The French Revolution and Napoleon

Rise of Nationalism

"A sense of identity and unity as a people." During the Revolution, the French people developed a new loyalty to France as a whole. In addition, similar feeling of nationalism spread to peoples that Napoleon had conquered. *Eventually sparks WWI*

Costly Mistakes/Impact

1. Continental System 2. The Peninsular War 3. Invasion of Russia (one of the worst mistakes ever in history)

Napoleon's Battle Tactics

"Steal the March": With tall soldiers, Napoleon got to places before his enemies "Coup d'oiel": Napoleon would survey the fighting land in order to understand his best approach of fighting "Manoevre sur les derrieres": He usually had 2 troops at the front line, and 3 troops waiting behind them. They would eventually attack by running around and blocking off ways of escape (a rear-end attack)

Elba/exile

(1st exile) After surrendering France to the Fourth Coalition, Napoleon was allowed to keep his title of emperor, but his new empire was tiny-a small Mediterranean island named Elba, off the coast of Italy. He went into exile with a small pension and about 400 prison guards at the age of 45. After about a year in exile on Elba, Napoleon managed to hire a ship that took him and many supporters back to France.

Major Events timeline

1789: -National Assembly forms -Fall of the Bastille -Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen 1791: -Legislative Assembly forms -France declares war against Austria and Prussia 1792: -National Convention forms -Monarchy ends 1793: -Louis XVI executed -First coalition forms against France -Reign of Terror begins 1795: -The Directory forms 1799: -Napoleon seizes power 1805: -French defeat at Trafalgar, victory at Austerlitz 1812: -Disastrous Russian campaign 1813: -Napoleon exiled to Elba 1815: -Napoleon's Hundred Days -French defeat at Waterloo -Napoleon exiled to Saint Helena -Congress of Vienna

Hundred Days

A brief period in 1815 of renewed glory for Napoleon and of problems for his enemies. It was the time period between his escape at Elba (March) and his defeat at the Battle of Waterloo (June). After his escape, Napoleon landed on the north coast of France and headed for Paris. Rumors of Napoleon's return spread causing Louis XVIII to panic and flee to Belgium. The allies also declared Napoleon an outlaw. The French people who despised Napoleon for dragging France through years of bitter warfare were not happy. Thousands of other French citizens, however, were excited to hear that Napoleon was back. They still adored their emperor for the reforms he had made and the glory he had won for France. In fact, the troops sent to arrest Napoleon pledged their loyalty to him instead and volunteer to become his army. He then re-declares himself emperor and leader of France.

Coup de'etat

A forced transfer of power. This was when armed supporters of Napoleon surrounded the Directory legislature and forced members to turn the government over to Napoleon in November of 1799. He becomes a dictator of France.

Widespread hunger and record cold

A hailstorm and a drought ruined the harvest. Then, the winter of 1788 was the worst in 80 years. Frozen rivers prevented waterwheels from powering the mills that ground wheat into flour. Food and firewood were scarce and expensive, leading to widespread hunger.

Indemnity

A payment to other countries to compensate them for damages. France had to pay one at the command of the Congress of Vienna.

Tennis Court Oath

A pledge made by the members of France's National Assembly in 1789, in which they vowed to continue meeting until they had written a constitution for France. This forces Louis to give each representative a vote.

Napoleonic Wars

A series of wars that began in his quest to conquer Europe. These wars were an extension of the ones fought between France and other European nations during the French Revolution. During this period of warfare, France became the dominant European power. They lasted until 1815, keeping France in a state of near-continuous warfare for more than a decade. Throughout the wars, Great Britain remained France's greatest enemy. Britain helped organize a series of coalitions of European nations against France, and British funds helped strengthen resistance to Napoleon across Europe. Napoleon knew that until he could defeat Great Britain, he would have no peace in Europe.

Georges Danton

A violent agistator in the early days of the Revolution who was very popular with the public. A compromiser, he came to oppose what he considered the Revolution's excesses. He was guillotined by Robespierre for his opposition to the Reign of Terror.

Battle of Waterloo

Across Europe, Napoleon's enemies were gathering their troops for another showdown with Napoleon. After some indecisive battles, the final confrontation pitted Napoleon's troops against British troops (including some Belgians, Dutch, and Germans) led by the Duke of Wellington. On June 18, 1815, the armies met near Waterloo, a Belgian village. Heavy rain delayed the battle until late morning. The British forces stood their ground, but the fighting was ferocious all day. One of Britain's allies, Prussia, came to their aid. As Prussian troops arrived to help the British soldiers, Napoleon's untrained army was no match for the combined strength of the two armies. They drove the French army off the field by the end of the day. The French and the British booth suffered huge losses at the Battle of Waterloo. Casualties totaled about 50,000 men. But for Napoleon, the Battle of Waterloo was a crushing defeat; It was the end of the Hundred Days as well as the end of his military career and the end of the Napoleonic Wars.

