THE ILIAD CHAPTER NOTES

Book 17

Summary: A fierce battle rages over Patroclus's body with gods assisting fighters on both sides. Menelaus kills Euphorbus, the young Trojan who stabbed Patroclus in the back, but backs off when Hector joins the fight. Menelaus calls in Great Ajax to help him, and together they drive Hector off before he can dismember Patroclus. However, Hector does come away with Achilles's armor, which he quickly puts on. Zeus disapproves—he will empower Hector because he is about to die, but he has no right to the famous armor. Hector whips up his troops and allies, and Menelaus calls for and challenges his own reinforcements. Having always liked Patroclus, Zeus helps the Achaeans shield Patroclus's body. First one side gains ground, and then the other pushes back, but neither can move the other. Hector, Aeneas, and others briefly try to seize Achilles's horses, but they quickly focus back on the corpse. After Apollo strikes fear in the Achaeans with Zeus's storm-shield, Menelaus sends a messenger to Achilles, hoping he can help retrieve Patroclus's body. In the meantime, Great Ajax organizes fighters to carry the body off the field. Hector, Aeneas, and the Trojans charge desperately, but the Aeantes hold them off. The battle rages on like a flash fire. Analysis: Issues of honor and pride run throughout Book 17. The central conflict revolves around Patroclus's honor. The Achaeans want to preserve it by protecting his body and possessions from mutilation and theft, and the Trojans want to dishonor the body of their enemy to gain honor for themselves. Menelaus has a dilemma of honor as he first defends Patroclus's body alone. Should he stand against Hector and die or desert Patroclus who was there fighting for him? (Helen was Menelaus's wife before running off with Paris.) He wisely fights the urgings of pride to make a strategic retreat to find help. This is one of the times in the poem that a mortal makes a significant decision without the prompting of any god. Menelaus's death would remove much of the justification for the war. It might result in the Achaeans sailing home without victory, as Agamemnon fears when Menelaus wants to duel Hector in Book 7. In contrast Hector gives in to his pride. Angry that Hector has abandoned Sarpedon's body to the Achaeans, Glaucus calls him a coward for running and says he can't stand up to Great Ajax. Although (or perhaps because) Hector has already come out on the losing end of two encounters with Ajax, this stings his pride. He boasts overconfidently of Zeus's support and rashly chooses to wear Achilles's armor. Many seeds of Hector's ultimate destruction can be found in this scene. Homer sometimes describes a darkness or fog that comes over fighters in battle, a physical manifestation of the confusion of war. In this section, Zeus deliberately places a similar haze of battle around the Achaeans guarding Patroclus. Descriptions contrast the hazy center with its close hand-to-hand fighting with the battle on the flanks where fighters get long breaks between combat and where the sun shines bright. The haze hampers both the Trojans and the Achaeans. Ajax must pray for it to be lifted to find someone to go to Achilles.

