The Consequences of Ideas I: Classical to Medieval

When Plotinus developed his form of philosophy, he did it as a conscious alternative to which belief system?

Christianity Plotinus believed that Christianity had overthrown the contributions of Plato, so he developed a philosophical system that would reconstruct Plato and be an alternative to Christianity at the same time.

Christian mysticism is different from Plotinus' mysticism in that Christianity stops with which of the following?

Communio For the Christian, the highest form of mysticism is communion or communio with God, in which the Christian has fellowship with God and with His people.

Ancient philosophers were not concerned with the question of the purpose of the universe, but they were only concerned with how things work.

False Ancient philosophers were very much concerned with the question of purpose in the universe, not only asking the question of how but also of why things are the way they are. They were very much concerned with the purpose of human existence.

According to the lecture, Aristotle's greatest contribution to the fields of philosophy and science was his invention of logic. True or False

False Aristotle did not invent logic any more than Christopher Columbus invented America. Aristotle sought to articulate how logical categories function. Aristotle believed that logic was a necessary tool for intelligent discourse.

Both Augustine and Anselm encouraged believers to be wary of utilizing reason and logic when seeking to understand the Christian faith. They saw "blind faith" as one of the highest forms of Christian devotion. True or False

False Both Anselm and Augustine encouraged believers not to be childish in their faith, but rather to seek to understand the truth of God in a way that is motivated by faith in God. Anselm and Augustine were not against logic but encouraged believers to use it in accordance with faith.

Hebrew thought only became monotheistic after many years, while Greek thought began with this idea. True or False

False The Greek philosophers went through different stages before they arrived at a form of monotheism. The Hebrews began with the understanding of God as infinite and eternal, which can be seen in Genesis 1:1: "In the beginning, God created . . ."

Many modern existentialists appeal to Parmenides as the father of existentialism. True or False

False The belief of modern existentialism teaches that there are no absolutes and that there is only existence rather than essence. Modern existentialists appeal to Heraclitus as the father of their movement.

Which of the following was Socrates known as?

Gadfly of Athens Socrates was called the "Gadfly of Athens" for provoking people to think more deeply and critically. His passion was to get people to examine their ideas, not to just accept them unanalyzed or leave them unchallenged based on cultural assumptions.

Which of the following radical ideas was not introduced by Christian thought?

God as possessing an eternal body Christianity arose in the vacuum of skepticism and brought the minds of the people back to considering questions of absolute truth. Some of the ideas that Christian theologians introduced were the concepts of the Trinity, God voluntarily creating, and the progression of history according to God's plan.

Even though some Greek philosophers held to what might be called monotheism, what wasn't shared in their view of an all-powerful "god" that the Hebrews believed about God?

God is personal. For the Greek philosophers, the idea of an infinite, eternal source of unity, or "god," was an abstract idea and did not carry with it any notions of personality. The Hebrews believed that the infinite and eternal One was a "who" and revealed Himself to His people in the Old Testament.

What does "divine fiat" refer to?

God's power in creating something out of nothing The "divine fiat" is a divine command. God has the power to say, "Let there be." By virtue of the creative power of God who is the eternal source of all being, He can command something into being that previously was not.

Which ancient civilization is most strongly associated with Western philosophy?

Greek While people such as the Hebrews or the Magi in the East produced a body of philosophical inquiry, philosophy in the West is related to the Greeks because of Greek thinkers such as Thales, Socrates, and Plato.

In what way was Aristotle a nominalist?

He believed the mind could categorize and name information apart from existing ideas. Aristotle was not a realist and did not believe that universal ideas had an independent reality. Rather, Aristotle believed that the mind was capable of synthesizing objects into categories and naming those categories without any notion of a preconceived idea of the forms. For Aristotle, universals concepts are merely names invented by the mind.

Even though theologians have used Aristotle's views, how is the God of the Bible different from Aristotle's god?

He is personal and loving. Theologians such as Aquinas appropriated some of Aristotle's verbiage, but Aristotle's view of god is far from the Bible's teaching of God as personal and loving. The true God, even though He is pure being, speaks to His people and desires a relationship with them.

Which pre-Socratic philosopher said, "Everything that exists is in a state of flux."

Heraclitus Heraclitus taught that all things are in a constant state of change. His famous motto stated, "You cannot step into the same river twice." This phrase highlights Heraclitus' belief that everything is changing.

What question does epistemology deal with?

How do we know what we know? One concern for philosophers historically was the subdivision of philosophy called epistemology. Epistemology deals with the science of learning. It seeks to answer the question, "How do we know what we know?"

To Plato, how should the physical world be considered?