Louis XVIII

After Napoleon's first exile, he was recognized as the rightful king of France. He restores the French monarchy. He quickly grew unpopular and many French citizens feared a return to the Old Order (they didn't want to regress). He fled to Belgium after hearing of Napoleon's return.

Legacy of French Revolution and Napoleonic Era (pg. 619)

After the Congress of Vienna, monarchs ruled much of Europe once again. Citizens' rights were again restricted, and nobles enjoyed the privileges of a glittering lifestyle. Actually, the French Revolution changed many things; Never again would Europe's monarchs and nobles be secure in their privileged positions. They knew that Enlightenment ideas about human dignity, personal liberty, and the equality of all people would not go away. The common people also remembered that they could change the world. In the Revolution, French workers and peasants had taken control of their own destinies. No longer did people have to assume that nothing would ever change to make their lives better. The ideals that inspired the Revolution influenced people around the world for the next 200 years. Massive revolutions began from France to Romania just a few years after Napoleon's empire ended. Enlightenment ideals crossed the Atlantic and inspired people in Latin America to throw off colonial rule. Eventually, the same ideals would inspire political movements in Asia and Africa.

Directory

After the National Convention writes a new constitution, the Directory is formed. This governing board was made up of five men called directors. The directors did pass some financial reforms that helped farmers and improved trade, but the Directory was not an effective government. The directors were weak and corrupt so Franceś troubles continued. The directors argued among themselves and they were corrupt, weak, and inefficient. Eventually, their rule shared many characteristics of the Old Order-high prices, bankruptcy, citizens unrest and it ended after only 4 years.

Great Fear

After the fall of the Bastille, many people feared that the king would punish them and end the Revolution. Some people spread rumors that the king had hired foreign soldiers (Swiss mercenaries) to punish the Third Estate. As a result, a panic later called the Great Fear swept through France. This panic was based on both fiction and fact. for example, rumors of massacres spread from village to village, and many people believed all kinds of wild stories. As a result of the years of abuse by landowners, some peasants took revenge. The peasants destroyed records listing feudal dues and rents and burned nobles' houses. The violence in the countryside ironically did not come from the foreign soldiers.

Committee of Public Safety

After the king's execution, the National Convention began to tighten its hold on France. First, it set up the Committee of Public Safety to manage the country's military defense against the foreign forces on France's borders and identify enemies of the republic. The committee promptly created a draft of all able-bodied, unmarried men between 18 and 45 for military service. It was mainly created to keep Roespierres' power safe, whilst making everyone else's lives unsafe. In addition, the National Convention established a court called the Revolutionary Tribunal. This court was supposed to root out and eliminate people who threatened the Revolution from within.

Battle of Trafalgar

An 1805 October naval battle off the coast of Spain in which Napoleon's forces (including Spain) were defeated by a British fleet under the command of Horatio Nelson.

Concordat

An agreement with the pope that acknowledged most French citizens were Roman Catholics. The agreement did not require that they be Catholics, because religious toleration was still the law. The Concordat recognized the influence of the Roman Catholic Church in France but did not return any land or control over national affairs to the church.

Declaration of the Rights of Man

Before the Women's march, in August of 1789, the National Assembly issued this statement which contained Enlightenment ideas and proposals from the U.S. Declaration. This Declaration laid out the basic principles of the French Revolution-"liberty, equality, fraternity." This document stated that all MEN (only men) are born equal and remain equal before the law. Like the U.S. Bill of Rights, the Declaration guaranteed freedom of speech, the press, and religion. However, these rights did not extend to women.

Sans coulottes

Below the bourgeoisie were the artisans and workers of the cities known as sans culottes, or those "without knee breeches". They were the shoemakers, carpenters, bricklayers, dressmakers, and laborers. If these people had no work, they went hungry. They wore long pants-in contrast to the tight knee-length breeches, or pants, worn by the nobility.

Reforms (Napoleon)

Church-State Relations: Many French citizens despised the anti-religious nature of the French Revolution. He soothed these feelings by creating the Concordat, an agreement with the pope that acknowledged most French citizens were Roman Catholics. This agreement did not require that they be Catholics, because religious toleration was still the law. The Concordat recognized the influence of the Roman Catholic Church in France but did not return any land or control over national affairs to the church. Economic: He knew that a good financial system was essential for the stability of France, so he established the Bank of France to regulate the economy. He also set up a more efficient tax collection system (equal taxation) and paid off government business loans. These measures ensured that the government would not face the kinds of financial crises that occurred before the Revolution. Legal and Educational: Under Napoleon's leadership, scholars revised and organized French law and created the Napoleonic Code. This code made laws uniform across the nation and eliminated many injustices. However, it also promoted order and authority over individual rights (freedom of the press was restricted). Also, the code was limited in that it only applied to male citizens and allowed for husbands to have authority over their wives. He also believed that a strong state depended on having strong leaders in government and military positions (meritocracy). He established a network of high schools (lycees), universities, and technical schools to educated young men in preparation for those jobs.