Book 18

Summary: Achilles has a bad feeling that Patroclus is dead even before Menelaus's messenger arrives. Upon hearing the news, Achilles tears his hair in sorrow and curses "anger that drives the sanest men to flare in outrage." He will beat down his rage at Agamemnon and return to the fight. The only thing to live for is killing Hector. Achilles's mother, Thetis, laments that he must die soon after Hector. Thetis tells him not to go into battle until she returns. She will bring him new armor made by the god of fire in the morning. Meanwhile, Hector and Trojan fighters hotly pursue Patroclus's body, preventing the Achaeans from escaping. Athena lends Achilles powers of the gods, and his bloodcurdling war cries from the Achaean wall sends panic through the Trojans. Patroclus's body is brought inside the camp, and the Achaeans mourn. Achilles vows Patroclus will not be buried until he kills Hector. Fearing the consequences of Achilles's return, Polydamas recommends the Trojans return to Troy that night rather than camping on the plain, but Hector replies in pride that he will never run from Achilles. Thetis asks Hephaestus, the god of fire, to make her son new armor. Because she helped him in the past, he gladly makes a breastplate, helmet, greaves, and a spectacular shield decorated with images of the heavens and the earth, peace and war, and life and death. Analysis: Patroclus's death changes everything for Achilles. He realizes his rage against Agamemnon has led to the death of his greatest friend. He had asked the gods for death for the Achaeans, but he never thought that someone close to him would be one who paid the price. Suddenly that anger doesn't seem so important anymore. He briefly wishes that all anger could be abolished from the world, but he is not capable of letting go of anger himself. Instead he redirects all his rage, supplemented by grief, at Hector, seeming completely indifferent to Agamemnon in future encounters. The shield that Hephaestus creates for Achilles is an instrument of war but also a symbol of life. It is covered with scenes that show the scope of human existence. The physical world is represented in depictions of sky, earth, and sea. The two cities contrast wartime and peacetime. Conflict exists even in the peaceful city, but it is being resolved through civil channels rather than violence. The scene of the second city depicts the desperation and chaos of war. Significantly, it is the only place the gods appear on the shield. Images of a field being plowed, wheat being reaped, and grapes being harvested represent the cycle of the seasons. A herd of cattle attacked by two lions echoes many similes used to describe rampaging warriors, connecting war to everyday life. The final scene of young men and women dancing in a circle is an image of life and renewal—all things come around again. War looms large in the narrative, but the shield widens the focus to reveal the larger context of life for which the war is being fought. When Hera makes the sun go down, it is the first nightfall since the beginning of Book 11. Patroclus's attack to drive the Trojans back and the aftermath of his death have happened in one long and bloody day. After so many significant battles, the evening provides a welcome break in action. Both armies gather for the night, with very different moods in each camp. The Achaean camp is somber, dominated by mourning for Patroclus's death. The Trojan camp, led by Hector, is optimistic—a tragic irony because fate decrees that the army will be defeated and Hector will die before returning to Troy.

Book 21

Summary: Achilles pushes the Trojan army back, driving a portion of it into the river Xanthus (also called Scamander), where he slaughters huge numbers of enemies. Lycaon, whom Achilles had captured in a previous battle, begs for mercy, but there is none to be found in Achilles's heart. Filled with rage at Patroclus's death, he cries, "Die, Trojans, die—/till I butcher all the way to sacred Troy!" He kills so many that their bodies clog the river. This angers the god of the river, who nearly overwhelms Achilles with waves, whirlpools, and floods. However, Hera sends Hephaestus, the god of fire, to force back the river until its god swears not to interfere with the fate of Troy. At this point, the gods begin to fight each other directly. Athena knocks Ares out and injures Aphrodite when she tries to help him. Hera humiliates Artemis, sending her running home. Apollo declines to fight Poseidon and retreats to protect Troy. With the Trojan army completely routed, Priam flings open the gates for the survivors, and Apollo distracts Achilles to protect their retreat. He inspires Prince Agenor to attack Achilles. When Achilles strikes back, Apollo disguises himself as Agenor and lures Achilles away until the last Trojan fighters reach the gates of Troy. Analysis: Achilles's grief and rage results in the wholesale slaughter of the Trojan army without a shred of mercy. The episode with Lycaon highlights the difference between Achilles's past actions, when he sometimes ransomed or sold fighters he captured rather than killing them, with his current state of mind in which no one will be spared. He only seizes some enemies alive to later burn on Patroclus's funeral pyre. It is a practice that greatly honors the dead but seems a little close to barbarity, even from the ancient Greek perspective because it is not a part of any other funeral in the poem. Achilles's rampage is unstoppable, godlike. He even attacks Xanthus, the god of the river, when he sides with the Trojans. Because he is actually mortal, Achilles ends up having to call for help, but he holds his own for an impressive length of time against the elemental force of the river. Despite the feeling that fighting because of mortals is beneath them, for the first time the gods fight each other directly without any mortals involved. The divine conflict both parallels and contrasts with the mortal conflict playing out right beside them. As the fighting between mortals grows more brutal and deadly, fighting between the gods becomes more petty and pointless, bordering on slapstick. They no longer make any attempt to affect the course of the battle but simply act out their personal conflicts, which are only loosely based on the war. Because the gods cannot die, they risk only temporary pain and humiliation, and their struggles have no nobility or dignity. They deal poorly with even minor injuries, running back to Zeus as soon as they are hurt. The specifics of each attack seem to fit the nature of the god being attacked. Artemis crushes Ares, the god of war, with a boulder, a common type of attack in war. Athena punches Aphrodite, the goddess of love and desire, in the breasts. Hera boxes the ears of the huntress Artemis with her own hunting implements.

