the effects of world war II on the home front
Government Supply Agencies
A centralized procurement agency, the Office of Production Management (OPM), was established in January of 1941 in anticipation of American involvement in World War II. Donald Nelson, former executive vice president of Sears Roebuck, was named as Director of Priorities. By July, the Supply, Priorities, and Allocations Board (SPAB) was established to deal with inefficiencies in supply processes. Nelson was named as the director of the board. Roosevelt abolished the OPM and SPAB after the United States entered World War II. In January of 1942, the War Production Board (WPB) was created by executive order, with Nelson at the helm. The WPB was given sweeping controls that allowed it to assign priorities to scarce materials production and prohibit the production of non-essential goods. The board existed for 3 years, yet supervised the production of $185 billion worth of war supplies. $100 billion of military orders were placed in 1942 alone, requiring a full and efficient industrial capacity to meet the demand.
Poised for the Future
America also benefited from German wartime advancements. After the war, the US government enlisted select scientists to immigrate to America to work in key industries. Perhaps the most influential scientist was Werner von Braun, a leader in the development of German rocket-fueled weapons. Braun helped to develop satellites and the American space program. He became the director of NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center in 1960. World War II created the opportunity for technological advancements, requiring an organized supply chain and a deep pool of talent. At the end of the war, the United States was poised for prosperity, expansion, and diversification. The only other superpower still standing was the Soviet Union, setting the stage for the cold war conflict pitting capitalism against communism.
Racism on the Home Front
Approximately 400,000 Japanese men and women migrated to Hawaii and the Pacific coast between 1885 and 1924. This immigrant group was better educated and had more money than most European immigrants. They quickly dominated California agriculture, drawing animosity from white laborers and farmers. Fueled by long standing prejudice and post Pearl Harbor panic, Executive Order No. 9066 stripped 110,000 Japanese, two-thirds of them American citizens, of their property, and moved them to internment camps; one such camp was located in Amache, Colorado. While Mexican Americans were encouraged to fill US labor shortages by the government through the bracero program, they continued to experience discrimination. Young Latinos wearing loud zoot suits were perceived to be cultural rebels. Racial tensions erupted in Los Angeles in 1943 when sailors searched out and attacked zoot-suited youths, starting a multi-day riot. African Americans (10 percent of the American population at the start of the war) were the largest minority group. While the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) was actively fighting discrimination, progress continued to be slow. African Americans hoped that World War II would provide opportunities to improve domestic conditions.
African Americans in the Military
At the start of the war, blacks were excluded from the army, the army air forces, and the marines. The navy permitted blacks to serve as waiters. Yielding to home front pressure, the army formed several all black units; however they were led by white officers because of the dominant belief that blacks were not capable of leading men on the battlefield. The Navy began recruiting blacks in 1942. By the end of 1943, 79,000 of the 504,000 troops overseas were black and over 1 million served during the course of the war. The units remained segregated throughout the war. Even blood and blood plasma donated by whites and blacks, as per the directives of the American Cross, were segregated. This is especially ironic as Dr. Charles Drew, an African American hematologist, discovered how to store blood plasma safely. He established the American Red Cross blood bank, and was its first director. Black forces were generally assigned to home-front service positions. The only black army division to experience combat was the 92nd Infantry. The Tuskegee Airmen, the black 94th Pursuit Squadron, gained renown for its skill protecting bombers.
World War II Legacy
Blacks assigned overseas were generally afforded more opportunity to develop skills and demonstrate abilities than those on the home front. They were also frequently treated better in foreign countries than they were in the United States. At war's end, they returned home with self-confidence and more expansive perspectives. The contribution of African Americans to the war effort did not go unrecognized. In 1948, Executive Order 9981 ending segregation was issued by President Truman. The order established equal treatment and equal opportunity within the armed forces
The Cost of War
Building a war machine took a domestic toll. In addition to rationing and inflation, the National War Labor Board (NWLB) mandated ceilings on wages. Labor unions, which gained over 3 million new members during the war, deeply resented government-imposed wage restrictions. Congress passed the Smith-Connelly Anti-Strike Act in June of 1943 to quell strike threats. This act enabled the federal government to seize and operate any industries slowed by strikes and made strikes against a government-operated industry a criminal offense. The government took over the coal mining industry during the war and even assumed control of railways for part of the war. By the end of the war, less than 1 percent of the total labor force work hours were affected via work stoppages. The war was expensive; the total war bill was more than $330 billion: 10 times the expense of WWI and double all cumulative spending since 1776. The national debt more than quadrupled from 1940 to 1945.