Balance of Power

Distribution of military and economic power that prevents any one nation from becoming too strong. Metternich wanted to restore a balance of power and make Europe peaceful again. Redrawing the map ensured that nations near France were strong so that France could not invade its neighbors again.

End of monarchy/execution

Extreme action toward the end of monarchy came on August 10, 1792 when a mob marched on the Tuileries Palace and slaughtered the guards. Louis, Marie-Antionette, and the children-now demoted to commoners-were thrown in prison.

National Convention

Faced with mob violence and foreign invasion, the Legislative Assembly felt powerless. It voted itself out of existence and called for the election of a new legislature, the National Convention. The violence in August helped put the radical faction, or those who favored extreme change, in control. Among the National Convention's first acts were abolishing the monarchy and declaring France a republic. *The Revolution goes bad* as the wrong people take over and sway from the revolution's original message. They only care about their *POWER*

Economic problems/A Financial Crisis

First, France was deeply in debt. Over the previous centuries, France had borrowed huge sums of money to spend on wars (including the American Revolution). But the king and his court continued to spend lavishly, leading to even more borrowing and debt. King Louis XVI was desperate for money so he tried to tax the Second Estate but the nobles refused to pay. The king, incapable of the strong leadership the situation required, backed down. A year later the country faced bankruptcy and half the taxes collected were needed just to pay the country's debt. At the same time, nature was creating other economic problems: First, a hailstorm and a drought ruined the harvest. Then, the winter of 1788 was the worst in 80 years. Frozen rivers prevented waterwheels from powering the mills that ground wheat into flour. Food and firewood were scarce and expensive. As hunger and cold made life wretched for thousands of French citizens, misery grew into anger.

Congress of Vienna/goals

Following Napoleon's exile, this meeting of European diplomats in Vienna established a system by which the balance of power would be maintained, liberal revolutions would be repressed, as would imperial expansion, and the creation of new countries in Europe. It was also called to reestablish the old order. Wanted to bring peace, order, and stability. The main diplomats were Lord Castlereagh (Great Britain) , Czar Alexander (Russia), King Frederick William III (Prussia), Charles Talleyrand (France), and Prince Klemens von Metternich (Austria).

Emigres

French citizens (mostly aristocrats) who fled the revolution, either for security, safety or to organize counter-revolution. From their places of exile in other countries, many emigres plotted against the Revolutionary government, seeking foreign help in their goal of restoring the old regime.

Lycees

French government-run public schools established to educate young men in preparation for jobs.

Charlotte Corday

French revolutionary heroine who wants to fix the revolution and end violence. She assassinated (stabbed) Marat in his bathtub by pretending to have information about traitors.

Duke of Wellington

He led the British troops (along with some Belgians, Dutch, and Germans) against Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo.

French Empire under Napoleon (Age of Napoleon)

He managed to take control of most of Europe through treaties, alliances, and victories in battle. He also ensured that some basic ideas of the revolution would remain part of the French government. Napoleon made some basic revolutionary ideas part of the French government; equality before the law and a representative system of government. During the Revolution, the French people developed a new loyalty to France as a whole.

Abbe Sieyes (again)

He told Napoleon that he should be put in charge of France and seize more power. He was an organizer for the coup de'etat.

Czar Alexander I

He was Russia's ruler at the time of Napoleon's failed invasion. He lured Napoleon deeper into Russia in order to keep Napoleon from winning at the border, and being able to take over Russia with no resistance. He also ordered Russian farmers to kill their livestock and burn their crops so Napoleon's troops could not live off Russian land. He also burnt down Moscow to minimize Napoleon's victory. He was also a main diplomat of the Congress of Vienna.

Charles Maurice de Talleyrand

He was a French reactionary leader who was one of the main diplomats in the Congress of Vienna. He attended the congress on behalf of King Louis XVIII, who had retaken the French throne. He was an instrumental part of arranging trades in the process of redrawing the map. He also hated democracy and the Enlightenment and wanted the return of an absolute monarchy.

Abbé Sieyès

He was a clergyman who supported the third estates' ideas. This was very unusual for a member of the First Estate to agree with the Third Estate. He went to the tennis courts with the National Assembly and said a very important speech; in this speech he asks, "What is the Third Estate?"-"'Everything', but up till now,'Nothing'". He demands for the people to mean something, similar to Enlightenment ideas.

Evaluation of Napoleon

He was a military genius who unleashed mass death and destruction but also inspired others to fight for the survival and glory of their country.

