liver, and blood fluke parasites)

Cnidaria

Phylum of hydrozoa, jellyfish, and obelia Radial symmetry, sac-like bodies, and polyp or medusa body plans Diploblastic-have ectroderm and endoderm Get food through a cavity, but they do not have anuses

Arthropoda

Phylum of joint-legged invertebrates External skeletons, joint appendages, bilateral symmetry, nerve cords, open circulatory systems, and sense organs Classes include: -Crustacea (lobster, barnacles) -Hexapoda (all six-legged, winged insects) -Myriapoda (centipedes and millipedes) -Chelicerata (horseshoe crab and arachnids)

Nematoda

Phylum of roundworms Non-segmented Have pseudocoelom (not completely enclosed in mesoderm) Digestive tacts runs directly from mouth to anus Includes hookworms and many other parasites

Annelida

Phylum of segmented worms (have repeated units and nerve trunk) True coelems enclosed within mesoderm Classes include: -Oligochaeta (earthworms) -Polychaeta (clam worms) -Hirudinea (leeches)

Porifera

Phylum of sponges No coelom, get food as water flows through them Found in marine and sometimes freshwater environments Perforated and diplobastic (two layers of cells)

Mollusca

Phylum which all have a soft body and muscular foot Classes include: -Bivalvia (clams, mussels, oysters), -Gastropoda (snails and slugs), -Cephalopoda (octopus, squid)

Phenotype

Physical, visual manifestation of genes. Determined by basic genetic information and how genes have been affected by their environment

Physical changes vs. Chemical reactions

Physical: -Do not result in different substance or change its composition Chemical: -Electron configuration changes

Magnet

Piece of metal that can affect another substance within its field of force that has like characteristics Has northern and southern poles Like poles repel, opposite poles attract

3 aspects of sound

Pitch: Quality of sound, determined by frequency (hertz). Loudness: Human's perception of sound intensity (decibels). Timbre: Human's perception of type or quality of sound.

Solar system

Planetary system of objects that exist in ecliptic plane Planets, dwarf planets, moons, asteroids, meteoroids, cosmic dust, and comets, all orbit around the sun.

Plant cells vs. Animal cells

Plant cells -Cell walls made of cellulose, allow them to handle high levels of pressure within cell -Chloroplasts used during photosynthesis -One large vacuole -Cellular reproduction: build cell plate between two new cells -Larger than animal cells Animal cells -No cell walls or chloroplasts -Many small vacuoles -Cellular reproduction: pinch in half

Photoperiodism

Plants are affected by seasons and the amount of daylight that occurs in each season Amount of daylight triggers flowering, growth, and leaves falling Long day plants: flower when days are longer Short day plants: flower when days are shorter Day neutral plants

Increasing the temperature will increase the solubility of the ion in solution for this reaction: NaSCN → Na+ + SCN-, ΔH = 345 kJ/mol

Solubility increases when the temperature is raised in endothermic solution reactions. According to Le Chatelier's principle, the reaction will respond by using the heat and dissolving more into solution.

Buffer

Solution whose pH remains constant when a small amount of acid or base is added Usually made of weak acid and its proton receiver, or weak base and its proton donator Ex: blood

Diplacement

Something moves from one place to another

Black hole

Space where gravitational field is so powerful that everything, including light, is pulled into it. Once objects enter the surface (the event horizon) they cannot escape.

Prezygotic barriers to reproduction

Spatial (separated by distance) Geographical (physical barrier) Habitat (different habitats) Temporal (reach sexual maturity at different times of year) Behavioral (mating rituals only attract certain species) Mechanical (physiological structural differences prevent mating or transfer of gametes) Gametic isolation (gametes may be incompatible)

Adaptive radiation

Speciation occurs through adapting to an environment through natural selection. Many different species can evolve from common ancestor, because they each evolved different ways to adapt.

Velocity

Speed in a given direction 2 types: average velocity and instantaneous velocity

Special Relativity

Speed of light in a vacuum is same for all observers and their relative motion or motion of the source of light does not affect this Explains why time runs slower the faster you move.

3 weeks after fertilization

Spinal cord, brain, muscles, bones, and face begin to form Cardiac cells begin to beat

First satellite to orbit Earth

Sputnik I (1957) Soviet Union

Types of epithelial tissue

Squamous (flattened) Cuboidal (cube-shaped) Columnar (elongated) Simple (one layer) Stratified (multiple layers)

Tropism -Geotropic -Plagiotropic -Phototropic -Thigmotropic

Plants grow in response to specific stimuli Geotropic-grow as a response to gravity -Roots are positively geotropic (grow towards gravity -Stems are negatively geotropic (grow away from gravity) Plagiotropic-Grow at right angels to gravity (branches) Photropic-Plants bend and grow towards the light Thigmotropic-How plants respond to contact

Hertsprung-Russell diagram (H-R diagram)

Plot/scattergraph depicting stars' temperatures and comparing them with stars' luminosities or magnitudes. Can help determine the age and evolutionary state of the star. AKA color-magnitude diagram (CMD)

Surface winds-from North Pole to South Pole

Polar High Easterlies Subpolar Low Westerlies Subtropical High/Horse Latitudes North-East Trade winds Equatorial Low/Doldrums South-East Trade winds Subtropical High/Horse Latitudes Subpolar Low Easterlies Polar High

Gene

Portion of DNA that identifies how traits are expressed and passed on in an organism. Part of genetic code.

Light

Portion of electromagnetic spectrum able to stimulate retina Absorbed and emitted by electrons, atoms, and molecules that move from one energy level to another Range from 380 nm (violet) to 760 nm (red)

Oxidation number

Positive or negative number that indicates how many electrons an atom has gained, lost, or shared to become stable

Paramagnetic materials

Possess some unpaired electrons and become weakly magnetic in an external magnetic field

Scientists divide the history of Earth into eras. Which of the following arranges these eras into their proper sequence from oldest to most recent?

Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Cenozoic (PPMC = Papa Papa Morgan Collier)

5 types of relationships between species

Predation: relationship in which one individual kills and feeds on another Commensalism: interspecific relationship in which one organism benefits Mutualism: relationship in which both organisms benefit Competition: relationship in which both organisms are harmed Parasitism: relationship in which one organism benefits and the other is harmed

Fossils

Preservations of animals, plants, their remains, or their traces Date back to 10,000 years ago

Atmospheric pressure

Pressure caused by weight of atmosphere Affected by both temperature and altitude

Water

Prevents dehydration since water is lost through excretory system and perspiration

Deposition (sedimentation)

Previously eroded material is transported or added to a land form or land mass

Ecosystem stability

Stable ecosystem is perfect efficient Seasonal changes and climate fluctuations are balanced by homeostasis Waste disposal and nutrient replenishment by recycling is complete System uses sunlight as energy source Biodiversity remains Populations are stable and don't over-consume resources

Morgan-Keenan Classification System

Star classification system based on spectral traits that indicate the ionization of the chromosphere OBAFGKM: Hottest to coolest 0-9: Tenths between 2 star classes Roman numerals (I, II, III, IV): Luminosity/size

After star's main sequence it...

Star expands to become red giant Can then become a white dwarf, and then a black dwarf Massive stars become red (sometimes blue) supergiants and explode in a supernova, then become neutron stars Largest stars become black holes

Main sequence star

Star that is fusing hydrogen into helium (nuclear fusion) in its core and has a stable balance of outward pressure from core nuclear fusion and gravitational forces pushing inward. In core, temperature, density, and pressure increase as star contracts to compensate for heat and light energy lost.

Matter in universe is organized into...

Stars Galaxies Clusters of galaxies Superclusters Great Wall of galaxies

Biological Species Concept (BSC)

States that a species is a community of individuals that can reproduce and have a niche in nature

2 types of deformations created by earthquake

Static: permanently displaces ground Dynamic: motions that take form of seismic waves

Types of low clouds

Stratus (St): gray and fog-like, take up whole sky Stratocumulus (Sc): low-lying, lumpy gray clouds Nimbostratus (Ns): dark gray clouds with uneven bases that indicate rain or snow

Meteor

Streak of light from meteoroid in Earth's atmosphere AKA: shooting star

Heat wave

Stretch of hotter than normal weather Form if a warm high-pressure weather system stalls in an area

Superacids

Stronger than 100% sulfuric acid Ex: fluoroantimonic, magic, perchloric acids

4 levels of protein structures

Primary: amino acid sequence Secondary: sub-structures formed by hydrogen bonding between polar groups in protein background Tertiary: interaction between different elements of secondary structure to form folded geometric shape Quaternary: interaction of one or more folded polypeptide chains to form a multi-subunit protein

Mineralogy

Study of minerals

Nonrandom mating

Probability of two individuals mating in a population is not the same for all pairs. Can be caused by geographic isolation, small populations, etc. Can lead to inbreeding, which causes decline in physical fitness and reduction of allele frequency.

Cellular differentiation

Process by which a cell changes and specializes to carry out a specific role

Chemiosmosis

Process by which energy is made available for ADP to form ATP.

Isomerization (rearrangement) reaction

Process of forming a compounders isomer. Within a compound, bonds are reformed. Reactant and product have same molecular formula but different structural formula and different properties A → B or A → A'

Ionization

Process of neutral particles gaining charges

Geology

Study of planet Earth as it pertains to the composition, structure, an dorigin of rocks

Functions of mitochondria

Production of cell energy Cell signaling (inter-cell communication) Cellular differentiation (cell transforms to one with specialized purpose) Cell cycle, reproduction and growth regulation

Gametogenesis

Production of haploid gametes

Spermatogenesis

Production of sperm

Oogenesis

Production, growth, and maturation of ovum (egg)

Monera Kingdom

Prokaryotes Unicellular organisms or colonies

Prokaryotic cells vs. Eukaryotic cells

Prokaryotic cells: -No membrane-enclosed nucleus or membrane-enclosed organelles; -Haploid and divide by binary fission -Only in the domains Bacteria and Archaea Eukaryotic cells: -Membrane-enclosed nucleus and membrane enclose organelles -Diploid and divide by mitosis -Examples: protists, plants, fungi, animals

Endocrine hormones

Proteins or steroids Steroid hormones (anabolic steroids) help control the manufacture of protein in muscles and bones

Restriction enzymes

Proteins that can recognize portions of DNA strands and cleave them at certain points

Nucleon

Proton or neutron

Skin system

Provides barrier against disease, regulates body temperature through perspiration, makes chemicals and hormones, provides place for nerves Includes skin, hair, nails, sense receptors, sweat glands, and oil glands

Immune system

Provides protection against disease, microscopic organisms, and foreign substances Lymph vessels move lymph fluid through body and produces antibodies Includes: lympathic system, lymph nodes, lymph vessels, thymus, and spleen