African Americans on the Home Front
In 1940, whites had a 10 percent unemployment rate while African Americans experienced a 20 percent unemployment rate. The majority of employed blacks held unskilled jobs, earning a family income of one-third that of the average white family. Wartime job opportunities drove significant domestic migrations, as people sought new jobs in cities such as Detroit, Los Angeles, and Seattle. The south experienced the most dramatic shift in population. Even though the south received a disproportionate number of defense contracts in an effort to stimulate the stagnant economy, 1.6 million blacks left the south to migrate to Northern and Western cities. Rather than leave discrimination behind, racial tensions moved from a regional to a national stage. Blacks were initially denied access to higher paying jobs and tensions escalated over housing and segregated facilities. Membership in the NAACP grew rapidly to nearly 500,000 members. Threats of a Negro March on Washington in 1941 caused FDR to issue an executive order that forbade discrimination in defense industries. The Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPC) was established to ensure compliance with the order
Workforce Demographics
Prior to the war, women made up 25 percent of the workforce (12 million). By the end of the war, women made up 33 percent of the workforce (18 million). Nearly half of the 6 million new women workers obtained jobs in defense plants. Most of the women worked in tedious low paying jobs, freeing up men to either take better paying jobs or to join the armed forces. However there was some true integration of the genders in semi-skilled and skilled factory work. Despite the influx of women to the wartime labor force, most American women continued in the traditional role of stay-at-home wife and mother.
African Americans at War
Racial prejudice had eased towards most ethnicities by the time the United States entered World War II, in part because immigration had been constrained between the two world wars. African Americans, along with those of Japanese and Mexican ancestry, continued to experience discrimination. While minority groups supported the war effort, some experienced a paradox: they fought for freedom abroad, while freedoms at home were limited. Minorities rallied behind the slogan "Double V"—victory over the dictators abroad / victory over racism at home.
Rosie the Riveter
Rosie the Riveter became the government-sponsored icon that helped women gain acceptance into traditionally male-dominated roles. Rosie represented the image of the ideal worker: pretty, loyal, efficient, and hard working. The first widely publicized portrait appeared in May of 1943, when Norman Rockwell's image of Rosie appeared on the Saturday Evening Post's cover. Her most well known image appeared on the government poster titled "We can do it." She became a media success, appearing in magazines, billboards, and posters throughout the country. Take a look are her image. What feelings do you think she is expressing? How does her image differ from traditional images?
Technological Advancements
Technology played a significant role in the outcome of World War II. To support the total war effort, government sponsored technological advances were made in weaponry, transportation, communication, medicine and factories and farming. New management methodologies were also developed to orchestrate large and complex projects; the methodological concepts are still used today to manage engineering and its projects. Electronics, such as radar and sonar, proved to be important in the war. Complex problems such as code breaking inspired the development of early computers. ENIAC is viewed to be the first electronic computer; it was developed to improve artillery accuracy. Research important to the development of the atomic bomb led to nuclear power being used to generate electricity. Improvements in farming had a lasting effect on demographics and the economy. New machinery decreased the need for manual labor; returning soldiers flocked to cities rather than return to family farms
New Roles for Women
The American military forces enlisted 15 million men and over 200,000 women in World War II. Women were used in noncombat duties in the Army (WACS) and the Navy (WAVES), as well as the Coast Guard (SPARs). Women were especially needed to fill nursing positions. Even though the government exempted categories of industrial and agricultural workers from the draft, factories and farms remained short of required workers. Six million women joined the work force; more than half of them had never worked for wages prior to the war. A shift in attitude towards women working outside the home started in the 1930s, as women joined the workforce due to economic necessity. Widespread poverty required some women to work to help their families survive. Cultural viewpoints still prevailed; middle class women were expected to stay at home while their husbands worked. When the initial female response was insufficient to meet work demands, the government sponsored a propaganda campaign to lure women into the job market by selling the importance of the war effort.