Jean-Paul Marat

He was a radical leader who was an advocate of violence and terror and a leader of the Paris sans culottes. He was one of the National Conventionś most radical leaders. He was stabbed to death in his bathtub by Charlotte Corday.

Klemens von Metternich

He was an Austrian reactionary leader who was one of the main diplomats in the Congress of Vienna. He had a strong distrust of democracy and political change and dominated the Congress of Vienna. He wanted to restore a balance of power, make Europe peaceful again, restore old monarchies, and compensate the allies for their losses. He (and others) wanted to make sure that France could never again rise to such power. He (and others) wanted to remove all traces of the French Revolution and Napoleon's rule. He despised constitutions, voting rights, and freedom of religion and the press. In the areas where Metternich's influence was strong-Austria, the German states, and northern Italy-all liberal ideas were suppressed. Secret police spied on people who disagreed with Metternich's ideas, and his opponents were often imprisoned or fined. In addition, newspapers were not allowed to publish opposing views. For about 30 years, Metternich's conservative influence helped silence the liberal ideas of the Revolution.

Louis XVI

He was king at the time of the Revolution. He lived in the palace of Versailles. He was shy and indecisive but not cruel. His queen was Marie-Antoinette from Austria. He was considered to not be a very good ruler. He continued to spend lavishly even when his country was in deep debt. Although he tried to tax the Second Estate, when they refused to pay he was not a strong enough leader to fight back and demand anything. Louis eventually agreed to a meeting with the three estates in which they pressed for change in the voting process, eventually resulting in the National Assembly. Soon, after more years of unrest in the country, Louis and Marie found themselves unsafe in Paris so they attempted to flee the city, only to be captured and brought back to their palace in Paris. Finally, in 1792, Louis' reign was brought to an end when a mob stormed his palace and placed him and his family in captivity. In 1793, Louis was killed by Robespierre.

Robespierre

He was known for his intense dedication to the Revolution. He became increasingly radical and led the National Convention during its most bloodthirsty time. He is known as the father of modern terrorism. He did not care about equality or Enlightenment ideas. His number one goal as leader was to kill Louis which he does in January of 1793. After this, people see the true evil in him and he becomes the most hated man in Europe. He tried to transform society by shutting down the Catholic Church, making the bible illegal, getting rid of the regular calendar, introducing the metric system, banning playing cards, and banning fancy fashion. This unleashes a "Reign of Terror" in which he executes thousands of people without trial. He truly believed that terror and violence purify and empower democracy. He is eventually stopped by the Jacobins in July of 1794 when they execute him without trial.

Admiral Horatio Nelson

He was the commander of the British navy who defeated Napoleon in the Battle of the Nile and the Battle of Trafalgar. He is killed in the Battle of Trafalgar by a French sharpshooter.

Legislative assembly

In 1791 the National Assembly finally completed its constitution. It created a new legislative body called the Legislative Assembly. Citizens gained broad voting rights, but only taxpaying men at least 25 years old had the right to vote. The constitution kept the monarchy but severely restricted the king's power.

Crowned emperor

In 1804, after French voters declared France an empire Napoleon was crowned Emperor. Pope Pius VII came from Rome to crown Napoleon emperor in Paris. As the pope was about to place the crown on the new emperor's head, Napoleon grabbed the crown and placed it on his own head. This action told the world that no one gave Napoleon his authority-he took it for himself.

Civil war/Vendee

In France, real resistance to the Revolution lay in the countryside. Shortly after the peasants won their main goal (the end of feudal dues) they returned to their conservative views. In general, they remained devoutly Catholic and opposed the Revolution's anticlerical moves. When the National Convention instituted a draft it furthered the peasants' hatred for the government. In a region of western France called Vendee, resistance to the government was so strong that it led to civil war. A counterrevolutionary force called the Catholic and Royal army, a name showing their support for the Church and the monarchy, fought government forces. Savage fighting spread across the region. The government eventually regained control of the Vendee, destroying everyone and everything it could.

War with Austria and Prussia

In July 1792, Austria and Prussia issued a declaration warning against harming the French monarchs and hinting that any such action would provoke war. Although the declaration was not meant to be read as a serious threat, Austria sent 50,000 troops to the French border. In response, the Legislative Assembly declared war. France's army was in disarray, however, and was defeated. The French people blame the king for all of this and turn on Louis after the war.

Louis XVI's escape attempt

In June of 1791, Louis and his family attempt to flee Paris by carriage, but they were caught by the border and escorted back to their palace in France. This showed that he was a traitor to the revolution.