Closest star to solar system

Proxima Centauri 270,000 AU's away

Pteridophytes vs. Spermatophytes

Pteridophytes -Plants that use spores, not seeds, to reproduce -Include psilophyte (wisk fern), lycophyta (club mosses), sphenophyta (horsetails), and pterophyta (ferns) Spermatophytes -Plants that use seeds to reproduce -Includes gymnosperms (flowerless plants that use naked seeds) and angiosperms (flowering plants that contain seeds in fruit)

Warm front

Pushed up by a fast moving cold front Results in cirrus and cirrostratus clouds

5 nitrogenous bases (2 groups)

Pyrimidine bases: Cytosine (C), Thymine (T), Uracil (U) Purine bases: Adenine (A) and Guanine (G)

Work

Quantity of energy that must be transferred by one system to another to overcome an external force Ex: Lifting object into air, opposing force is gravity Measured in joules (J)

Ecology

Study of plants, animals, their environments, and how they interact

Petrology

Study of rocks, including their composition, texture, structure, occurrence, mode of formation, and history

Meteorology

Study of the atmosphere, particularly forecasting and understanding weather

Cosmology

Study of the universe

Chronostratigraphy

Subfield of stratigraphy Relative dating of rock strata based on time of rock formation

Magnetostratigraphy

Subfield of stratigraphy Study of changes in detrital remnant magnetism (DRM), used to measure polarity of Earth's magnetic field at time a stratum was deposited

Biostratigraphy

Subfield of stratigraphy Study of fossil evidence in rock layers

Lithostratigraphy

Subfield of stratigraphy Study of vertical layering of rock types

Elements

Substance consisting of only one type of atom Cannot be broken down into simpler substances

mRNA

RNA strand that migrates form the nucleus to the cytoplasm; also known as messenger RNA.

Electromagnetic waves (smallest to largest)

Radio waves Microwaves Infrared radiation Visible light Ultraviolet radiation X-rays Gamma rays

Cell size

Range from 10-100 micrometers Nucleus: About 6 micrometers

Immiscible

Substance that cannot be blended or used to form homogenous substance Will stay separated or will separate into layers Antonym: miscible

pH indicator

Substance that detects hydrogen or hydronium ions Halochromic-colors change to indicate that hydrogen or hydronium ions are present Ex: pH paper, litmus paper, phenolphthalein

Compounds

Substances containing 2 or more elements Formed by chemical reactions Have different properties than original elements Cannot be separated by physical reaction, but be decomposed by chemical reaction

Arrhenius Acid-Base Theory

Substances that ionize to form positive hydrogen ions (H+) in aqueous solution are acids Substances that produce hydroxide ions (OH-) in aqueous solutions are bases

8 classes of minerals

Sulfides Oxides/Hydroxides Halides Carbonates Sulfates Phosphates Silicates

Mass number

Sum of neutrons and protons in the nucleus

Solstice

Summer Solstice: Day with most amount of sunlight -June 21st in Northern Hemisphere and December 21st in Southern Hemisphere Winter Solstice: Day with least amount of sunlight -December 21st in Northern Hemisphere and June 21st in Southern Hemisphere

Gyres

Surface ocean currents that form large circular patterns

Cell wall

Surrounds cell membrane in plant cells. Made of cellulose and composed of many layers. Provides plants with sturdy barrier that can hold fluid within cell.

Electric current (circuit)

Sustained flow of electrons that are part of an electric charge moving along a path in a circuit

Crossing over

Swapping of genetic material between homologous chromosomes. Leads to different combinations of genes.

Circuit breaker

Switch that opens to break the flow of electric charge

Golgi Complex/Apparatus

Synthesizes materials such as proteins that are transported out of cell Near the nucleus and consists of several layers of membranes

Ribosomes

Synthesizing proteins from amino acids Some are mobile and some are embedded in endoplasmic reticulum

Systolic/Diastolic blood flow

Systolic: heart muscles contracts to pump blood out Diastolic: Heart muscle relaxes to allow blood in

Flagella

Tail-like structures on cells Help cell move.

Endergonic reaction

Takes more energy to instigate the reaction than is produced by it

Radioactive (radiometric) dating

Technique used to determine age of rocks Compares the amount of radioactive material in a rock to the amount of material that has decayed (amount of subatomic particles nuclide of element has lost) 3 types: -Radiocarbon dating -Potassium dating -Uranium-Lead dating

Genetic linkage

Tendency for genes that are close to one another to be inherited together. Exception to independent assortment

Law of Intertia

Tendency of a body to remain in its present state of motion unless acted upon by external force Object at rest remains at rest, object in motion remains in motion

Factors effecting plant transpiration

Rate affected by light, temperature, humidity, wind, and saturation of soil Light: Light causes stomata to open, so water is lost more quickly Temperature: Water evaporates quicker in heat Humidity: Transpiration is decreased in high humidity and increase in low humidity (rate of diffusion correlated with difference between plant and environment) Saturation of soil: If water in soil is not replaced, rate of transpiration decreases

Electric power (watts)

Rate at which electrical energy is transferred by an electric circuit

Power

Rate at which work is performed

Specific gravity

Ratio of a substance's density compared to density of water

Relative humidity

Ratio of water vapor in the air compared to the amount the air is capable of holding at its current temperature

Decomposition reactions

Reactant is broken down into two or more product AKA analysis reactions A → B + C

Hydrophilic

Readily combine with water Polar molecules such as ammonia (NH3), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and hydrogen sulfide (H2S)

Sickle cell anemia

Recessive genetic disorder resulting in deformed blood cells that can cause respiratory and circulation issues

Cystic fibrosis

Recessive genetic disorder resulting in respiratory disorders

3 kinds of blood cells

Red blood cells -Most common -Transportation of oxygen, removal of carbon dioxide White blood cells -Immune responses Platelets -Small, irregularly shaped -Blood clotting

When light waves hits material, it is either...

Reflected Transmitted Absorbed

Refraction

Reflection: When light hits surface, it leaves at the same, perpendicular angle Refraction: Light is transmitted through object, direction may be altered. Image can be distorted.

Hormones

Regulate processes such as growth, metabolism, reproduction, and fluid balance. Names end in "-one"

Uses for acids

Remove rust and corrosion from metals Catalysts in processing of minerals and production of salt and fertilizers Can act as food preservatives or to add taste

Hydrophoibic

Repel or do not combine with water Nonpolar molecules and gases such as helium (He) and carbon dioxide (CO2)

Cardiac dysfunction

Response to the heart trying to maintain normal heart function Eventually causes cardiac system to weaken

Reproductive cells

Responsible for meiosis-results in mobile sperm for male, and non-mobile ova for females

Sea breeze (onshore)

Result of different capacities for absorbing heat of ocean and land

Acquired/somatic mutations

Result of environmental factors or replication errors

Vitamin A

Retinol Milk, eggs, liver, some vegetables and fruits Promotes immune system function, cell growth, and eye function

RNA

Ribonucleic acid Type of molecule that consists of long chain of nucleotide units

DNA structure

Right-handed, double helix shape (ladder) Consists of nucleotides 2 bases pair to form rung of ladder Bases: Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Thymine A-T C-G

Igneous rock

Rock formed by the solidification of molten magma Classification depends on where magma cools

Meteoroid

Rock from space before it enters Earth's atmosphere Most burn up in the atmosphere

Metamorphic rock

Rock that has been changed by great heat and pressure

Meteorites

Rocks that reach Earth's surface from space

Natural satellites

Rocky bodies that orbit around planets Some may have started as asteroids and then were captured by planets gravity Asteroid Moon: orbits asteroid Moonlet: small moon

Niche

Role of a species within a community

Tornados

Rotating, funnel-like clouds Small and short lived, but very high energy and destructive Mostly in the United States Classified on Enhanced Fujita Scale

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Rough (ribosomes on surface) and smooth (nothing on surface) Tubular network, transport system of cell. Fused to the nuclear membrane and extends through the cytoplasm to the cell membrane.

Period (periodic table)

Row Organized so that atomic numbers increase from left to right.

Latitude

Run horizontally around Earth Parallel to equator

Longitude

Run vertically 15 degree increments towards east or west

Vacuoles

Sacs used for storage, digestion, and waste removal. Plant cells have one large vacuole, animal cells have numerous small vacuoles.

Circuit breakers

Safety device to prevent overcurrent. If fault is directed, breaker acts as switch to interrupt flow. Can be reset once condition is corrected.

Ocean

Salta body of water, covers 71% of Earth's surface 3 large oceans: Pacific, Atlantic, Indian

Process of Meiosis

Same phases as mitosis, but happens twice. Result is four haploid daughter cells with different sets of chromosomes.

Geologic time scale

Scale used by geologists Age calculated in millions of years Supereon > Eon > Era > Period > Epoch

Astronomy

Scientific study of celestial objects and their positions, movements, and structures.

Which of the following is NOT true of viruses?

Scientists have agreed that viruses are the smallest living organisms.

Tides

Sea level slowly rises and falls over period of a day Most areas have 2 low tides and 2 high tides per day Caused by gravitational pull of Sun and Moon

Guyot

Seamount with a flat top

Venus

Second planet from the Sun Orbits every 225 days Very bright, similar to earth in size and gravity Dense atmosphere of carbon dioxide and sulfur Reflective clouds of sulfuric acid and signs of volcanism Lighting and thunder on surface

Krebs cycle

Second stage of cellular respiration Bonds of glucose and sometimes fats or lipids are broken down and reformed into ATP

3 types of rocks

Sedimentary Igneous Metamorphic

Tsunamis

Seismic sea waves, formed by seismic activity (i.e. earthquakes, volcanic eruptions) Series of waves with long wavelengths and long periods

3 types of DNA replication

Semiconservative -2 replicated copies each have one strand of original parent DNA Antiparallel replication -2 strands formed during replication go in opposite directions Base pairing -How RNA transcribes DNA in inverted fashion

Multiple sclerosis is a disease that destroys the myelin sheath around nerve bodies. Which of the following would NOT be an effect of losing the myelin sheath?

Sensory input is increased.

Dry line or dew point line

Separates two warm air masses of differing moisture content High altitude: dry air wedges under moist air Low altitudes: moist air wedges under dry air

Combustion

Sequence of chemical reactions between fuel and oxidant Result in new compounds and release of energy Forms of energy: Exothermic energy/heat, light, electricity, sound Types: rapid, slow, complete, turbulent, microgravity, incomplete

Decay chains

Series of decays that result in different products

Electron Transport Chain

Series of oxidizing and reducing molecules involved in release of energy

Metabolic pathways

Series of reactions in which the product of one reaction is the substrate for the next. Dependent upon enzymes as catalysts.