Imperfect Plato spoke of the imperfection of the physical world in metaphysical categories, but it did not take long for this view to be given a moral dimension. Eventually, many philosophies and even Christians denied the goodness of the physical realm.

Unlike his teacher, Plato, what did Aristotle believe about the acquiring of knowledge?

Knowledge is a posteriori. For Aristotle, knowledge is a posteriori, which means it comes through experience. Aristotle believed that knowledge comes through an impression on the five senses.

What is a priori knowledge?

Knowledge that is already contained within the mind A priori knowledge is a term that is encountered frequently in the study of philosophy. The term refers to knowledge that is already in the mind or is prior to any experience. In contrast, a posteriori refers to knowledge gained through experience.

According to Aristotle's Theory of Substance, individual objects, entities, and things contain both:

Matter and form For Aristotle, within each object was matter and form. The form is its eternal being and the matter is that which is changing and is the locus of its potential.

Which of the pre-Socratic philosophers said, "Whatever is, is"?

Parmenides In his debate with Heraclitus, Parmenides famously stated, "Whatever is, is." In saying this, Parmenides was stating that reality cannot be real if it is constantly changing.

Aristotle disagreed with the Theory of Ideas, which was embraced by which philosopher?

Plato Aristotle had many disagreements with his teacher, Plato, which is one of the reasons Plato refused to make Aristotle his successor in his Academy. But most important was Aristotle's disagreement with Plato's Theory of Ideas, which Aristotle said created an unnecessary dualism between the forms and the receptacles.

Plato believed that everyone is born with innate ideas, that they are born with knowledge of the eternal realm. True or False

Plato believed in the eternality of the soul, which came from the realm of the forms. Because of its eternality, the soul possesses innate knowledge of the realm of the forms. This means that a person is already born with knowledge of the eternal.

According to the lecture, with whom did Western philosophy begin?

Thales Western philosophy did not begin with Socrates or with those who came after him. Philosophy in the West began with Thales and his scientific endeavors.

What did Augustine teach about sense perception?

That sense perception is basically reliable Even though our sense perception is not perfect, our senses are the only connection we have to processing information given to us from the real world. Augustine recognized that our senses are important to functioning in the world, so he defended the truth that sense perception is basically reliable.

How did the philosopher Gorgias define what is good?

That which advances self-interests Gorgias was a philosopher who can be defined as an early skeptic. He taught that the good is that which men see as working in their favor or their own self-interests. In Gorgias' view, good is not absolute but relative.

What does the category of being in ancient Greek philosophy refer to?

That which is The concept of being or actuality has to do with what is, what is stable or permanent. The ancient philosophers debated whether the concept of being or becoming was more important.

Augustine fought hard against the views of which philosophical group?

The Neo-Platonists Augustine fought Neo-Platonism with a vengeance. Part of the problem with the Neo-Platonist and other Greek philosophers was that they saw the world as a necessary extension of the being of God, denying the free voluntary work of creation by God. This left them in a form of pantheism, a view that Augustine opposed.

Which philosophical group focused more on rhetoric and delivery in order to persuade their listeners?

The Sophists In their education, sophists valued the art of rhetoric and persuasive speech. Though rhetorical skills are important in a holistic education, the sophists valued presentation over content. The truth of what was being said wasn't as important as how it was being said, especially in a legal setting.

For Augustine, whenever a person deals with a formal truth, e.g., 2+2=4, what is that person is dealing with?

The eternal mind of God If the mind can recognize that certain truths are objective, such as mathematics, then there must be an immediate recognition that there must be a foundation for these eternal truths. Augustine believed that the eternal source of truth was the eternal mind of God.

For Augustine, what is the ultimate happiness that a human being can experience?

The knowledge of God Augustine was concerned with the philosophical question of man's happiness, but not in the same way that the Stoics or the Epicureans answered the question. For Augustine, man's happiness could only be found in knowing God, which Augustine argued was the soul's supreme happiness.

According to this lecture, what is the first law of logic that is necessary to understand?

The law of non-contradiction Aristotle postulated the law of non-contradiction because it is necessary for the subject and the predicate in a statement to not be brought into irreconcilable opposition to each other. The law states that A cannot be both A and non-A at the same time and in the same relationship. This law is necessary to understand before any meaningful communication can take place.

Anselm's work Proslogion developed which controversial argument for God's existence?

The ontological argument The ontological argument is an argument from being to the existence of God. Anselm said, "God is that than which no greater can be conceived. For God to be that than which no greater can be conceived, He must exist in reality as well as in the mind."

What was the main problem that Thales was grappling with, according to the lecture?