Treatment of the Catholic Church

In November of 1789, the National Assembly seized church lands and sold them to pay off France's huge debt. All religious orders were disbanded. The Assembly also passed an act that turned the clergy into public employees. This action outraged most members of the clergy and also horrified many peasants. This upsets the peasants (most of the followers) because Catholic faith was the most important thing in their life. This changes the revolution.

Women's March

In October of 1789, a crowd of perhaps 7,000 women marched through the rain from Paris to Versailles. They were livid about the fact that bread was too expensive to buy and feed their family. Demanding bread, the mob broke into the palace. To make peace with the crowd, Louis agreed to return to Paris and live in the Tuileries Palace with his family. This becomes a symbol of the revolution because power had changed and Louis was no longer the true ruler.

Causes of the revolution

Inequalities in society, Ideas of Enlightenment writers, Poor leadership from Louis XVI, Financial crisis, Widespread hunger and record cold

Estates-General

It had not met in 175 years. This was an assembly made up of the three estates where each estate had 1 vote. Therefore, when the First and Second Estates (usually) voted together, they would outvote the Third Estate, even though the Third Estate was the majority of the population. At the start of the meeting, Louis instructs the assembly to follow the old rules of voting by estate. But the Third Estate, which had more representatives than the First or Second, refused the king's order.

Guillotine

It was a machine for beheading people that was used as a means of execution during the French Revolution. Death by the guillotine was quick, in contrast to the agonizing methods of execution in use for centuries.

Second Estate

It was made up of the nobility, less than 2% of the population. Although the nobility CONTROLLED much of the country's wealth, they paid few taxes. Members of this estate held key positions in the government and military. Many lived on country estates where peasants did all the work and were forced to pay high fees and rents to the landowner. Some nobles lived in luxury at the king's court, where their only real jobs were ceremonial. *The Second Estate contributed 1.5% of money to the country's treasury*

Continental System/blockade

LOSS Britain's economy depended on overseas trade. If Napoleon could disrupt that trade, he would weaken Britain's ability to fund rebellion in Europe against him. In an effort to disrupt Great Britain's trade with other nations, he planned a blockade in November of 1806. This plan, called the Continental System, prohibited French or allied ships from trading with Britain. The British responded by requiring all ships from neutral countries to stop in British ports for permission to trade with the French.

Peninsular War

LOSS Portugal, which shares the Iberian Peninsula with Spain, was neutral during the Napoleonic Wars. The Portuguese refused to comply with the Continental System because they depended on trade with Britain. In 1808, to enforce his power, Napoleon sent French troops into Portugal to take control and drive out the king. Napoleon then quickly conquered Spain and placed his brother Joseph on the Spanish throne. But the Spanish resented having a foreign ruler and revolted in 1808. To support the Spanish revolt of French rule, Great Britain sent its military forces to Spain. Now battling two military forces, Napoleon faced a serious threat. He responded by sending troops from central Europe, and they quickly won several victories over the British and Spanish troops. The Spanish people began a guerrilla war in which bands of peasants ambushed French troops and raided French camps. The war kept the French army pinned down, and eventually Napoleon had to pull his troops out of Spain.

September Massacres

Louis's imprisonment was followed by these; Wild stories seized the city that imprisoned counter-revolutionary aristocrats/priests were plotting with the allied invaders. As a result, angry crowds invaded the prisons of Paris and summarily slaughtered half the men and women they found. It is sometimes called the¨First Terror.¨

Invasion of Russia/Borodino

Napoleon stationed troops near the western border of Russian, worrying Czar Alexander I. The czar, who was also concerned about the effects of the Continental System on his country's need to import goods, began to gather his troops. Napoleon noticed those troop movements and decided to turn his troops east and move into Russia. In June of 1812, Napoleon and an army of some 600,000 men marched across the Russian border. However, this invasion was troubled form the beginning: Many of the soldiers were new recruits from conquered territories who felt no loyalty to Napoleon. Many of the army's supplies were lost or spoiled along the rough roads. The July heat made men and horses miserable. As a result, many men suffered from disease, desertion, and hunger, which thinned the army's ranks. Napoleon wanted a quick victory over Russia, but Russian troops withdrew as he advanced. Russian peasants, too, moved east after setting fire to their fields and killing their livestock in order to leave nothing behind that the French troops could use. In, August, the French army was still moving east toward Moscow and Napoleon's troops finally clashed with the Russians at the Battle of Borodino on September 7th of 1812. The French technically won the battle, but their casualties were very high. The Russian army retreated. What remained of the French army pushed on to Moscow in September. The troops found the city nearly deserted and in flames due to the Czar's orders. Napoleon could not support his troops in the ruined city through the winter. In October he was forced to leave Moscow. His troops began the long retreat homeward. The Russians forced the French army to return the way it had come-across the same scorched fields with no food. Also, Russian peasants attacked isolated French soldiers. On their way back home, Russia's winter came (the most terrifying enemy). As the exhausted men marched west, starvation and freezing temperatures killed thousands. It decimated Napoleon's army. What as left of the French army staggered back to French territory without a leader. Napoleon had rushed back to Paris by sleigh, leaving his troops to face much of the awful trip without him. In the end, only about 94,000 out of the original 600,000 French troops made the journey back.