Magnetic field

Set of invisible lines representing the paths of attraction and repulsion Produced by motion of nuclei and electrons-direction of the spin and orbit indicate direction of the field

Cellular respiration (processes involved)

Set of metabolic reactions and processes that convert chemical bonds into energy, stored in the form of ATP. Processes: glycolysis, Krebs cycle, electron transport chain, chemiosmosis

Uranus

Seventh planet from the Sun Atmosphere mainly composed of hydrogen and helium, also has water, ammonia, methane, hydrocarbons Coldest planet Ring system and 13 moons

Squall line

Severe thunderstorms that can form at the front of or ahead of a cold front

Sex-linked traits vs. Autosomal traits

Sex linked traits: on the X or Y chromosome Autosomal traits: traits on non-sex chromosomes

Classifications of bacteria

Shape: -Rod shaped -Round (cocci) -Spiral (spirilla) Gram staining -Gram positive: absorb stain and become purple -Gram negative: do not absorb stain and become pinkish color

Solid: Shape, Volume, Fluidity, Compressibility

Shape: Fixed Volume: Fixed Fluidity: Does not easily flow Compressibility: Hard to compress

Gas: Shape, Volume, Fluidity, Compressibility

Shape: No fixed shape, assumes shape of container Volume: Changes to occupy space of container Fluidity: Flows easily Compressibility: Compresses

Liquid: Shape, Volume, Fluidity, Compressibility

Shape: No fixed shape, assumes shape of container Volume: Fixed Fluidity: Flows easily Compressibility: Hard to compress

Two major systems in plants

Shoot system -Leaves, buds, and stems, flowers when present -Above ground Root system -Roots, tubers, rhizomes -Undergrown

Lewis Formula

Show the bonding or nonbonding tendency of specific pairs of valence electrons

3 types of fruits in flowering plants

Simple fruits are formed from one ovary Aggregate fruits are produced by many ovaries in one flower, each is separately fertilized and forms aggregate fruit Multiple fruits are produced by many flowers on a single structure

How does pulley work?

Single pulley: rope run around a wheel Directs force downward to lift object. Does not decrease force required, but changes its direction.

Phytoplankton

Single-celled organisms Nourished by sun Food source

Epistasis

Situation in which two or more genes determine a single phenotype

Saturn

Sixth planet from the Sun Second largest planet Hydrogen, helium, trace elements Small core of rock and ice, thick layer of metallic hydrogen, gaseous outer layer System of rings and 61 moons

5 social behaviors

Territoriality: organisms protecting area from other members of their species or other species Dominance: most populous species in a community Altruism: organism exhibits behavior that benefit another organism at cost to itself Threat Display: Behavior by organism meant to intimidate away members of its own or other species Competitive Exclusion: If there are limited resources, species cannot coexist. One species will become extinct or be forced to undergo behavioral or evolutionary change.

Weathering

The breaking down of rocks and other materials on the Earth's surface. 2 types: mechanical and chemical

Absolute zero

The coldest temperature, 0 Kelvin, that can be reached. It is the hypothetical temperature at which all molecular motion stops.

Weather

The condition of Earth's atmosphere at a particular time and place Mostly occurs in troposphere

To melt this substance, polar intermolecular attractions must be overcome: H20

The crystal structure of frozen water, or ice, is held together from the polar intermolecular attractions between the slightly positive hydrogen side of the molecule and the slightly negative oxygen side of other water molecules.

Lead (Pb)

The crystal structure of solid metal is held together by metallic attractions, which must be overcome if the metal is to melt.

Hydrologic cycle (water cycle)

The cycle through which water in the hydrosphere moves; includes such processes as evaporation, condensation, precipitation, and surface and groundwater runoff and infiltration

Electron affinity (materials)

The energy change that occurs when an electron is acquired by a neutral atom to form a negative ion

Ionization energy

The energy required for an electron to free itself from the grip of its neutral atom. Elements with low ionization energy are highly reactive because they can easily give up electrons. Increases across a row.

Jupiter

The fifth planet from the sun Largest planet Mainly hydrogen, 25% of mass is helium Fast rotation, clouds of ammonia crystals 63 moons, Great Red Spot, anticyclonic storm

Newton's Gravitational Law

The force of attraction between two objects depends on mass and distance. As you increase distance the force decreases.

Interstellar Medium

The gas and dust that exists in open space between the stars.

Carbon cycle

The movement of carbon from the nonliving environment into living things and back

Upwelling

The movement of deep, cold, and nutrient-rich water to the surface Occurs when wind blows parallel to coast, causes ocean surface to move away from coast so deep-sea water rises to take its place

Geosynchronous orbit

The orbit of a satellite that revolves around Earth at the same rate that Earth rotates Appears to be in the same place in the sky at the same time each day

Kepler's First Law

The orbits of the planets are ellipses, with the sun at one focus

Ekman transport

The water movement 90 degrees from the wind direction Result of Coriolis effect

Plate Tectonic Theory

Theory that lithosphere (solid portion of mantle and crust), consists of major and minor plates. Plates are on top of and move with the upper mantle, which is heated because of the convection cycle that occurs in interior of Earth

Thermometer Barometer Hygrometer Anemometer Weather vane Rain gauge

Thermometer: Measures temperature Barometer: Measures barometric/air pressure Hygrometer: Measures humidity Anemometer: Measures wind speed Weather vane: Measures wind direction Rain gauge: Measures precipitation

Oceanic crust

Thin, dense layer, about 10 km thick

Earth

Third planet from the Sun Orbits every 365 days Rocky, 71% covered in salt-water oceans Atmosphere composed of oxygen and nitrogen One moon Only life in solar system

The element whose most abundant naturally occurring isotopes are radioactive

Thorium (Th)

tRNA

a chain of about 80 nucleotides that provide the link between the "language" of nucleotides (codon and anticodon) and the "language" of amino acids; also known as transfer RNA.

Mutation

a change of the DNA sequence of a gene, resulting in a change of the trait.

Base

a chemical that accepts protons (H+ ions) when dissolved in water.

Acid

a chemical that donates proton (H+ ions) when dissolved in water.

Nervous System

a communication network that connects the entire body of an organism and provides control over bodily functions.

Photosynthesis

a crucial set of reactions that convert the light energy of the sun into chemical energy usable by living things.

Natural Selection

a feature of population genetics that is the driving force behind evolution.

Electrical Current

a flow of electrons through a conductor.

Cellular Metabolism

a general term that includes all types of energy transformation processes, including photosynthesis, respiration, growth, movement, etc.

Ecosystem

a group of populations found within a given locality, plus the inanimate environment around those populations.

Imprinting

a learned behavior that develops in a critical or sensitive period of the animal's lifespan.

Habituation

a learned behavior where the organism produces less and less response as a stimulus is repeated, without a subsequent negative or positive action.

Thymus

a mass of lymph tissue that is active only through the teen years, fighting infection and producing T cells.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

a network of nerves throughout the body.

Law of Inertia

a particle at rest will stay at rest and a particle in motion will stay in motion until acted upon by an outside force.

Cell Cycle

a particular sequence of events ending in cell division, which produces two daughter cells.

Transformation

a process in which bacteria absorb and incorporate pieces of DNA from their environment (usually from dead bacterial cells).

Transpiration

a process in which some water that has traveled up through the plant to the leaves is evaporated.

Cortex

a ring inside the epidermis that is made up of large parenchyma cells.

Nucleolus

a rounded area within the nucleus of the cell where ribosomal RNA is synthesized.

Adaptive Radiation

a single species can develop into several diverse species over time; over time a species will specially adapt to live more effectively in a new environment.

Osmosis

a special process of diffusion that occurs when the water concentration inside the cell differs from the the concentration outside the cell; the water on the side of the membrane with the highest water concentration will move though the membrane until the concentration is equalized on both sides.

Homeostasis

a state of dynamic equilibrium, which balances forces tending toward change with forces acceptable for life functions.

Element

a substance that cannot be broken down into any other substances.

Catalyst

a substance that changes the speed of a reaction without being affected itself.

International System of Units

a-standard year Ma-megannum, million years Ga-gigannum, billion years mya-million years ago BP-before present (1950) BCE-before common era

In the 1700s, the French scientist Lamarck proposed the idea that animals develop characteristics over the course of their lives that help them adapt to changes in their environment. For instance, Lamarck suggested that giraffes developed long necks over their lifespan in order to enable them to reach food on high tree branches. This now discredited theory (which was replaced by Darwin's model of natural selection) is known as the theory of

acquired characteristics

Fermentation

another name for anaerobic respiration, which breaks down the two pyruvic acid molecules (three carbons each) into end products (such as ethyl alcohol, or lactic acid), plus carbon dioxide.

Vessels

arteries, veins, and capillaries.

Isotopes

atoms with the same number of protons by different numbers of neutrons.

Skeletal Muscle

attaches bones of the skeleton to each other and surrounding tissues, which enables voluntary movement.

Gene splicing

base pairs of DNA are chemically cleaved, different genetic information can be added.

Lymphocytes

begin in bone marrow as stem cells and are collected and distributed via the lymph nodes.

Social Behavior

behavior patterns that take into account other individuals.

Midbrain

between the forebrain and hindbrain; contains the optic lobes.

Covalent Bond

bond formed between the atoms when atoms share electrons.

Ionic Bond

bond of attraction between positive and negative ions.

Digestion

breakdown of ingested particles into molecules that can be absorbed by the body.

Atomic Mass

calculated by adding up the masses of the protons and neutrons.

Which of the following has the highest bond order?

carbon dioxide

Somatic Sensory Nerves

carry impulses from body surface to the CNS.

Somatic Motor Nerves

carry impulses to skeletal muscle from the CNS.

Secretory Vesicles

carry substances produced within the cell to the cell membrane; packets of material packaged by the Golgi apparatus or endoplasmic reticulum.

Maximum population level in which population will continue to thrive

carrying capacity

Zygote

cell that results when a sperm cell fertilizes an egg cell.

Organelles

cells components that perform particular functions.

Eukaryotic Cells

cells the contain membrane-bound intracellular organelles, including a nucleus.

Prokaryotic Cells

cells with no nucleus or any other membrane-bound organelles.

Gamma Radiation

consists of gamma rays, which are high-frequency, high-energy, electromagnetic radiation that are usually given off in combination with alpha and beta decay.

Hindbrain

consists of the cerebellum and medulla oblongata.

Gas solubility in liquids ________ at higher temperatures

decreases

Changes in composition in the atmosphere would cause

different rates of heating. Changes in distance from the sun are insignificant versus the distance to the sun. Weather only affects the lowest atmospheric layer, the troposphere. Ozone is only found in one layer. Man does not significantly affect the atmosphere in its totality.

Division

distributes the remaining set of chromosomes in a mitosis-like process.

A type of geological anticline that contains a round or oval upward bulge of rock layers is called a

dome

ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

energy currency of cellular activity; consists of a nitrogenous base (adenine), a simple sugar (ribose), and three phosphate groups.