Book 23

Summary: After returning to the Achaean camp, Achilles and the Myrmidons mourn Patroclus, and Achilles vents his anger by abusing Hector's corpse. He vows he will not wash Hector's blood off his body until he has buried Patroclus. Later Achilles falls asleep on the beach. Patroclus's spirit visits him in a dream, asking why he has forgotten him. His spirit cannot enter the land of the dead until his body has been burned. Recalling their shared childhood, Patroclus asks that their bones be interred in the same jar when Achilles dies, which will be soon. Achilles reaches out to hold Patroclus, but he slips away like smoke. The next day, the Achaeans build a pyre for Patroclus, surrounding his body with slain animals, enemies, and other goods. Achilles cuts a lock of hair he was letting grow as a pledge to return to his father and burns it with Patroclus. Achilles vows that dogs will eat Hector's body, but Aphrodite and Apollo keep it safe from animals and the elements. Achilles gathers the Achaeans for funeral games the following day. Diomedes, with Athena's help, wins the chariot race. Nestor's son Antilochus appeases Menelaus, who feels he cheated, by giving up his second-place prize. Odysseus and Great Ajax tie in the wrestling match, and Odysseus wins the footrace. Warriors also compete in a boxing match, a duel, and shot put and archery contests. Achilles awards Agamemnon first place for the spear-throwing contest based on his reputation. Analysis: As he did in his argument with Agamemnon, Achilles takes his anger against Hector too far, abusing his body at every opportunity and killing captured enemies to burn with Patroclus's body. As he cries to Patroclus, he is "venting my rage on them for your destruction!" The appearance of Patroclus's ghost emphasizes the importance of a proper burial for the ancient Greeks, exactly what Achilles is denying Hector. Achilles again expresses a feeling of responsibility for Patroclus's death. Cutting the lock of hair he has been growing out symbolizes his choice to die with glory in the war rather than return home. In the second half of Book 23, the audience gets a fascinating glimpse of Achilles free of the effects of rage, which seems to briefly take a backseat to his role as host of the games. He is fair and diplomatic, graciously conceding to resolve a dispute about prizes that contains echoes of his own conflict with Agamemnon. Games such as those described in this section played an important role in Greek culture. They were a way for fighters to win glory, honor, and prizes in peacetime, and they share many attributes of war. The games test many of the same skills used to make war, and boasting plays a similar role in the contests as in battle. However, contests and arguments are not allowed to proceed to the point of actual harm. Participants in the games are as protective of their honor as in battle, as shown by the disputes over the equitable awarding of prizes. In addition to achievements in the games, position and recognized skill are honored. Achilles wants to award second prize in the chariot to the best driver who actually came in last. (Ultimately he gives him a different prize.) Nestor is honored with a leftover prize for his long and accomplished life as a warrior. Achilles diplomatically declares Agamemnon the winner in the spear-throwing contest without a competition, a nod to his position as the overall commander of the army and his pride.

Book 10

Summary: Agamemnon and Menelaus can't sleep with the Trojans camped so near, so they rouse the other commanders for a council. When Nestor proposes someone use the remaining darkness to learn the Trojans's plans, Diomedes quickly volunteers and selects Odysseus to go with him. Outfitted with others' armor and weapons and backed up by the goddess Athena, they sneak toward the Trojan camp. In the Trojan camp, Hector has a similar idea and calls for a volunteer. A man named Dolon says he will scout all the way to Agamemnon's ship if Hector gives him Achilles's chariot and horses as a reward. Sadly he has no chance. Diomedes and Odysseus see him coming from a mile away and easily capture him. Dolon tells them of a group of newly arrived Thracian allies exposed on one edge of the Trojan camp. Odysseus has told him he will live, but instead Diomedes kills him. Diomedes and Odysseus sneak into the sleeping Thracian camp and slaughter the Thracian king and a dozen of his men. Before the god Apollo can wake some opposition, they drive off in the king's chariot with his team of magnificent white horses. Analysis: Book 10 takes a break from the simple if chaotic head-on battles described in the rest of the poem. Instead, it examines the murkier realm of spying and psychological warfare. It may be a necessary part of war, but it contains little in the way of honor, casting Diomedes and Odysseus in a different light than the rest of the poem. Odysseus is described as crafty and cunning throughout the poem. (Odysseus appears even more treacherous in Virgil's characterization of him in The Aeneid.) In Book 10, he crosses into brutal dishonesty when he falsely assures Dolon he will not be killed. (Dolon would have been better off asking his captors to swear to Zeus than having Hector do so for a prize that hadn't been taken yet.) The same Diomedes who recognized an enemy's claim to guest-friendship during the heat of battle now kills a defenseless man and wonders what the "worst/most brazen thing he can do" might be. The loss of a relatively small number of fighters and one chariot will not significantly weaken the Trojan army. However, an attack at a vulnerable time and the loss of a valuable prize would demoralize the Trojans. It also gives the Achaeans a psychological boost at a time when they are losing badly. The thematic, narrative, and linguistic differences between Book 10 and other books in the poem have sparked debate about its authorship since ancient times. Was it composed by Homer to show a different aspect of war or added by a later contributor? Regardless of the answer, it provides an exciting interlude from the chaos of battle and a bit of a change in the tide of the war for the Achaeans, who are currently suffering crushing losses.