Egyptian Campaign

Napoleon wanted to disrupt the valuable trade between Great Britain and India. He took the French fleet and a large army across the Mediterranean Sea in 1798. Napoleon's forces quickly defeated Egypt's Ottoman defenders and won control of much of Egypt. But the British navy (the best in the world), under the command of Admiral Horatio Nelson, was on Napoleon's trail. Nelson trapped the French ships. In the long Battle of the Nile, the British destroyed most of the French fleet. After his loss in the Battle of the Nile, Napoleon wanted to cover up his disastrous defeat. He left his army in Egypt under the command of another officer and sailed back to France.

Napoleon's Rise to Power

Napoleon was a brilliant military leader who achieved many early successes. In 1793 he forced British troops out of the port of Toulon. The following year he won a dazzling victory over Austrian troops in Italy. In 1795 Napoleon faced off against a mob of royalists (at the National Convention) trying to regain power in Paris. Using artillery to shoot into the crowd, Napoleon forced the royalists to flee. As a reward for stopping the uprising, Napoleon was put in charge of defending the French interior at only 26 years old. The following year, the Directory placed Napoleon in command of French forces invading Italy. In Italy, Napoleon won battles against the Austrians and Italians. He exaggerated the successes of the French army, becoming a national hero in the process. Capitalizing on his status as a national hero, he decided to seize political power. By this time, the Directory had grown weak and ineffective. As a result, some French leaders feared that royalists might conspire to place a monarchy in power. Others feared the growing opposition of European nations, such as Great Britain and Austria, against France. As a result, a group of conspirators began to plot to seize more power for Napoleon. Armed supporters of Napoleon surrounded the Directory legislature and forced members to turn the government over to Napoleon in November of 1799. Exhausted by the chaos of the Revolution and constant warfare, the French craved the order and stability Napoleon promised. Napoleon also pledged to uphold some key revolutionary reforms and bring peace, prosperity, and glory to France. He was named First Consul and then proceeded to name himself emperor of France.

St. Helena/exile

Napoleon was able to evade the victors of Waterloo briefly. He fled to a port and tried to escape to America, but he was soon captured. This time, Napoleon's captors sent him much farther away to the island of Saint Helena. This was a bleak volcanic island in the South Atlantic, about 1,200 miles from the nearest mainland. Napoleon never escaped from his prison on Saint Helena. On Saint Helena he wrote memoirs to justify his actions and talk about all his good doings. He died six years after his exile at the age of 51. He died of a "stomach ailment". Some say this was cancer while others think it could have been from arsenic poisoning.

Battle of Leipzig

Napoleon's disaster in Russia gave his enemies new hope. Russia, Prussia, Austria, Sweden, and Great Britain allied themselves against France in the Fourth Coalition. Meanwhile, Napoleon raised another army, but his troops were inexperienced. In October 1813 the allies met Napoleon's new troops near the German city of Leipzig. This battle was a clear defeat for Napoleon because the allies finally understood his battle tactics and Napoleon had a very weak army. In March 1814, the allies entered Paris in triumph and held a parade. As one of the terms of surrender, Napoleon had to give up his throne. The victors allowed him to keep the title of emperor, but his new empire was tiny-a small Mediterranean island named Elba, off the coast of Italy. He went into exile with a small pension and about 400 guards.

Louisiana and Saint Domingue

Once Napoleon became emperor of France, he moved to build an empire. He wanted to rule Europe and to extend french power in the Americas. France controlled a number of territories in the Americas including Louisiana, Florida, and the sugar-producing colony of Saint Domingue (present-day Haiti). When civil war erupted in Saint Domingue, Napoleon sent an expedition to take back the colony and restore its profitable sugar industry. But the French expedition failed miserably, leading Napoleon to abandon his dream of empire in the Americas. He sold the Louisiana Territory to the United States (angering Great Britain) and turned his focus to Europe.

Marie Antoinette

She was the queen of France at the start of the revolution (Louis' wife). She was from Austria, a country that was a traditional enemy of France, therefore making her unpopular with the French. She was also frivolous and self-indulgent as she enjoyed lavish parties and fancy clothes while many of the common people wore rags.

Olympe de Gouges

She wrote A Declaration of the Rights of Women which was turned down by the National Assembly. The women were the heroins of the revolution and were the true catalysts for the fight. She is later killed by the guillotine.