Food Chain

energy generally flows through the entire ecosystem in one direction from producers to consumers and on to decomposers.

Heat

energy that flows from an object that is warm to an object that is cooler.

Regulation

enzyme control that may occur when the product of the reaction is also an inhibitor to the reaction.

All of the following are major structural regions of roots EXCEPT the

epistematic region

Evaporation

escape of individual particles of a substance into gaseous form.

Laws of Thermodynamics

explain the interaction between heat and work (energy) in the universe.

Desert has

extreme hot or cold temperatures, with very low precipitation, sandy or rocky terrain, sparse vegetation (mainly succulents), small animals, rodents, and reptiles.

Kidneys

filter metabolic wastes from the blood and excrete them as urine

G2 Phase

final phase of interphase; more proteins are produced, which will be necessary for cell division, and the centrioles are replicated as well.

G1 Phase

first phase of interphase; metabolism and protein synthesis are occurring at a high rate, and most of the growth f the cell occurs at this time.

Blood Tissue

flows through the blood vessels and heart and is essential for carrying oxygen to cells, fighting infection, and carrying nutrients and wastes to and from cells.

If a frame of reference is accelerating or decelerating, light rays

follows the shortest path

Newton's Second Law

force equals mass times acceleration

Oogenesis

formation of egg cells.

Compound

formed when two or more different atoms bond together chemically to form a unique substance.

Epithelial Tissue

forms the barrier between the environment and the interior of the body.

Adipose Tissue

found beneath the skin and around organs, providing cushioning, insulation, and fat storage.

Immune System

functions to defend the body from infection by bacteria and viruses.

The infiltration of a previously isolated group by a member of an adjacent population, resulting in the increase of genetic possibilities

gene migration

Gametophytes

generated by the reproductive organs of the sporophyte through the process of meiosis.

Sex-Limited Traits

genes that are located on a gender chromosome.

Sympatric Speciation

genetically different members reproduce with each other, producing a population, which is separate from the original species.

The warmest place in the atmosphere is near the ground because the

ground can store heat

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

has attached ribosomes; instrumental to protein synthesis.

Connective Tissue

holds tissues and organs together, stabilizing the body structure.

Law of Independent Assortment

homologous chromosomes separate and independently sort in gamete formation, alleles are also separated and independently sorted.

Most abundant isotopes in solar system

hydrogen-1 helium-4

Hardy-Weinberg Law of Equilibrium

in situations where random mating is occurring within a population (which is in equilibrium with its environment), gene frequencies and genotype ratios will remain constant from generation to generation.

In snapdragons, a red flower crossed with a white flower produces a pink flower. In this illustration, R represents red and W white. The Punnett square for a cross between a white snapdragon and a red snapdragon is shown here: The cross illustrated in this Punnett square is an example of

incomplete dominance

When measuring the flow of heat in a system, a natural process that starts at one equilibrium state and flows to another while being impacted by the entropy of the system plus the environment, what will entropy do to create an irreversible process?

increase

Differential Reproduction

individuals within a population that are most adapted to the environment and are also the most likely individuals to reproduce successfully; tends to strengthen the frequency of expression of desirable traits across the population.

Golgi Apparatus

instrumental in the storing, packaging, and shipping of proteins; also known as Golgi bodies or the Golgi complex.

Hypothalamus

involved in hunger, thirst, blood pressure, body temperature, hostility, pain, pleasure, etc.

Conditioning

involves learning to apply an old response to a new stimulus.

In 2001, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) came up with a new definition for Pluto, in which it was reclassified as a dwarf planet. The definition was modified in 2006 as "a celestial body that (a) is in orbit around the Sun, (b) has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces, so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape, (c) has not cleared the neighborhood around its orbit, and which of the following?

is not a satellite

Endoplasmic Reticulum

large organization of folded membranes; responsible for the delivery of lipids and proteins to certain areas within the cytoplasm (a sort of cellular highway).

Arteries

larger vessels that carry blood away from the heart.

When a yellow pea plant is crossed with a green pea plant, all the offspring are yellow. The law that best explains this is the

law of dominance

Gene

length of DNA that encodes a particular protein.

Periodic Table

listing of elements by atomic number.

Forebrain

located most anterior, it contains the olfactory lobes and cerebrum as well as the thalamus, hypothalamus, and pituitary gland.

A solution's melting point is usually _________ than the melting point of the solvent.

lower

Translation

mRNA formed in transcription is transported to the ribosomes, where it works with tRNA to synthesize new proteins.

Cell Walls

made of cellulose and lignin, they enclose the cell membrane providing strength and protection for the cell.

Smooth Muscle

makes up the walls of internal organs and functions in involuntary movement (breathing, etc).

Vector

mathematical quantities that recognize both the size and direction of the dimension being considered.

T Cells

mature cells in the thymus gland that patrol the blood for antigens but are also equipped to destroy antigens themselves.

Learned Behaviors

may have some basis in genetics, but they also require learning.

Displacement

measures the change in position of an object, using the starting point and ending point and noting the direction.

Lysosomes

membrane-bound organelles containing digestive enzymes; digest unused material within the cell, damaged organelles, or materials absorbed by the cell for use.

The crust of the Earth is composed of a thin layer of rocks covering the surface. Rocks are defined as aggregates or collections of

minerals

Atoms of same element bond to make...

molecules or crystalline solids

Polar Molecules

molecules that have regions of partial change.

Van der Waals Forces

momentary forces of attraction that exist between molecules and are much weaker than the forces of chemical bonding.

Sex-Linked Traits

more males develop the trait because males have only one copy of the X chromosome; females have a second X gene, which may carry a gene coding for a functional protein for the trait in question, which may counteract a recessive trait.

The Sun's galactic motion in the Milky Way can be described as

motion in a circular orbit

Conduction

movement of energy by transfer from particle to particle; can only occur when objects are touching.

Which system is only found in vertebrates?

musculoskeletal system

Accidental change in genetic material

mutation

Watson-Crick Model

names after scientists James Watson and Francis Crick, who discovered and modeled the structure of DNA.

Streptococcus pyogenes is a bacterium that causes strep throat infection. Penicillin is an effective antibiotic against Streptococcus pyogenes. However, when antibiotics are used incorrectly, some bacteria may survive. Surviving bacteria will have a higher level of resistance to the antibiotic. Since the living resistant bacteria will then reproduce, the antibiotic resistance will be magnified in subsequent generations. This development of strains of antibiotic-resistant bacteria is an example of

natural selection

Anions

negative ions.

In snapdragons, a red flower crossed with a white flower produces a pink flower. In this illustration, R represents red and W white. The Punnett square for a cross between a white snapdragon and a red snapdragon is shown here: Which of the following statements about this cross must be true?

neither parent of the red snapdragon could be white

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

network of membranous channels; does not have attached ribosomes.

Oil is a ______ solvent

nonpolar

Nonpolar substances are soluble in... Ionic and polar matter is soluble in....

nonpolar solvents polar solvents

Punnett Square

notation that allow us to easily predict the results of a genetic cross.

Hydrogen Bond

occurs when a hydrogen atom is involved with a polar intermolecular attraction to a more electronegative atom.

Dominance

occurs when older, more established individuals compete for status within the community.

Beta Decay

occurs when the nucleus emits a beta particle that degrades into an electron as it passes out of the atom.

Alpha Decay

occurs when the nucleus of an atom emits a package of two protons and two neutrons, called an alpha particle, which is equivalent to the nucleus of a helium atom.

Fertilization

occurs when two haploid cells join to form a diploid cell.

Allopatric Speciation

occurs when two populations are geographically isolated from each other.

Law of Dominance

one gene is usually dominant over the other.

Genetic Drift

over time, a gene pool (particularly in a small population) may experience a change in frequency of particular genes simply due to change fluctuations.

Biosphere

part of the Earth that includes all living things.

Cerebellum

part of the brain that controls balance, equilibrium, and muscle coordination.

Medulla Oblongata

part of the brain that controls involuntary responses such as breathing and heartbeat.

Cerebrum

part of the brain that controls sensory and motor responses, memory, speech, and most factors of intelligence.

Substrate

particular substance of an enzyme that fits within the active site.

Emigration

permanent one way movement out of the original range.

Immigration

permanent one-way movement into a new range.

Translation

phase of photosynthesis that requires a second type of RNA.

Chlorophyll

pigment molecules that give the chloroplast their green color.

Vascular

plants that have tissue organized in such a way as to conduct food and water throughout their structure; also known as tracheophytes.

Agiosperms

plants that produce flowers as reproductive organs.

Gymnosperms

plants that produce seeds without flowers.

Synapse

point at which homologous chromosomes pair up during meiosis.

Water is a ______ solvent

polar

Traits that are produced by the expression of more than one set of genes are known as

polygenic traits

Insulators

poor conductors of electrical currents.

Community

populations that interact with each other in a particular ecosystem.

Cations

positive ions.

pH

potential of hydrogen scale, which is a measurement of H+ ions in solutions.

Quantum Mechanics

predicts the probabilities of an electron being in a certain area at a certain time.

Proteins

present in every living cell, large unbranched chains of amino acids; may also be called polypeptides.

Atmospheric Pressure

pressure that results from the total weight of the atmosphere exerting force on the Earth; can be measured with a barometer.

Dispersion

process in which a species may move in or out of a particular area over the course of time.

Catabolsim

process of breaking down molecules and releasing stored energy.

Egg Cell

produced by the female gametophyte; also referred to as a female gamete.

Sperm

produced by the male gametophyte; also known as a male gamete.

Microvilli

projections of the cell extending from the cell membrane; increase the surface area of the cell membrane, increasing the area available to absorb nutrients.

Enzymes

protein molecules that act as catalysts for organic reactions.

Villi

protrusions out into the lumen of the intestine that provide a large surface area for absorption of nutrients.

Cytoskeleton

provides structural support to a cell.

Musculoskeletal System

provides the body with structure, stability, and the ability to move.

Types of RNA

rRNA: forms RNA component of ribosome mRNA: used by ribosomes to make proteins (translation) tRNA: helps translation by carrying amino acid to corresponding codon on mRNA strand

Reactants

reacting molecules.

Exothermic

reactions that release energy.

Endothermic

reactions that require energy.

Cartilage Tissue

reduces friction between bones and supports and connects them.

Cytoplasm

region between the nucleus and cell membrane.

Pituitary Gland

releases various hormones.

Sex-Influenced Traits

requires only one recessive gene to be expressed if there is no counteracting dominant gene.

Excretory System

responsible for collecting waste materials and transporting them to organs that expel them from the body.

Gas Exchange (Respiratory) System

responsible for the intake and processing of gases required by an organism and for expelling gases produced as waste products; also known as the respiratory system.

Olfactory Lobes

responsible for the sense of smell.