Book 22

Summary: Apollo reveals he has tricked Achilles into letting the Trojans escape, and Achilles runs back to Troy like a deadly star. Despite the pleas of his parents, Hector waits outside the gates alone. But when Achilles approaches, Hector breaks and runs in fear. Achilles chases him around the plain of Troy, always blocking him from the city. Apollo gives Hector extra strength to flee for a time, but Zeus's scales declare his doom, and Apollo departs. Disguising herself as Hector's brother Deiphobus, Athena pledges to help him fight Achilles so that Hector will stand and fight. Hector proposes a pact that the winner will not mutilate the loser's body, but Achilles has only rage in his heart, saying, "There are no binding oaths between men and lions." Achilles throws his spear first, and Hector dodges. Unbeknownst to Hector, Athena then brings Achilles's spear back to him. Hector's spear throw hits Achilles's shield dead center—and bounces off. Hector calls to Deiphobus for another spear, but there is no one there. Realizing his fate is upon him, he charges with his sword. Achilles spears him through a hole in the armor—his armor—and slashes his neck. Dying, Hector begs Achilles to ransom his body back to his parents for burial, but Achilles responds, "dogs and birds will rend you—blood and bone!" Achilles strips his body of armor and other Achaeans take turns stabbing the body. As Achilles drags Hector's body back to the Achaean camp behind his chariot, the whole city wails in mourning. Hearing the cries, Andromache runs to the walls and faints when she sees what has been done to her husband. Analysis: Pride and honor finally bring Hector to his doom. Waiting at the gates, he recognizes "reckless pride" made him reject Polydamas's advice, and now he can't retreat without facing dishonor. Andromache regrets Hector's "fatal headstrong pride" that doesn't allow him to give ground to anyone. However, that is also part of what makes him honorable and heroic. Even as he begs Hector to return to the city, Priam fears the disgrace of dying an old man in a conquered city (a fate he will soon suffer), suggesting it is better to die young gloriously. Hector's vow to never run from Achilles goes out the window when they come face to face. Whether or not it was intended, the image of fighters running after each other across an empty battlefield is a bit comical. However, the stakes—Hector's life—could not be more serious. This scene also contains a striking simile, comparing the chase to a nightmare in which the dreamer can never catch what he is chasing, a theme different from that of any other simile in the poem. Achilles is his most godlike in battle (he needs no help from a god to run endlessly and never gets tired) but least human. Achilles doesn't even treat Hector as human, instead viewing him as prey. He refuses to agree to respect Hector's body in any way, threatening to "eat you raw" (the same sentiment is attributed to Hera in Book 4). These two warriors represent very different kinds of heroism. Achilles is all heroic strength and fighting prowess, but he suffers from character deficiencies. Hector displays the more heroic character, valuing mutual respect even amid the horrors of war and in the face of death. Inextricably linked with Hector's doom, the impending doom of Troy lies especially heavy in Book 22. Priam foresees, as Andromache did in Book 7, that Troy will fall without Hector. This makes the scene in which Andromache learns of Hector's death especially poignant. She fears the fate of their son, who will lack status without a father. Tragically, as Homer's audience knew, his fate is much worse.