The problem of the one and the many Thales was dealing with the most ancient question of antiquity when he was grappling with the problem of the one and the many. Is there any unity in the diversity we see in this world?

How can ontology can be defined?

The science of being Ontology seeks to ask questions about the essence of reality. The question, "What is being?" has been the metaphysical quest in the history of philosophy.

What did Plotinus believe was the way to attain to the highest source of knowledge?

Through mystical experience Plotinus did not reject rationality but believed that knowledge could be obtained through mystical intuition or experience. Plotinus' view later led to a mystical elite group of people who were gifted with this intuition, a view that had clear point of contact with earlier Gnosticism.

What is the goal of the Socratic method?

To arrive at true knowledge Socrates believed that the unexamined life was not worth living. He challenged the presuppositions of his culture by engaging people in dialogue through a series of questions, which is known as the Socratic method. According to Socrates, true knowledge is discovered through the admission of ignorance.

According to Plato's Theory of Recollection, what does true learning consist of?

To remember information that already exists in the mind through questioning, dialogue, debate, and contemplation Because of Plato's understanding of the eternality of the soul, he believed that knowledge of the forms was buried within the soul of a person. Therefore, education isn't so much about learning new information but is the remembering of information already in the mind that is buried. This information can be resurfaced through questioning and dialogue.

Which Roman Catholic doctrine appropriates Aristotle's language of substance and accidens to explain the doctrine's nature?

Transubstantiation To explain their understanding of transubstantiation, the Roman Catholic Church utilizes the language of Aristotle to explain how the substance of bread and wine are transformed into the body and blood of Christ, without losing the external properties, or accidens, of bread and wine.

For Plato, redemption meant release from the physical world in order to live in the world of spirit and ideas. True or False

True Plato denied the goodness of the creation and taught that redemption was an escape from the physical realm to enter the realm of the forms or spirits. This view is opposed to Christianity which sees the resurrection of the body as key to redemption.

An incorporeal pluralist would believe that:

Ultimate reality can be divided into multiple nonphysical essences. An incorporeal pluralist can be distinguished from a corporal pluralist in that an incorporeal pluralist would argue that reality can be reduced to spiritual substances and that there are a multiple number of these substances as opposed to only one.

A corporeal monist would believe that:

Ultimate reality can be reduced to a single physical element or substance. Corporal monists would see ultimate reality as being able to be reduced into a single essence, such as air or fire. Thales was a corporal monist when he said that everything could be reduced to the substance of water.

What was Aristotle's fundamental concern?

Unity Aristotle had a singular passion for unity. He had a desire to have a unified theory of knowledge that would incorporate the different sciences of biology, physics, astronomy, ethics, and aesthetics.

What essence did Thales believe was ultimately underlying everything in the universe?

Water Thales believed water was the ultimate reality underlying everything because water explained ontology or being; it explained the relationship of solids, liquids, and gases; and it explained the problem of motion.

What question was Anselm trying to answer in his book Cur Deus Homo?

Why the God-man? In writing his work Cur Deus Homo, Anselm was attempting to give a rational explanation for why it was necessary for the mediator between God and man to Himself be both God and Man.

When Aristotle spoke of "accidens," he was referring to the external, perceivable qualities of an object. True or False

With the naked eye, a person can only see the external qualities of the object, such as its color or texture. These visible external qualities are called "accidens" in Aristotle's understanding.

Who was highlighted as using a reductio ad absurdum argument?

Zeno The reductio ad absurdum argument is when a debater adopts the thesis of his opponent and seeks to carry that position to its logical conclusion. Zeno would do this to show the logical absurdity of his opponent's position.

By which of the following phrases did God reveal Himself to Moses in the burning bush (Ex. 3:14)?

"I am who I am" In the burning bush, God revealed Himself to Moses with the phrase "I AM WHO I AM" (Ex. 3:14). With this statement, God makes it clear that He is not potential, that there is no deficiency in Him, and that He is pure actuality.

What inscription was over the entrance to Plato's Academy?

"Let none but geometers enter here." Plato famously started a school known as the Academy. The phrase "Let none but geometers enter here" shows Plato's belief that reality is mathematic.

Dr. Sproul said that Socrates is famous for initiating which phrase?

"The unexamined life is not worth living." Socrates' passion was to equip people to think and to examine their lives. Socrates taught his pupils not to accept the ideas of their time without examination and critical analysis.

What phrase did Aristotle use to describe his understanding of God?

"The unmoved mover" Aristotle understood God as pure form that could not be moved. This god, who was pure form, oversaw all things potential and generated them into movement and being.