Competition

results when two or more species living within the same area and that overlap niches both require a resource that is in limited supply.

Punctuated Equilibrium

scientific model that proposes that adaptations of species arise suddenly and rapidly; specific species undergo a long period of equilibrium, which at some point is upset by environmental forces causing a short period of quick mutation and change.

S Phase

second phase of interphase where cell begins to prepare for cell division by replicating the DNA and proteins necessary to form a new set of chromosomes.

Digestive System

serves as a processing plant for ingested food.

Histones

short length of DNA wrapped around a core of small proteins.

Haploid

single unduplicated chromosomes.

Ovules

small round cases within the ovary that contain one or more egg cells.

Viruses

smaller than even the smallest cells; survive and replicate by invading a living cell.

Incomplete Dominance

some traits have no genes that are dominant and instead produce offspring that are a mix of the two parents.

Vertebrates

species that have internal backbones.

In which of the following media will a sound wave travel the fastest?

steel

Telophase

step four in mitosis; occurs as nuclear membranes form around the chromosomes and disperse through the new nucleoplasm; spindle fibers also disappear.

Prophase

step one in mitosis; chromatin condenses into chromosomes within the nucleus, the centrioles move to opposite ends of the cell, and spindle fibers begin to extend from the centromeres of each chromosome toward the center of the cell.

Anaphase

step three in mitosis; when the centromere divides, chromatids are separated from each others and become a chromosome; the two identical chromosomes move along the spindle fibers to opposite ends of the cell.

Metaphase

step two of mitosis; occurs when the spindle fibers pull the chromosomes into alignment along the equatorial plane of the cell, creating the metaphase plate.

Anaerobic

steps in the cellular respiration process that do not require oxygen.

Aerobic

steps in the cellular respiration process that require oxygen.

Photosynthesis would NOT proceed without which of the following that allow moisture and gases to pass in and out of a leaf?

stomata

Cell Membrane

structure that encloses the cell and separates it from the environment; also known as the plasma membrane.

Analogous

structures that are similar because of their common function, although they do not share a common ancestry.

Homologous

structures that exist in two different species because they share a common ancestry.

Gregor Mendel

studied the relationships between traits expressed in parents and offspring and the hereditary factors that caused expression of traits.

Taxonomy

study that organizes living things into groups based on morphology or, more recently, genetics.

Passive Transport

substances freely pass across the membrane without the cell expending any energy.

Genomes

sum total of genetic information.

The sky is blue because

sunlight is scattered by the atmosphere before it reaches Earth

Energy Cycle

supports life throughout the environment.

Structural genes are responsible for coding the proteins necessary to

synthesize epithelial tissue

Boiling Point

temperature at which a substance changes from liquid to gas.

Magnetism

the ability of a substance to produce a magnetic field.

Innate Behaviors

the actions in animals we call instincts; highly stereotyped.

Recessive Allele

the allele that does not produce its trait when present with a dominant allele.

Mass

the amount of matter that is contained by the object.

Atomic Weight

the average mass number.

Diffraction

the bending of a light wave around an obstacle.

Stroma

the body of the chloroplast.

Nuclear Membrane

the boundary between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.

Glycolysis

the breaking down of the six-carbon sugar (glucose) into smaller carbon-containing molecules yielding ATP.

Organic Compounds

the building blocks of all living things.

Refraction

the change in direction of a wave as it passes from one medium to another.

Chromatin

the combination of DNA with histones.

Genotype

the combination of alleles that make a particular trait.

Circulatory System

the conduit for delivering nutrients and gases to all cells and for removing waste products from them.

Wavelength

the distance from one crest (or top) of a wave to the next crest on the same side.

Voltage

the electromotive force that pushes electrons through the circuit.

Gene Pool

the entire collection of genes within a given population.

Exocytosis

the export of substances from the cell.

Krebs Cycle

the first step in aerobic respiration that occurs in the matrix of a cell's mitochondria and breaks down pyruvic acid molecules (three carbons each) into CO(little)2 molecules, H+ (protons), and 2 ATP molecules; also liberates electrons.

Weight

the force of gravest acting upon that object.

Transcription

the formation of an RNA molecule, which corresponds to a gene.

Gametes

the four haploid cells (egg and sperm) that are found in reproductive organs as a result of meiosis.

In snapdragons, a red flower crossed with a white flower produces a pink flower. In this illustration, R represents red and W white. The Punnett square for a cross between a white snapdragon and a red snapdragon is shown here: The symbol RW represents which of the following?

the genotype for pink

Evolution

the gradual change of characteristics within a population, producing a change in a species over time.

Thorium (Th) is

the heaviest element, and the only one whose most abundant naturally occurring isotopes are radioactive. While the others have naturally occurring isotopes that are radioactive, such isotopes occur with very low frequency.

Ovary

the hollow, bulb-shaped structure in the lower interior of the pistil.

Genetic Engineering

the intentional alteration of genetic material of a living organism.

Gene Migration

the introduction of new genes from an immigrant, which results in a change of the gene pool.

Kepler's second law says, essentially, that

the line from the Sun to a planet sweeps equal areas in equal times

Molar Mass

the mass in grams of one mole of atoms.

Specific Heat

the measure of a substance's ability to retain energy.

Density

the measure of how much matter exists in a given volume.

Temperature

the measure of the average kinetic energy of a substance.

Work

the movement of mass over a distance.

Population Density

the number of individuals of a particular species living in a particular area.

Atomic Number

the number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom of that element.

Atoms are neutral because...

the number of protons in the nucleus equals the number of surrounding electrons

Frequency

the number of wavelengths that pass a point in a second.

Valence Shell

the outermost occupied energy level of an element.

Diploid

the parent cell that has a normal set of paired chromosomes.

Circuit

the path that an electrical current follows.

Interphase

the period when the cell is active in carrying on its functions.

Habitat

the physical place where a species lives.

Endoderm

the precursor of the gut lining and various accessory structures.

Pascal's Principle

the pressure exerted on any point of a confined fluid is transmitted unchanged throughout the fluid.

Flower

the primary reproductive organ for a plant.

Lymphatic System

the principal infection-fighting component of the immune system.

Mitosis

the process by which a cell distributes its duplicated chromosomes so that each daughter cell has a full set of chromosomes.

Inheritance

the process by which characteristics pass from one generation to another.

Cell Division

the process of cell reproduction that centers on the replication and separation of strands of DNA.

Meiosis

the process of producing four daughter cells, each with single unduplicated chromosomes.

Anabolism

the process whereby cells build molecules and store energy.

Endocytosis

the process whereby large molecules are taken up into a pocket of membrane; the pocket pinches off, delivering the molecules, still inside a membrane sack into the cytoplasm.

Diffusion

the process whereby molecules and ions flow through the cell membrane from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration; mixing of particles in a gas or liquid.

Momentum

the product of mass and velocity.

Force

the push or pull exerted on an object.

Speed

the rate of change of an object's distance traveled.

Velocity

the rate of change of displacement; includes both speed and direction.

Friction

the rubbing force that acts against motion between two touching surfaces.

CO(little)2 Fixation

the second phase of photosynthesis in which six CO(little)2 molecules are linked with hydrogen (produced in photolysis), forming glucose (a six-carbon sugar); also known as the dark reaction.

Electron Transport

the second step of aerobic respiration that captures the energy created by the release of electrons from the Krebs cycle.

Atom

the simplest unit of an element that retains the element's characteristics.

Chloroplasts

the site of photosynthesis within plant cells.

Ribosomes

the site of protein synthesis within cells.

Cell

the smallest and most basic unit of most living things.

Kepler's Third Law

the square of the period is proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis

Ecology

the study of how organisms interact with other organisms and how they influence or are influenced by their physical environment.

Biogeography

the study of how photosynthetic organisms and animals are distributed in a particular location plus the history of their distribution in the past.

Chemistry

the study of matter.

Mechanics

the study of things in motion.

For a gas, a useful state variable is the enthalpy H, which is defined to be

the sum of the external energy E plus the product of the pressure p and volume V of the gas: H = E + p*V

The equation is written as H = E + p* V, where E is the external energy, p is the pressure, and V is the volume of the gas.

the sum of the external energy E plus the product of the pressure p and volume V of the gas: H = E + p*V

Natural selection occurs when

the surviving species is the one that is most adapted to the environment (in this case, resistant to antibiotics). Clearly only the surviving competitors reproduce. Therefore, traits that provide the competitive edge will be represented most often in succeeding generations.

Population

the total number of a single species of organism found in a given ecosystem.

Phenotype

the trait expressed.

Radiation

the transfer of energy via waves.

Transduction

the transfer or genetic material (portions of a bacterial chromosome) from one bacteria cell to another.

Chromatids

the two identical strands of duplicated chromatin in a cell that is getting ready to divide.

Absolute Zero

theoretical temperature at which particle motion stops; also known as 0 Kelvin.

Alveoli

thin-walled air sacs, which are the site of gas exchange.

Invertebrates

those species having no internal backbone structure.

Newton's Laws of Motion

three laws that form the basis of most of our understanding of things in motion.

Electron Cloud

three-dimensional space where electrons travel freely; also known as an electron shell or orbital.

Capillaries

tiny vessels that surround all tissues of the body and exchange carbon dioxide for oxygen.

Cardiac Muscle

tissue forming the walls of the heart with strength and electrical properties that are vital to the heart's ability to pump blood.

Law of Segregation

traits are expressed from a pair of genes in the individual (on homologous chromosomes).

Polygenic Traits

traits produced from integration of multiple sets of genes.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

two main components, the brain and the spinal cord; which control all other organs and systems of the body.

Molecule

two or more atoms held together by shared electrons (covalent bonds).

Active Transport

uses energy to move molecules across a cell membrane against a concentration gradient.

What are the two components of acceleration?

velocity over time and direction

Which of the following planets has no natural satellites?

venus

Veins

vessels that carry blood toward the heart.

Optic Lobes

visual center connected to the eyes by the optic nerves.

Van der Waals force

weak force between molecules Much weaker than actual chemical bonds between atoms

Embryo

what a zygote eventually grown into.

Archimedes' Principle

when an object is placed in a fluid, the object will have a buoyant force equal to the weight of the displaced fluid.

Homozygous

when both alleles for a given gene are the same in an individual.

Succession

when one community completely replaces another over time in a given area.

Extinction

when the entire population of a particular species is eliminated.

Heterozygous

when the two alleles for a given gene are different in an individual.

Symbiosis

when two species interact with each other within the same range.

The Hardy-Weinberg law of equilibrium states that

where random mating is occurring within a population that is in equilibrium with its environment, the gene frequencies and genotype ratios will remain constant from generation to generation. The Hardy-Weinberg law is a mathematical formula that shows why recessive genes do not disappear over time from a population.