Book 6

Summary: As the Achaeans drive the Trojans back toward their gates, Menelaus catches a Trojan charioteer. The Trojan begs to be ransomed, and Menelaus is moved to grant the request. But Agamemnon wants "all Ilium blotted out"—no one will be spared. Together they kill the begging Trojan. On the advice of his brother Helenus, a seer, Hector returns to Troy to ask the queen to make an offering to Athena. Meanwhile, Diomedes and Glaucus (a Trojan ally) meet on the battlefield. Diomedes wonders who Glaucus is because he's never noticed him before. Glaucus recites his lineage, and they discover their forefathers once exchanged friendship gifts. The two fighters also declare friendship and exchange armor. Inside Troy, Hector rouses Paris to join the fighting and then he visits his wife, Andromache, and baby son, Astyanax. Andromache fears for Hector, wanting him to withdraw from the fighting, but his honor will not let him—he would "die of shame." The horsehair on his helmet frightens his son when he moves to hug him. He removes it and throws the boy into the air, and the family shares a moment of laughter. As Hector returns to battle, Andromache grieves as if he were already dead. Analysis: Two scenes illustrate brutality and humanity in war: Menelaus is inclined to show mercy to the captured Trojan charioteer, but Agamemnon calls for the complete destruction of Troy—"all Ilium blotted out,/no tears for their lives, no markers for their graves!" He would not spare even the "baby boy still in his mother's belly," a statement that does not bode well for the future of Hector's baby son, Astyanax. This is a brutal new phase of war. However, Glaucus and Diomedes manage to find a human connection in the middle of the war. In this case their connection is based on a pledge of guest-friendship made by their forefathers through the exchange of gifts. Guest-friendship was considered sacred and, as demonstrated here, can be passed down through generations. (Among other offenses, Paris violated the guest-host relationship with Menelaus by running away with Helen.) The peaceful honor of guest-friendship triumphing over the honor and glory to be gained in battle is a hopeful sign for humanity. The scene with Diomedes and Glaucus also contains a profound epic simile in which Glaucus compares the lives of mortals to generations of leaves that die and bud again in the spring. It is the cycle of life, a hopeful image, but with a dark shadow. He and Diomedes are the old leaves who are due to die and be blown away and forgotten: Glaucus brings up this simile in response to Diomedes's request to know his lineage. Homer doesn't just celebrate honor and glory in The Iliad, he also explores their costs. In this section, Andromache fears the consequences of Hector's courage and begs him to take a more defensive approach to the war. Although he is also tortured by the thought of terrible consequences—to his family, the city he loves, and especially his wife—if he should lose, his sense of honor will not allow him to take a less glorious path. When he prays for his son, he wishes him to be glorious rather than for him to survive. In the values of the ancient world, life without honor is not worth living.

Book 12

Summary: As the Trojans advance on the Achaean wall, the poet reveals that the gods will destroy it as soon as they depart. The trench before the wall blocks their chariots, so Hector and his troops attack on foot. One captain and his men race ahead toward the still-open gates, but they are blocked and cut down by two valiant fighters. The Trojans hesitate to follow when they see a sign: an eagle bitten by the huge snake it is carrying. Polydamas advises falling back, saying the sign means the Achaeans will defeat them, but Hector mocks him and charges the wall. The two Ajaxes rally to defend the wall. Zeus sends his son Sarpedon forward, and he fights through all opposition to rip a section of the wall away. Achaeans rush to block the breach, and neither side can push the other back. Finally, Zeus helps Hector heroically lift a giant rock and smash it through the gates, and Trojans stream over and through the wall to the Achaean ships. Analysis: More doom is foretold at the beginning of Book 12. In a passage that jumps forward in time to predict the death of the "best of the Trojan captains," Hector, and the Achaean victory and departure "in the tenth year." Because there have already been nine years of war, all of this is going to happen pretty soon. Hector's reaction to Polydamas's advice begins moving him toward his doom. He takes Polydamas's first suggestion to attack on foot because it promises "less danger, more success." But he rejects Polydamas's accurate reading of the bird sign warning of the Trojan defeat. It would mean retreating, a dishonorable move, and an illogical one based on how the battle is going—except for the sign. Hector decides to ignore the omen and fight honorably for his home, fulfilling the destiny laid out by Zeus that ultimately leads to his death. Zeus gets more involved in orchestrating the conflict in Book 12, granting and denying specific fighters success and glory as they struggle for control of the wall. Both sides of the war claim his backing, but fighters are often confused about his will. When the battle turns against them, more than one Achaean rails at Zeus for breaking his promise that Troy will fall before they sail for home. Fear shakes their faith in the prophecy that supports them. In Book 12, Hector mistakes Zeus's current favoritism for a promise of ultimate success and ignores his sign to the contrary. As throughout the poem, the intervention of Zeus can be seen as providing an explanation for things that have no obvious explanation: the chaotic ebb and flow of war and individual instances of inspiration and extraordinary valor.