Legacy of French Revolution and Napoleonic Era (pg. 622)

Short term: -A written constitution for France -End of the monarchy and execution of the king and queen -European alliance against France -Reign of Terror Long term: -Napoleon's seizure of power -Growth of nationalism in Europe -Congress of Vienna -Spread of revolutionary ideas to Latin America, Asia, and Africa

New Boundaries

The Congress of Vienna changed many national borders in order to strengthen the nations near France. Strengthening the states surrounding France was supposed to lessen the change that France would invade its neighbors again. The Dutch Republic and the Austrian Netherlands were united as the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Austria joined with 38 German states to form a loose organization of states called the German Confederation. Great Britain received overseas territories, rather than land in Europe (because they were already very strong in Europe-balance of power). The process of redrawing the map required complicated trades that Talleyrand helped arrange. Countries that had aided France lost territory while those that had fought France gained territory. If one country seemed to be getting too much, it had to give up something else. In the end, France lost all its conquered territory and its boundaries were pulled back to where they had been in 1792.

Restoration of the monarchies

The Congress of Vienna restored some of the monarchies that Napoleon had eliminated. Louis XVIII was placed as the King of France. Members of the old Bourbon royal family were returned to the thrones of Spain and Sicily. Monarchies were also restored in Portugal and the island nation of Sardinia.

First Estate

The First Estate was made up of the Roman Catholic clergy, about 1 percent of the population. They had several privileges such as the fact that only church courts could try priests and bishops for crimes, so the clergy did not have to answer to the same laws as everyone else. Also, neither the clergy nor the Roman Catholic Church had to pay taxes. Land belonging to the Roman Catholic Church was also exempt from taxes. In addition, the church owned about 10% of France's land, which produced vast sums of money in rents and fees. Bishops and some other higher clergy controlled this wealth and became very rich. Although many of the priests who ministered to the common people were poor, many people resented the wealth and privileges of the clergy. *The First Estate contributed 0.5% of money to the country's treasury*

Josephine

The first love and wife of Napoleon who was also manipulative and power mad. She exerted great influence and style in France as many French people looked up to her and even coveted her. Napoleon divorced her when she could not produce his children.

Old Regime/Old Order

The political and social system in place in France before the Revolution. It created inequalities in French society as under this system, the king was at the top, and three social groups called estates were under him. Cause: It was created in an effort to improve the French government after the hereditary monarchy and the feudal system were abolished. Effect: It segregates the citizens into strict social classes and leads to an imbalance of power between the people, thus sparking the need for a revolution.

Scorched-Earth Policy

The practice of burning crops and killing livestock during wartime so that the enemy cannot live off the land. The Czar of Russia does this to starve Napoleon and his troops.

Plebiscite

The procedure used to submit the constitution of a new government to the people for a yes-or-no vote. Napoleon wanted to make his own power permanent and hereditary so he asks if they want to declare France an empire. French voters supported him and voted yes, making Napoleon emperor of France.

Transformation of French Society

The society became extremely separated and broken and had people from all estates fighting against each other. The leaders of the new government wanted to erase all connections to old ways of life, including religion. Many clergy members lost their positions. In Paris the local government closed the churches. To replace Roman Catholicism, Robespierre created the cult of the Supreme Being, in which enthusiasm for the Revolution was the object of worship. Statues of people holding Bibles were not safe. A metric system (which stays) replaced the old system of weights and measures. A new calendar also cut ties to the past.

Three estates

These were classes that varied widely in what they contributed to France, in terms of both work and taxes.

Government Factions

These were three political actions within the National Convention who supported the Revolution. 1. The Mountain, whose members were called Montagnards, were the most radical. Many Montagnards also belonged to the radical Jacobin Club, or Jacobins. The Montagnards' support came from lower middle class and poor people. This support pushed the Montagnards to adopt more radical policies. 2. A second political faction were the Girondins who were moderates. They mainly came from the provinces and resented what they considered the excessive influence of the Paris mob on the Revolution. The Girondins generally supported a constitutional monarchy (in which the king/queen was a figurehead) and resisted extremes on either side. 3. The third political faction were the Plain, made up of the swing voters. In general, the members of the Plain originally supported the Girondins but later switched their support to the Mountain. -These groupings had not formal organization -Each member acted as an individual and was often strongly influenced by personal rivalries

Napoleonic Code

This code made laws uniform across the nation and eliminated many injustices. However, it also promoted order and authority over individual rights (freedom of the press was restricted by censors who banned books and newspapers for certain political content). Also, the code was limited in that it only applied to male citizens and allowed for husbands to have authority over their wives.