Atoms react in a manner that...

will allow them to fill to either fill or empty their valence shells

Surface currents are caused by...

wind

Carrying Capacity

within a given area, there is a maximum level the population ma reach at which it will continue to thrive.

How does DNA produce particular genetic traits?

Through protein synthesis

Thymus

Thymosin

Solar day

Time it takes Earth to complete one revolution and face the sun again 24 hours

Radioactive half-life

Time it takes for half of the radioactive nuclei in a sample to undergo radioactive decay

Prostoglandin

Tissue hormones Diffuse only a short distance from the tissue that created it and influences only nearby cells

Absolute humidity

Total amount of moisture air is capable of holding at a certain temperature

Inelastic collision

Total kinetic energy between two bodies increases or decreases after collision

Sum of potential and kinetic energy

Total mechanical energy

Conservation of mass number

Total number of neutrons and protons must remain the same

Atomic mass

Total number of protons and neutrons in nucleus A=Z+N

Polygenic inheritance

Traits that are influenced by more than one gene, and may be influenced by environment as well.

Natural Selection (4 principles)

Traits that give species survival advantage are passed on to subsequent generations -From generation to generation, various individuals within a species -Genes determine variations -More individuals are born than survive to maturation -Specific genes enable an organism to better survive

Heat

Transfer of energy (other than work) from a body as a result of thermal contact Consists of random motion and vibration of atoms, molecules, and ions Higher temperature = greater atomic or molecular motion

Active transport (2 types)

Transferring substances from areas of lower concentration to areas of higher concentration. Requires energy/ATP. Endocytosis: ingestion of large particles into cell Exocytosis: expulsion or discharge of substances from cell

Active transport (2 types)

Transferring substances from areas of lower concentration to areas of higher concentration. Requires energy/ATP. Endocytosis: ingestion of large particles into cell Exocytosis: expulsion or discharge of substances from cell

Nerve cells (neurons)

Transmit nerve impulses throughout central and peripheral nervous systems Parts: soma, dendrites, axons

Reproductive system

Transports male gametes to females. Allows growth and development of embryo Hormones: testosterone, interstitial cell stimulating hormone (ICSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), estrogen, progesterone Males: testes, vas deferens, urethra, prostate, penis, scrotum Females: ovaries, fallopian tubes, cervix, uterus, vagina, vulva, mammary glands

Circulatory system

Transports oxygen and nutrients to cells and carbon dioxide to lungs Includes heart, blood, and blood vessels

Surface (circular) waves

Travel at surface of material and move in elliptical orbits. Slower than shear waves.

Trophic levels

Trophic level: link in a food chain Primary producers (lowest level): plants Primary consumers: herbivores Secondary consumers: carnivores/herbivores Tertiary consumers: large carnivores Decomposers (highest level): break down the consumers at the top About 90% of energy is lost between trophic levels

Protista Kingdom

Unicellular protozoans and unicellular and multicellular algae Move with flagellum, cilia, or pseudopod Reproduce either sexually or asexually through binary fission (divide in half to produce clones of parent)

Pauling scale

Unit of electronegativity Ranges from 4 (fluorine) to 0.7 (francium)

Angstrom

Unit of length for size of atom 10^10 of a meter

Astronomical Unit (AU)

Unit of measurement in astronomy Average distance from Earth to Sun 150 million km

Radioactive decay

Unstable atomic nucleus spontaneously loses energy by emitting ionizing particles and radiation Before decay there is one atom (parent nuclide), After decay, there are one or more products, daughter nuclides

Lewis Dot Diagram

Use dots to represent valence electrons. Double and triple bonds are indicated with additional dots.

Gene expression

Use of information in a gene to make a protein or nucleic acid.

Georges Cuvier (1769-1832)

Used fossil record (paleontology) to compare anatomies of extinct and exiting species. Believed catastrophism theory over evolution theory.

Bergeron classification system

Uses 3 sets of letters to identify characteristics of air masses Moisture content -c (dry) and m (maritime) Thermal characteristics -T (tropical origin), P (polar origin), A (Antarctic origin), M (monsoon), E (equatorial), S (superior air) Stability of atmosphere -k (colder than ground below), w (warmer than ground below)

First woman in space

Valentina Tereshkova (1963) Vostok 6

Allele

Variation of a gene, AKA "trait" Determines the manifestation of a gene

Alternation of generations

Vascular plants-sporophyte dominant -Diploid sporophyte generation grows from seed -Produces haploid gametophytes (either pollen or ovules) -Male and female parts combine to form another seed -Grows into another sporophyte.

Vectors vs. Scalars

Vectors: Quantities with magnitude and direction (i.e. velocity, force, momentum) Scalars: Only magnitude (i.e. length, area, volume, mass)

Fireballs

Very bright meteors with trails that can last as long as 30 minutes

Sound wave

Vibrations that transfer energy to adjacent subatomic particles. Move outward in all directions from source. Consist of compressions and rarefactions.

Radioactive waste

Waste product that is dangerous because of its levels of radioactivity

Humidity

Water vapor contained in the air Higher the air temperature, the more moisture it can hold

Waveforms:

Waveform: Shapes and forms of eaves as depicted on graphs -Sinusoidal -Square -Triangle -Sawtooth

Longitudinal waves

Waves that travel in same direction as particle movement. Consist of compression and rarefactions (like slinky) Most common: sound waves Also called pressure, compression, or density waves.

Phases of Moon

Waxing: 2 weeks from New to Full -New: not illuminated -Crescent: tiny sliver is lit -First Quarter: half is lit -Gibbous: more than half is lit (football) -Full: fully illuminated Waning: 2 weeks from Full to New -Gibbous: left side is lit -Third Quarter: half lit -Crescent: tiny sliver is lit -New: not illuminated

Hydrogen bond

Weak bond between hydrogen atom of one molecule and electronegative atom of another molecule

Erosion

Wearing away of rock materials from Earth's surface

Crystal

Well-organized, repeating configuration of atoms, ions, or molecules, caused by strong attractive forces between oppositely-charged ions.

Electromotive force (emf)

What causes electrons to move when there is potential difference between two points (voltage)

Color of an object depends on...

What is absorbed or reflected Wavelengths that are not absorbed by material are reflected back to perceiver

Occluded front

When a cold front pushes into a warm front Warm air rises and the two masses of cool air join

Reaction equilibrium (Le Chateleir's principle)

When a system at equilibrium is subjected to change in concentration of products, system will counteract to establish new equilibrium.

Conduction (electricity)

When electric charge moves in an electrically conductive substance, such as a metal. Negatively or positively charged object is touched to an object with a neutral charge. Electrons either flow into or out of neutral object and object becomes charged.

Radiation

When energy is emitted by one body and absorbed by another

Complete dominance

When homozygous pair of dominant alleles (AA) and heterozygous pair of alleles (Aa) result in the same phenotype

Polarization

When there is a zero net charge that is unevenly distributed-leads to bould charge

Vitamin B

Wide class of molecules Whole grains, potatoes, and bananas Enzyme cofactors or precursors to cofactors

Prevailing wind

Wind that blows in an area in a single direction

Dominant wind

Wind with the highest speeds

Cyclones

Winds around centers of low atmospheric pressure Large air masses rotating in the same direction as the Earth

Nomenclature for molecular compounds

Write elements in order of increasing group number and determine the prefix by determining the number of atoms. Ex: CO2 is carbon dioxide

Color blindness

X-linked recessive inheritance Because it is X-linked, more common in males than females

Vascular tissue

Xylem: scattered throughout a pith or formed into rings Phloem: allows for food transport down a plant, usually located outside xylem

First space flight

Yuri Gagarin (1961) Vostok 1

Early stages of embryonic development (first 2 weeks)

Zygote: -Diploid cell formed by fusion of two gametes Morula: -Mass of 16-32 cells formed by mitotic division of zygote Blastula: -Hollow structure formed when morula cells secrete fluid into center. -Attaches to lining of uterus. Gastrula: -Cells migrate to center of blastula to form germ layers that differentiate to form tissues and organs -Embryo formed

Nomenclature for ionic compounds

[cation][anion]ide

To melt this substance, network covalent attractions must be overcome.

(SiO)

Rules about dominant genes

-Expressed in each generation -Passed to roughly half the offspring -Parent that does not express trait cannot pass it on

Prime Meridian

0 degrees longitude

Amino acids

Building blocks of proteins

Average velocity

Displacement divided by time

Galaxy shapes

Elliptical Spiral Irregular Starburst

Weight

Force of gravity on object w=mg

Streak

True color of mineral in its powdered form

Pressure

a measure of the amount of force applied per unit of area.

Solids dissolve faster when....

the temperature is increased

Half-Life

the time it takes for 50 percent of an isotope to decay.

Mosaicism

Condition in which cells within the same person have a different genetic makeup

Properties of acids

Conduct electricity Change blue litmus paper to red Taste sour Neutralize bases React with metals to free hydrogen

Properties of bases

Conduct electricity Change red litmus paper to blue Feel slippery Neutralize acids

3 ways heat transfers

Conduction Radiation Convection

Stony Iron meteorites

Consist mainly of silicate and some iron and nickel

Iron meteorites

Consist of iron and nickel Widmanstatten: internal metallic crystalline structure

Skeletal muscles

Consist of myofribrils that contain two types of filaments made of proteins-actin and myosin Filaments are aligned and slide against each other during muscle contraction

Lever (3 classes)

Consists of a bar/plank and a pivot point/fulcrum Work is performed by the bar, which swings at fulcrum to redirect force. The closer the fulcrum is to the weight, the easier it is to move 1st class: fulcrum in middle 2nd class: fulcrum at one end, work performed at other end 3rd class: fulcrum at one end, work performed at same end

Comet

Consists of frozen gases and rocky, metallic materials, long tails made of ionized gases Tail points away from Sun: follows comet towards Sun and precedes it away from Sun Elliptical orbits Believed that short-period comets come from Kuiper Belt and long-period comets come from Oort Cloud

Cytoskeleton

Consists of microtubules that help shape and support the cell.