Book 15

Summary: As the Trojans are driven back to their chariots outside the wall, Zeus wakes up and sees what is happening. He threatens to punish Hera, but she protests her innocence. Zeus seems to accept her answer but puts her to work to undo Poseidon's interference. She obeys, but not before goading the war-god Ares into almost defying Zeus to avenge his son—he is only stopped by Athena. Iris calls off a reluctant Poseidon, and Apollo strengthens Hector and accompanies him back to the battle. The uninjured Achaean champions gather together to face Hector and his army. With a war cry, Apollo shakes Zeus's storm-shield at the Achaeans, who are struck with terror and retreat. The god fills the trench and knocks down the wall for the Trojans's charging chariots. But Nestor prays to Zeus for help, and the charge stops just before the ships, with neither side able to gain ground. With the ships in imminent danger, Patroclus goes to persuade Achilles to fight. Fighters rally to protect and avenge fallen comrades, first on one side and then the other. The great archer Teucer aims at Hector, but Zeus breaks his bow. Death comes to brave fighters on both sides while Hector rampages, glorified by Zeus with only a little time left. Finally, with Zeus's help, Hector reaches a ship! Great Ajax stands alone on the deck fighting off Trojan torches. Analysis: Zeus's reaction to Hera's meddling and Poseidon's interference in the war sheds light on the relationships between the gods. Hera manages to wriggle out of punishment by swearing her innocence. However, her oath on the river Styx—a vow the gods cannot break—cuts the truth pretty fine. It is true she did not send Poseidon to help the Achaeans, but she seized the opportunity to assist him. If Zeus recognizes this, he lets it go, perhaps in favor of preserving his relationship with his touchy wife. In addition to holding a grudge against the Trojans, Poseidon is motivated by a rivalry with Zeus, his older brother. The first-born Zeus is more powerful, but Poseidon bristles at having to give up his own interests for Zeus's priorities. This parallels the conflict between Achilles and Agamemnon. Achilles resents Agamemnon, the more powerful king, who expects Achilles to give up something he values for Agamemnon's whim. Poseidon gives way rather than face Zeus's punishment—clearly he fears his brother's power—but with a threat that calls to mind Achilles's ultimatum. Zeus reveals to Hera, and the audience, the full pattern of fate to come: The audience has already heard that Achilles, Hector, and Patroclus will die, but more details are revealed. Zeus's son Sarpedon will be killed by Patroclus before he dies. After Achilles kills Hector, the Achaeans will advance until they have taken Troy, an event that occurs after the end of The Iliad. This creates the tragic irony of the audience knowing Hector's fate even as he gains ground in battle and boasts of Zeus's support. When Hector finally battles through to the Achaean ships, with one about to be set on fire, Zeus's promise is fulfilled. From this point on the tide of battle will turn, and the Trojans will be driven back for the final time.