Third Estate

This is the estate with by far the largest group of people, it included about 97% of the population. The Third Estate was itself made up of several groups: Bourgeoisie: At the top of the Third Estate was the bourgeoisie who were city-dwelling merchants, factory owners, and professionals such as lawyers and doctors. Although they had no role in the government, some of the bourgeoisie were highly educated and quite rich. Their wealth, however, did not buy them any influence in the government. Sans culottes: Below the bourgeoisie were the artisans and workers of the cities known as sans culottes, or those "without knee breeches". They were the shoemakers, carpenters, bricklayers, dressmakers, and laborers. If these people had no work, they went hungry. They wore long pants-in contrast to the tight knee-length breeches, or pants, worn by the nobility. Peasants: At the bottom of the Third Estate were the peasants who farmed the nobles' fields. Not only did they pay rents and fees to the landowners, but they also paid a tenth of their income to the church. In addition, they had to perform labor, such as working on roads, without pay. Many peasants were miserably poor and had no hope for a better life. *The Third Estate contributed 98% of money to the country's treasury*

Reign of Terror/Victims

This was a time when the Mountain began a series of accusations, trials, and executions that created a wave of fear throughout the country. This leads to a civil war in the countryside because of the Revolution's anticlerical moves. Also, the National Convention's institution of a draft furthers the peasants' hatred for the government. Back in Paris, the Mountain wanted to eliminate any resistance to the Revolution and they did this by using the Revolutionary Tribunal to kill people. Robespierre declared the need to use terror to defend the republic from its many enemies. The Revolutionary Tribunal started its campaign with the Girondists because they had once favored a constitutional monarchy. Soon, anyone who had ever criticized the Revolution or who had had any connection to the Old Order was in danger of being killed. Many of the trials were unfair and some didn't even have the right to defend themselves. Most who were executed were killed by the Guillotine. The Reign of Terror did not spare any particular class, occupation, or gender. Though many more common people than nobles were killed, the nobility was not entirely spared. The peasants and laborers-the same people the Revolution was supposed to aid- formed the largest group of victims. Marie-Antionette was one of the early victims and so was Olympe de Gouges. Those who launched the Reign of Terror eventually fell victim themselves; Robespierre sent Danton to the guillotine for suggesting that the rule of terror might be relaxed. Then, in July of 1794, Robespierre and his supporters were surrounded by the National Convention soldiers and taken into custody to be killed. The Reign of Terror was intended to protect the Revolution but had in fact weakened it. *17,000 killed, 300,000 arrested*

National Assembly

This was formed on June 17, 1789, when the Third Estate proclaimed themselves a legislature, the National Assembly, with the right to make laws for France. This causes the king to take action, so he locked the Third Estate out of the Estates-General's meeting place on the next day. The representatives of the Third Estate found a new meeting spot in an indoor tennis court where they signed the Tennis Court Oath. By early August of 1789, they had eliminated all the feudal dues and services that the peasants owed the landowners. The Assembly also eliminated the First Estate's legal privileges. They also adopt The Declaration for the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.

Storming of the Bastille

This was the next major event of the Revolution (after the tennis court oath) which was caused by Louis' poor decision making. He started ordering troops to Paris and Versailles in case he needed to preserve the monarchy by force. Seeing this, members of the National assembly feared that the king would use violence to end their meetings. The people of Paris, in sympathy with the National Assembly, sought to arm themselves against any action the king might take. On July 14th, 1789, a mob of Parisians went to the Bastille (a prison) looking for weapons in order to defend themselves against the soldiers. The citizens of France viewed the prison as a powerful sign of the people's oppression. At first, the mob tried to negotiate with the Bastille's commander for weapons. When the negotiations broke down, the angry mob and the prison guard exchanged fire and the mob swarmed into the prison. The mob killed the commander, stuck his head on a long stick, and paraded it through the streets. The action of the storming of the Bastille became a powerful symbol of the French Revolution. This also shows the power of rumors and chaos in France at this time.

Reactionary

Those who oppose progress and change. Many members of the Congress of Vienna were reactionaries who wanted France to return to its pre-Revolution and Napoleon state (Old Order, no Enlightenment ideas, no democracy)

Jacobins

Those who were members of a radical political club during the French Revolution. Members of this club were usually also Montagnards

Battle of Austerlitz

Two months after his defeat at the Battle of Trafalgar, Napoleon won a devastating victory (in Austria) over Russian and Austrian troops. This massive victory by the French caused Russia and the Austrians to suspend their support against France

Enlightenment ideas

While social inequalities were driving poor people toward revolt, new ideas from the Enlightenment were also inspiring the French Revolution. Many educated members of the bourgeoisie knew about the writings of the great Enlightenment philosophers John Locke, Baron de Montesquieu, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Members of the bourgeoisie also knew that Great Britain's government limited the king's power (Parliament). More recently, they had learned that American colonists, inspired by Enlightenment ideas, had successfully rebelled against Britain's king. Seeing how these ideas were transforming government and society in other countries, some of the bourgeoisie began to consider how these ideas might be used in France.