Female Response to Call to Arms
The response to the propaganda campaign differed based upon race, economic marital status, and age. Half of the women who took war jobs were already in the workplace; these women were typically from poor minority groups who switched from low paying jobs to higher paying factory work. Young unmarried women were initially targeted, however married women were eventually recruited due to continued labor shortages. Labor demands continued to be so great that married women with young children were recruited. To support the transition of stay-at-home mothers to working mothers, the government was compelled to establish 3,000 day care centers throughout the nation. While patriotism was the original inducement, economic incentives were the deciding factor for most women. Once women began to work, many discovered they liked it
Building a War Economy
The volume of military goods produced by American factories was colossal: 300,000 aircraft, 76,000 ships, 86,000 tanks, 2.6 million machine guns, and 40 billion bullets. In order to fill the military orders, the WPB halted production of goods considered to be non-essential to the war effort, such as passenger cars. Wide-sweeping production efficiencies were required to support the war effort to compensate for loss of workers to the military. Shipbuilder Henry Kaiser was able to assemble a ship in 14 days, earning his moniker "Sir Launchalot." Introduction of heavy farm machinery and improved fertilizers enabled farmers to grow record-breaking wheat harvests in 1944 and 1945. The government intervened when domestic or war situations were perceived to warrant it. Rationing of scarce goods, such as meat and butter, kept down inflation. A national speed limit and gas rationing were imposed to conserve rubber when the Japanese cut off Allied access to natural rubber sources.
The United States Emerges as an Economic Power
While World War II ravaged the rest of the world, it revitalized the American economy. With the exception of the bombing of Pearl Harbor, the nation experienced no domestic war damage. Mobilizing American industries to supply a global army made the nation wealthy. The gross national product (GNP) and corporate earnings doubled during the war years. The GNP rose from $100 million in 1940 to more than $200 million in 1945 and corporate earnings grew from $6 billion to nearly $12 billion in four years. The average American benefited from the wealth of the war as well. Overtime pay increased disposable income, despite wage ceilings. Americans had money and were anxious to spend it. On December 7 of 1944, Macy's department store rang up record sales. War had cured the economic depression.
The US Wartime Economy
World War II caused the US government to expand upon the economic ideological changes begun during the Great Depression. The nation focused on economic survival during the 1930s. The Protestant work ethic was weakened during the Great Depression as many of those who had worked hard and saved were as poor as those who did neither. Keynesian economics, introduced in the 1930s, espoused that savings took money away from consumption. Thus, resources were underutilized, constraining economic growth and prosperity. Government intervention was believed to be required to prime the economic pump when the economy stalled. Americans focused on national survival during World War II. The United States was a latecomer to the war effort and the government faced a huge challenge to retool its production and manufacturing centers before Britain and the Soviet Union were overcome by Germany and Japan. The scope of the war was global, requiring supplies to be distributed to allied troops from Europe to the South Pacific. Government response to the challenge was aggressive.
Propaganda Campaigns
World War II was an industrialized war, similar to World War I, making the home front industrial output important to the war effort. As domestic morale was essential to the war effort, propaganda was introduced to ensure civilian commitment. Poster campaigns reached out to women and African Americans, and helped to transform their social roles and images. The press, radio and billboards—traditional forms of advertisement—were used to sustain domestic morale. The United States also mobilized the Hollywood motion picture industry to support wartime propaganda themes. Posters were the primary form of public communication in World War I, and became core to the World War II propaganda effort. The poster campaign was a visual call to arms, used to engage American support for the war by investing in the cause by buying war bonds, rationing, and working more efficiently. The campaign also informed Americans of the dangers of Nazism and reminded citizens of American values. The US Office of War Information (OWI) was created in June of 1942 to control the content and the image of war messages. Many members of the OWI were recruited from the world of advertising and their influence changed the image and message of posters to reflect simple advertising messages.