Book 5

Summary: Athena empowers Diomedes, who is one of the best fighters in the Achaean army, and he sweeps through the Trojan troops. The archer Pandarus shoots him in the shoulder, but Diomedes appeals to Athena. She willingly renews his strength and gives him the power to see the gods on the field, telling him not to fight most of them—but go ahead and spear Aphrodite! Aeneas and Pandarus go after Diomedes to turn the tide, but Athena guides Diomedes's spear to kill the archer, and he crushes Aeneas's hip with a boulder. Aeneas's death is imminent, but Aphrodite appears to carry him away. Remembering Athena's directive, Diomedes stalks the goddess and slashes her wrist. Aphrodite screams, drops Aeneas, and flees to her mother. Luckily, Apollo takes over, bringing Aeneas to be healed and later returning him to battle. Apollo also brings Ares back to fight for the Trojans because an Achaean just wounded his sister. As the fighting continues, heroes on each side take vengeance for the deaths of their men. Diomedes warns the Achaeans to avoid Hector—Ares is helping him. After a number of clashes, the Achaeans start to fall back. Alarmed, Hera and Athena gear up for war and secure Zeus's permission to deal Ares a "stunning blow." Hera shames the Achaeans, recalling that Achilles never let the Trojans out of their gates. Athena helps Diomedes spear Ares in the stomach. The god of war flees to Olympus, and Hera and Athena follow, having accomplished their goal. Analysis: Book 5 is primarily Diomedes's aristeia, an extended passage in an epic celebrating a hero's "best work," although the exploits of others and actions of the gods are interspersed through it. This is the first aristeia of many in the poem and the longest and bloodiest except for Achilles's in Books 20-22. Typical of an aristeia, Diomedes is inspired and empowered by a god (Athena), his glorious armor is highlighted, and he triumphs despite being wounded. Many epic similes describe the hero. In several similes typical of battle scenes, Diomedes sweeps through the Trojans like raging water and attacks like a "claw mad" lion. The concerns of the gods again seem petty compared to the seriousness of battle for the mortals. The gods have little regard for the consequences of their actions for humans, unless they are protecting a favored individual. Mainly, they seem concerned with opposing the other gods. Neither Aphrodite nor Ares handle their wounds well, both running home and whining about it to a parent as soon as they are hurt. The contrast with Diomedes's reaction after he is wounded is striking. When not focusing on Diomedes, Homer alternates the killings pretty evenly between the two sides of the conflict. This rotating perspective keeps the action from becoming monotonous and builds the suspenseful ebb and flow of battle. The poet frequently gives the background of the fighter who is about to die, emphasizing the loss to his army and homeland. Vengeance killings form another pattern in the poem, such as Aeneas killing two Achaean captains after his comrade Deicoon is killed by Agamemnon. Taunts are a frequent and important element in battle. Comrades challenge each other's bravery and honor to get in the battle mood. Sarpedon does this by telling Hector his Lycians are doing more than Hector's Trojans to defend Troy. In battle, fighters also taunt their opponents to dishearten them, such as when Heracles's son reminds Sarpedon that his father successfully sacked Troy. Even the gods get in on the taunts—Hera shames the Achaeans by saying Achilles never let the Trojans out of their gates.

Book 24

Summary: For the next several days, Achilles drags Hector's corpse around Patroclus's tomb every time he misses his comrade. Apollo protects the body from decay and damage, but Hera, Athena, and Poseidon won't let the other gods steal it from Achilles and return it to Hector's family. Zeus decrees a compromise: Achilles will give up Hector's body for a ransom, which Priam will bring in person and alone. With the treasures gathered, Priam prays for a sign of approval and Zeus sends a huge eagle in confirmation. Zeus sends the god Hermes, who disguises himself as Achilles's aide, to hide him and guide him safely to Achilles. Arriving at Achilles's lodge, Priam kneels before him and kisses his hands. Priam's appeal touches Achilles's heart, and they weep together. Achilles agrees to give up Hector's body, but when Priam suggests he sail home safely to his own father, Achilles warns him not to tempt his rage. After ordering Hector's body prepared, Achilles provides hospitality—food and a bed for the night. Achilles pledges to hold off attacking until Hector is buried. Fearing Priam might be captured, Hermes wakes him before dawn and guides him out of the Achaean camp with Hector's body. Priam's daughter Cassandra sees him approach, and the entire city gathers at the gates to receive its favorite son. Andromache, Hecuba, and Helen sing songs of mourning that highlight Hector's skill in battle, how the gods favored him, and his kindness. After nine days of mourning, his body is burned and his bones interred in a golden box. "And so the Trojans buried Hector breaker of horses." Analysis: Book 24 is a portrait of grief, from anger to compassion. Up to this point Achilles has been stuck in anger fed by grief. At the beginning of the section Apollo calls him "That man without a shred of decency in his heart," all "brute force and wild pride," and no "shame that does great harm or drives men on to good." Abusing the corpse of noble Hector offends the gods and brings him no honor. However, when Achilles is asked to give up Hector's body, it seems to open his ears, and he actually listens to Priam. When they weep together, Achilles is mostly crying for his own losses, but he also empathizes with Priam's pain, recognizing that his own father will feel the same grief after Achilles's fated death. The other concession he offers Priam, to hold the Achaeans back from attacking until Hector is buried, seems inspired entirely by his own compassion with no prompting of the gods. He is finally putting aside his godlike rage and finding his humanity. This gentler Achilles is not likely to stick around for long, though. The poet shows that his anger is not far from the surface, even now. He warns Priam not to insult his honor with suggestions that he sail home without glory, and he avoids rousing Priam's anger, fearing it will ignite his own rage again and he will kill Priam in defiance of Zeus's decree. Other characters also display anger in grief. Priam takes his pain out on his remaining sons, saying he wishes they had died instead of Hector. Hecuba (Hector's mother) is so angry she could "sink my teeth in [Achilles's] liver, eat him raw!" echoing Achilles's words to Hector in Book 22. Eating plays a significant role in this section. In his grief, Achilles isn't eating or sleeping. His mother, Thetis, asks him, "How long will you eat your heart out here in the tears and torment?" He seems to be living on rage rather than food. However, after weeping with Priam he tells the story of Niobe to urge Priam to eat. They dine together, symbolically providing some healing for both their griefs. The eagle of Zeus again appears in Book 24 as a sign of the god's approval of Priam's trip to the Achaean camp. As an animal with excellent vision, it also symbolizes that the gods will help the king navigate successfully through the darkness. The god Hermes, who acts as Priam's guide, is likewise associated with clear sight. The poet uses parallel events to bring the story structure full circle. Chryses's appeal for the return of his daughter from Agamemnon in Book 1 is balanced by Priam's appeal for the return of his son's body in Book 24. The parallel is masterful—the first appeal starts the conflict and the second one ends it. The poet's choice to end the story with this emotional resolution, rather than with a dramatic battle that provides a military resolution, focuses the epic on the characters's emotional journeys. The burial of Hector parallels the burial of Patroclus and ends the poem with mourning befitting not only Hector but all those who died. The story of the Trojan War continues in many other stories, including Homer's The Odyssey. (Tragically, Andromache's fear that an Achaean will hurl Hector's son "down from the ramparts" does foretell his fate.) However, the story of Achilles's rage is done.