Chromatin

Consists of the DNA and protein that make up chromosomes

Complex/Compound machine

Consists of two or more simple machines

Static electric charge

Constant, non-moving charge, rather than a continuous flow (electric current)

Organic Compounds

Contain carbon AND hydrogen Melt at temperatures below 300 C

Ozone Layer

Contained within stratosphere Determined by ozone (O3) concentrations Absorbs majority of ultraviolet light from Sun

Nucleus

Contains chromosomes and regulates DNA of cell All eukaryotic cells have one Responsible for passing on of genetic traits Contains: nuclear envelope, nucleoplasm, nucleolus, nuclear pores, chromatin, ribosomes

Supersaturated solution

Contains higher concentration of solute than it would at normal temperature Happens at high temperatures, when solution is cooled the solute returns to solid form and "falls out" of solution

Nutrient cycle

Continuous flow of nutrients into and out of stores in the ecosystem; balanced, unless disturbed by human activity

Mid-ocean ridge

Continuous undersea mountain chain

Endocrine system

Controls systems by secreting hormones into blood system Includes: Pituitary gland, pineal gland, hypothalamus, thyroid gland, parathyroids, thymus, adrenals. pancreas, ovaries, and testes

Photosynthesis (equation in English)

Conversion of sunlight into energy in plant cells 6CO2 + 6H2O + light energy = C6H12O6 + 6O2 Carbon Dioxide+Water+Light Energy = Glucose+Oxygen

Electric motor

Converts electrical energy into mechanical energy Electric current passes through wire/coil to create magnetic field that opposes poles of permanent magnet Opposing forces between poles of electromagnet cause coil to turn Current is reversed at each pole and causes more rotation.

Digestive system

Converts large food particles into molecules the body can process and use for energy and nutrients Includes mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestines, rectum, anal canal, teeth, salivary glands, tongue, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, appendix

Layers of Sun

Core Radiative Zone Convective Zone Photosphere Chromosphere Corona

Major glands in endocrine system

Cortex: Involved in immune suppression and stress response -sex hormones, mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids Medulla: Elevate blood sugar and pressure, accelerate heart rate, stimulates heart muscle -epinephrine and norepinephrine Islets of Langerhans: Regulates blood sugar levels, in pancreas -glucagon and insulin 4 Parathyroid Glands: Rear of thyroid, secrete parathyroid hormone

Kekulé diagrams

Covalent bonds shown as lines between elements Double and triple bonds shown as two or three lines Unbounded valence electrons shown as dots

Polar bond

Covalent type of bond with a separation of charge. One end is negative and the other is positive. Ex: Hydrogen-Oxygen bond in water

Abiotic synthesis

Creating compounds from inorganic matter Believed to hav been the first steps to life on earth Stanley Miller: combined water, hydrogen, methane, and ammonia in closed flask and applied electricity: within a few weeks he had amino acids and organic compounds.

3 layers of Earth

Crust Mantle Core

Formulas for volume

Cube: a^3 Rectangular Prism: LxWxH Irregular shape: How much water it displaces

Clouds capable of vertical growth

Cumulus (Cu) Cumulonimbus (Cb)

Holocene Epoch

Current epoch of geologic time which began 10,000 years ago

Tectonic Convection

Cycle Hot material rises and spreads, cooling as it spreads. Cool material sinks, where it is heated again.

Cytoplasm

Cytosol and organelles within cell, but not within nucleus.

Properties of water

-High heat capacity (can absorb lot of heat without changing temperature) -High heat of vaporization (can absorb lot of heat before turning from liquid to gas) -Hydrogen bonds allow capillary action, which allow water to rise into narrow tubes against force of gravity (i.e. trees) -When frozen, expands and becomes less dense

How life began one Earth

-Life developed from nonliving materials when abiotic synthesis took place and created monomers (amino acids, nucleotides), -Joined together to creat polymers (proteins and nucleic acids) -Polymers formed into protobionts, precursors to prokaryotic cells BONUS: Life was transported from meteorite (no evidence)

4 properties of solutions

-Maximum particle size of one nm -Do not separate when allowed to stand or when poured through filter -Are clear and do not scatter light -When amount of solute is increased, boiling points increase while melting points decrease

11 major organ systems

-Skeletal -Muscular -Nervous -Digestive -Respiratory -Circulatory -Skin -Excretory -Immune -Endocrine -Reproductive

Polymer

Compound of large molecules formed by repeating monomers.

Centrosome

Comprised of pair of centrioles in animal cells. Involved in mitosis and cell cycle.

Concentration vs. Dilution

Concentration: Adding more solute or removing solvent Dilution: Adding more solvent dilutes

Contrails

Condensation trails formed by airplanes Thin white streaks Water vapor condensing and freezing the jet's exhaust particles

Laws of Thermodynamics

0. Two objects in thermodynamic equilibrium (same temperature) with a third object are also in equilibrium with each other 1. Conservation. Neither mass nor energy can be destroyed, only converted from one form to another. ΔU = Q - W (internal energy of system = heat added to system + work done to system) 2. Entropy can only increase over time. Heat can only be transferred from lower temperature systems to higher temperature systems, not visa versa without additional work being done. 3. As temperature approaches absolute zero, entropy approaches a constant minimum. System cannot be cooled to absolute zero.

If two heterozygous offspring of a variety of plant expressing an incomplete dominant trait such as Red, White, and Pink in snapdragon flowers are crossed, what will be the ratio of the phenotypes in the offspring?

1 red: 2 pink: 1 white

Pollination in flowering plants

1. Anthers of stamens (male part) have microsporangia (pollen) 2. Pollen grain lands on stigma portion of pistil (female part) 3. Pollen grain grows pollen tube that transports gametophyte to ovule 4. Fertilization

4 tenants of Cell Theory

1. Cells are the most basic unit of life. 2. All organisms are made of cells 3. New cells are formed from pre-existing cells 4. All cells are similar

Reproduction of flowering plants

1. Colors and scents of flowers attract pollinators/wind moves pollen 2. Pollen grain meets ovule and is fertilized, ovule develops into seed 3. Seed is small plant, paused in development 4. Germination: embryo starts to grow again

2 conditions required to balance nuclear reactions

1. Conservation of mass number 2. Conservation of nuclear charge

3 stages of DNA replication

1. Initiation -Enzyme helicase unwinds double helix and breaks hydrogen bonds between complementary pairs 2. Elongation -mRNA copies DNA onto itself in complementary manner (A-T, C-G) 3. Termination -Two new double helices have replaced original helix

Newton's 3 Laws of Motion

1. Law of Inertia 2. Law of Acceleration 3. Law of Action-Reaction

A toddler pushes a wagon across a room with a constant force of 100N. If the wagon is pushed 10 meters, how much work does the toddler do?

1000 jules

Sulfur-35 has a half-life of 87.51 days. How long will it take for 125 grams of sulfur-35 to decay into 50 grams of sulfur-35?

115.68

Estimated age of universe

13 billion years

Pleistocene Ice Age

2.58 Ma Quaternary glaciation, during Cenozoic Era

First humans appeared less than...

200,000 years ago

Effects of tilted Earth

23.5 degrees Causes seasons and affects temperatures because it effects amount of Sun the area receives Whichever hemisphere is tilted towards Sun experiences summer, other experiences winter Equator: same amount of sunlight year-round, no seasons

Naturally occurring chromium (Cr) exists as a combination of four stable isotopes, Cr-50, Cr-52, Cr-53, and Cr-54. Given the natural abundance of each isotope described in the following chart, calculate the average mass number of chromium.

52.05541

Paleozoic Era

542 Ma - 251 Ma Fish, amphibians, reptiles Began after supercontinent Pannotia started breaking up at the end of global ice age, supercontinent Pangaea formed by end Began with Cambrian Explosion, ended with Permian Extinction

Arctic Circle

66.5 degrees north of the equator Starting at noon on December 21st, Sun is no longer visible above the horizon

Antarctic Circle

66.5 degrees south of the equator Starting at noon on June 21st, Sun is not visible above the horizon

Neutral pH

7 (water)

Makeup of Sun

70% hydrogen (H) 28% helium (He) 2% metals

Makeup of the universe

73% dark energy 23% cold dark matter 4% regular matter

Makeup of Earth's atmosphere

78% nitrogen 21% oxygen 1% argon Traces of water vapor, carbon dioxide, and other gases, dust particles, and chemicals Becomes thinner the farther away you get from Earth's surface

Makeup of seawater

96.5% hydrogen and oxygen Salinity: 34 parts per thousand, 200 parts per million Dissolved solids: 55.3% chlorine 30.8% sodium 3.7% magnesium 2.6% sulfur 1.2% calcium 1.1% potassium

Which of the following embryonic membranes is matched correctly with its function?

Allantois—gas exchange

Muscular system

Allows body to move and respond to environment

Purpose of cell divison

Allows organisms to grow and replace cells that are old, worn out, or damaged

Types of middle clouds

Altocumulus (Ac): Gray-white clouds, consist of liquid water Altostratus (As): grayish or blue-gray clouds that span the sky

Coulomb (C)

Amount of electric energy passing by a point (C)

Work (equation)

Amount of energy expended in accomplishing goal W=Fd Work=Force*displacement

Entropy (thermodynamics)

Amount of energy in system that is no longer available for work Amount of disorder

Calorie

Amount of energy needed to raise temperature 1 gram of water 1 degree C 4.184 joules

Potential energy

Amount of energy object has stored because of its position or orientation Most common is gravitational PE=mgh PE=mass*acceleration of gravity(height

Heat capacity (thermal mass)

Amount of heat energy required to raise temperature of an object Measured in Joules per Kelvin or Joules per degree Celsius Q=C*ΔT Heat energy=heat capacity * change in object's temperature

Latent heat

Amount of heat required for a substance to undergo a phase change

Density (and formula)

Amount of mass per unit volume D=m/V g/cm^3

The leaves of an Easter Lily have parallel veins. Which of the following is most likely false?

An Easter Lily has seeds with double cotyledons.

Though the process of photosynthesis actually occurs through numerous small steps, the entire process can be summed up with the following equation: 6CO2 + 6H2O + light energy → C6H12O6 + 6O2

Chlorophyll is a green pigment that acts as the primary catalyst of photosynthesis. This unique pigment molecule has the ability of absorbing a photon of light. Chlorophyll is contained in the grana of the chloroplast. Photosynthesis can only occur where chlorophyll is present. Since it is a catalyst, it is not used up in the photosynthetic process, but must be present for the reactions to occur.

Which of the following statements about photosynthesis is NOT true?

Chlorophyll speeds the photosynthetic process, but it is not required for photosynthesis to occur.

Deep sea currents

Circumnavigate entire ocean Carries cold water from high latitudes to lower latitudes

Types of high clouds

Cirrus (Ci): thin wispy tails that consist of ice Cirrocumulus (Cc): small, pillow-like puffs, often in a row Cirrostratus (Cs): thin, sheetlike clouds, can cover entire sky

El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO)

Climate pattern of the Pacific Ocean that lasts 6-18 months Causes weather that is different from expected seasonal patterns El Niño: weakens upwelling, leads to more water staying in easter pacific La Niña: increases upwelling, winds grow stronger across pacific

Circuit

Closed path along which electrons can travel with minimal resistance except at particular locations

Mercury

Closest planet to the Sun Smallest planet Orbits every 88 days No satellites or atmosphere Many craters, dense and rocky with iron core

Lenticular (lee wave) clouds

Clouds created by air current over an obstacle, such as a mountain

Creation of Solar System

Collapse of cloud of interstellar gas and dust, formed solar nebula As it collapsed, heated up and compressed at the center, forming protoplanetary disk with protostar at center Planets formed along disk and protostar formed into the Sun

Genotype

Collectively formed by all genes in an individual. Includes genes that may not be expressed, such as recessive genes.