To illustrate his ideas about the nature of reality, Plato told a parable about people who were bound in chains looking at shadows being cast on the wall of what?

A cave Plato's Allegory of the Cave was an illustration that taught that people need to stop focusing merely on the physical realm and to lift their minds to the realm of forms to see true reality. Plato taught this analogously with a parable of prisoners watching shadows on a cave wall but one of them exiting the cave and seeing the sun for the first time.

Anselm used his ontological argument to point to the logical necessity of what kind of being?

A necessary being A necessary being is that being that is both logically necessary to assume and ontologically necessary. With this distinction, Anselm taught that the being than which no greater can be conceived cannot be conceived of as not existing. Anselm showed the logical necessity of a real being, which is a powerful argument for God's existence.

What is significant about the date May 28, 585 BC?

A solar eclipse occurred. Scholars often pinpoint the birth of Western philosophy as May 28, 585 BC because of the solar eclipse that occurred on that date. The reason for this is because Thales predicted in advance the coming of the solar eclipse.

In opposition to Thales, what did Anaximenes of Miletus believe was the answer to being, essence, and motion?

Air Anaximenes recognized the importance of air for living creatures to have their being. Air seemed to move by itself, which answered the question of motion. Air can also be condensed to a bare essence. Because of these reasons, Anaximenes maintained that air, not water, was the essence of reality.

Who was Aristotle's most famous pupil?

Alexander the Great Alexander the Great's motivation for conquering the world of his time was for a unified culture to exist in the ancient world. Alexander learned this desire for unity from his teacher, Aristotle.

What does Plato's Theory of Ideas, or Forms, make him in philosophical categories?

An idealist and a realist Plato was an idealist because he believed that truth is ultimately formal, not material. Plato was also a realist because he believed the forms or ideas are real and possess ontological status. These two terms may sound contradictory, but Plato's realism was tied to the supremacy of the forms that exist apart from us.

For Plato, a "receptacle," everything that exists in the physical world, is which of the following?

An imperfect copy of the spiritual, ideal form of that object Plato articulated that chairs, trees, and any physical objects were imperfect copies or "receptacles" of their ideal forms. For Plato, the realm of the ideas or forms is real, and receptacles in the physical world are mere copies of these true realities.

Which of the following options did Anselm's book Monologion seek to explain?

Anselm's reasons for believing God Anselm famously said that he believes in order to understand. Anselm did not adhere to a view of "blind faith" but understood that faith is necessary to understand the truths of God.

What did Anaximander of Miletus believe was the ultimate essence of reality?

Apeiron Anaximander did not believe that ultimate reality could be reduced to a single physical element but believed that reality could be explained in terms of the apeiron, or a boundless, ageless and infinite material. Anaximander believed that the ultimate could not be finite or bound by time, which is why he stated that the ultimate reality had to be infinite and eternal.

In adhering to the concept of "I believe in order that I may understand," Anselm was standing in the tradition of which famous theologian?

Augustine Anselm followed in the footsteps of Augustine and adopted a concept that Augustine himself had used as part of his own understanding. That is the phrase credo ut intelligam. In that phrase, what is being confessed are these words: "I believe in order that I might understand."

Who was called the greatest theologian of the first one thousand years of church history?

Augustine Because of his contributions to theology and philosophy, Augustine came to be known as the greatest theologian of the first millennium of the church. Augustine's influence can be seen in the fact that both Protestants and Catholics claim him as their spiritual father.

Plotinus influenced the early beliefs of which famous theologian?

Augustine One of the most important influences of Plotinus in the history of philosophy is his influence on Augustine. Augustine was converted to Neo-Platonism in his earlier years and then, when he was converted to Christianity, he became the chief critic of the ancient world of Neo-Platonism.

What was the highest form of mysticism for Plotinus?

Becoming one with God A common feature in Eastern religions is the notion of losing one's personal being and becoming one with God. Plotinus articulated this belief and taught that the stage of unio or being one with God is as high into mysticism that one can go.

For Plato, the physical world is in a state of becoming and the ideal forms of the spiritual world is in a state of what?

Being To answer the age-old debate of being and becoming, Plato argued that the realm we see is the state of becoming and that the realm above the physical creation is the realm of being. With this, Plato was trying to account for the unanswered questions of Heraclitus and Parmenides.

What was the charge on which Socrates was put to death?

Being an atheist and corrupting the youth of Athens Socrates rejected the pagan deities of the city of Athens and taught his pupils to question accepted ideas. As a result, Socrates was charged with atheism and corrupting the youth. Socrates was sentenced to death by drinking hemlock.