Mixture

Combination of two or more substances that are not bonded

Attributes of waves: -Frequency -Period -Speed -Amplitude -Rest position -Crest -Trough -Wavelength

Frequency: how often particles in medium vibrate when wave passes through medium. Measured in hertz (Hz) Period: How long it takes to complete cycle. Speed: How fast or slow wave travels. Amplitude: Maximum amount of displacement of particle from its rest position. Measure of waves strength. Rest Position: Equilibrium. Point at which there is neither positive nor negative displacement. Crest: Peak, point at which wave's positive or upward displacement from the rest position is at its maximum. Trough: Valley, point at which wave's negative displacement from rest position is at its maximum. Wavelength: One complete wave cycle. Measured from crest to crest, or any point of wave to corresponding point on next wave.

Kinetic Theory of Gases

Gas particles are in constant random motion that allows them to fill a container of any shape or size.

Boyle's Law

Gases contract under pressure If temperature remains constant, relationship between absolute pressure and volume is inversely proportional (one increases, the other decreases)

Which of the following is a length of DNA (with corresponding histones) that is responsible for the production of a particular protein that causes a particular trait to be expressed in an organism? Each consists of about four nucleosomes of a chromosome.

Gene

Pleiotropy

Gene that affects more than one trait

Dominant and recessive genes

Gene traits are presented in pairs as dominant and recessive traits (AA, Aa, aa) One gene on each chromosome half, supplied by each parent organism AA, aa-homozygous Aa-heterozygous

2 theories of relativity

General Theory of Relativity Special Theory of Relativity

Mitochondria

Generates ATP and involved in cell growth and death. Contains its own DNA. Cell can have one or several.

Species

Generic term that refers to any type of particle (i.e. atoms, molecules, molecular fragments, or specific forms of elements)

Random mutations

Genetic changes caused by DNA errors or environmental factors such as chemicals and radiation. Can be beneficial or harmful.

Translocation

Genetic mutation in which on a piece of a chromosome is transferred to another chromosome

Uniformitarianism

Gradualism Belief that forces, processes, and laws that we see today have existed throughout geologic time Relatively slow processes have shaped geological features of Earth

Gradualism vs. Punctuated Equilibrium

Gradualism: evolution proceeds at steady pace and does not include sudden developments of new species or features Punctuated Equilibrium: Long time periods of stasis accompanied by relatively brief periods of rapid change

Periodic Table groups

Group 1: Alkali Metals Group 2: Alkaline Earth Metals Group 3-12: Transition Metals Group 13: Boron Family Group 14: Carbon Family Group 15: Pnictogens Group 16: Chalcogens Group 17: Halogens Group 18: Noble Gases

Protostomic animals

Group of animals that have mouths formed from blastopore (central cavity formed during early embryonic development) Phyla include Mollusca, Annelida, Arthropoda

Species

Group of individuals that can mate and reproduce

Classification of crystals

Grouped based on their axial systems (3 axes) Cubic, hexagonal, rhombohedral, orthorhombic, monoclinic, triclinic

Pituitary glands

Growth hormone-stimulates muscle growth Thyroid stimulating hormone-signals body to produce thyroxin Adrenocorticotropic hormone-signals adrenal gland to produce cortisol Follicle-stimulating hormone-signals ovarian follicles to mature in females, regulates sperm cell production Lutenizing hormone-stimulates production of estrogen and testosterone, starts ovulation Melanocyte-stimulating hormone-skin tone Prolactin-stimulates milk release

The most abundant element in the universe

H

To melt this substance, polar intermolecular attractions must be overcome.

H20

Mammatus clouds

Hang down from the base of a cloud, usually a cumulonimbus

3 possible cycles of reproduction

Haplontic (fungi, green algae, protozoa) -Majority of life spent in haploid phase -Diploid generation is zygote Diplontic (animals, brown algae, fungi) -Majority of life spent in diplontic phase -Diploid cell has 2 sets of chromosomes -Haploid generation is egg and sperm Haplodiplontic (plants and some fungi) -Alternation of generations -Half of life spent in haplontic life cycle, half spent in diplontic life cycle

Meteor shower

Happen when Earth passes through debris of a comet, associated with higher than normal number of meteors

Physical properties of minerals

Hardness Luster Color Streak Cleavage

In a population that is in equilibrium with its environment, gene frequencies and genotype ratios remain constant

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

Semisynchronous orbit

Has orbital period of half a sidereal day

Waves relationship with energy and matter

Have energy and can transfer it when they interact with matter. Do not transport matter.

Vascular plants

Have vascular tissue: xylem and phloem which make up parts of plants that are involved in transporting minerals and water (roots, stems, leaves) Food/energy that is produced by photosynthesis in the leaves can be brought down to the roots, while water from the roots can be brought to the leaves at the top Allows plants to grow tall

Specific heat capacity (specific heat)

Heat capacity per unit mass Every element has its own specific heat Q=m*C*ΔT

Conduction (thermodynamics)

Heat transfer occurring at molecular level Energy transfers from a high temperature material to a lower temperature material, until both are similar temperature

Radiation (thermodynamics)

Heat transfer that occurs through electromagnetic waves, which carry energy away from source object All objects with temperature above absolute zero radiate heat

Convection (thermodynamics)

Heat transfer that occurs through movement of liquids or gasses If some fluid is hotter/less dense than surrounding fluid, heat is transferred away from source towards cooler/denser area

Postzygotic barriers to reproduction

Hybrid validity (zygote doesn't reach maturity) Hybrid sterility (offspring reaches maturity, but is sterile) Hybrid breakdown (1st generations is viable and can reproduce, but following generations and either nonviable or infertile) Hybrid zygot abnormality (zygote does not survive birth or germination, does not develop normally, or does not reach sexual maturity and cannot reproduce) Allopatric speciation (Speciation that occurs due to geography, such as physical barriers or dispersal) Sympatric speciation (mutant species results from parent population, that is unable to breed with parent population) Parapatric speciation (speciation that occurs because of an extreme change in habitat)

Examples of strong acids

Hydrochloric acid (HCl) Nitric acid (HNO3) Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4).

2 most abundant elements in the universe

Hydrogen (H) Helium (He) Followed by oxygen, neon, nitrogen, carbon, silicon, magnesium

Most abundant element in stars

Hydrogen in its plasma state

Oxidation state

Hypothetical charge on an atom if all its bonds are 100% ionic Increased through loss of electrons (oxidation) and decreased through gain of electrons (reduction) Almost always the same as Oxidation Number and often used interchangeably

Oort Cloud

Hypothetical, may exist beyond Kuiper Belt and act as source for long-period comets

Punnett Square

Illustrates how parents' alleles might combine in offspring

Silicone Monoxide (SiO)

The SiO crystal is held together with network covalent forces, which are the strongest of interatomic forces.

The sun emits energy throughout the entire electromagnetic spectrum, including all wavelengths of visible light. Bodies of water only appear to be reflected by the sky under certain conditions when a mirage forms. Not every day meets these conditions but the sky is usually blue. And since very little light reaches our eyes from stars other than the sun, outer space appears black, not blue. The distance of the surface to the mesosphere does not have anything to do with how we view its color. The atmosphere refracts light in the blue portion of the light spectrum so that the sky appears blue. Air molecules scatter the Sun's light in all directions. However, air is a selective scatterer, which scatters shorter wavelengths much more than longer ones. This causes more light from the shorter wavelength of the blue portion of the spectrum to be scattered to the Earth. This gives the sky its bluish appearance. At sunrise and sunset, though, the light must travel through much more of the atmosphere, due to its low angle of elevation. This causes most of the shorter wavelength blue portion of the spectrum to be scattered out before reaching Earth, leaving the longer wavelength red portion to be seen. This is what gives both sunrise and sunset a reddish appearance.

The sky is blue because... long answer

Magnetic moment

The strength of a magnetic field

Sidereal day

The time for one complete rotation of the earth relative to a particular star, about 4 minutes shorter than a mean solar day

Sidereal year

The time required for Earth to complete exactly one orbit around the Sun, relative to the stars.

5 layers of Earth's atmopshere

Troposphere: where life exists and whether occurs (0-15 km) Stratosphere: Has ozone layer (absorbs UV radiation from sun), hottest layer, where satellites orbit (15-50 km) Mesosphere: coldest layer, where meteors burn up (50-80 km) Thermosphere: where ISS orbits (80-700 km) Exosphere: mainly hydrogen and helium (up to 10,000 km)

Plant root system

Tuber: underground stem used for food storage Rhizome: underground stem that sends out roots and shoots from nodes

Polymorph

Two minerals with the same chemical composition, but different crystal structures

Nuclear reactions

Two nuclei collide Result is release or absorption of energy and products that are different from initial particles Can result in kinetic energy, gamma rays (high energy photons)

Allotropes

Two or more different molecular forms of the same element in the same physical state

Combination/Synthesis reactions

Two or more reactants combine to form a single product A + B → C

Black smoker

Type of hydrothermal vent formed when superheated water from below Earth's crust emerges from ocean floor Contact between hot water and cold water creates black vent

Beta particles

Type of radiation Negatively charged Can be meta-minus or beta-plus Can be stopped with thin metal

Gamma particles

Type of radiation Neutral charge Type of high energy electromagnetic radiation consisting of photons Rids decaying nucleus of excess energy after it has emitted either alpha or beta radiation Can cause serious damage when absorbed by living tissue, only thick lead can stop it

Alpha particles

Type of radiation Positively charged Large and can cause severe damage if ingested, but easily stopped

Single Replacement reactions

Types of oxidation/reduction reactions Electrons transferred from one chemical to another

Neutrons

Uncharged atomic particles within nucleus N

Seamount

Undersea volcanic peak, at least 1,000 meters

Facilitated Diffusion

allows for the transfer of substances across the cell membrane with the help of specialized proteins.

When the nucleus of an atom emits a package of two protons and two neutrons _________ occurs.

alpha decay

Skin

an accessory excretory organ that secretes wastes with water from sweat glands.

Dominant Allele

an allele that masks the effect of its partner allele.

Territory

an area of land that lies within the home range that the individual will defend as his own.

Reflexes

an automatic movement of a body part in response to a stimulus.

Biome

an ecosystem that is generally defined by its climate characteristics.

Organism

an individual of a particular species.

Nucleus

an organelle surrounded by two lipid bilayer membranes that is located near the center of the cell and contains chromosomes, nuclear pores, nucleoplasm, and nucleoli.

Society

an organization of individuals in a population in which tasks are divided in order for the group to work together.