Book 14

Summary: Hearing the sounds of battle, Nestor gathers the wounded Achaean commanders. Agamemnon fears losing and proposes sailing away while the army still fights. Odysseus contemptuously rejects the idea, and Diomedes offers a better plan: All the commanders should go to the front, not to fight because they are wounded, but to inspire their army. On the way to the front, Poseidon in disguise reassures Agamemnon that the Trojans will retreat from the ships at some point. On Olympus, Hera decides to distract Zeus. Making herself beautiful as only an immortal can be, she tricks Aphrodite into giving her a band that contains the power of love. She also bribes the god Sleep to help her. She goes to Zeus on Ida, and he is overcome with desire for her. Hidden in a cloud they make love. Afterward, Sleep uses his power on Zeus and then informs Poseidon he is free to fight for the Achaeans. Inspired by Poseidon, the Achaeans prepare for more fighting, giving the best fighters the best armor. The battle resumes, and Great Ajax and Hector soon face off. Hector strikes Ajax with a mighty spear throw, but it again fails to get through his armor. Ajax crushes Hector with a rock for a second time, and he begins to spit up blood. After Hector retreats, opposing fighters trade insults and battle, and Poseidon turns the tide against the Trojans. Analysis: At the beginning of Book 14, top Achaean commander Agamemnon must once again be talked out of giving up and sailing away. At every setback he thinks Zeus has abandoned his promise of victory. Seeing defeat as inevitable, he proposes dishonorable survival, sailing away while part of his army still fights. Choosing a safe return home over glorious and honorable death is the opposite of Achilles's choice. Odysseus roundly denounces this plan and calls him a disgrace. As the audience knows, an Achaean defeat is not inevitable and Agamemnon needs to have more faith in the gods. This revelation of Agamemnon as faltering and faithless helps explain why Achilles and other Achaeans resent his claim to the bulk of the plunder they seize. For the first time Agamemnon seems to feel some regret for offending Achilles, but only insofar as how it directly affects him. He worries that the men blame him for the current turn of events. The gods again provide a humorous counterpoint to the brutal slog of war down on earth. Hera, who never misses an opportunity to take advantage, capitalizes on Poseidon's success and uses all her wiles to keep Zeus distracted a little longer. She comically takes advantage of Aphrodite's good will to manipulate Zeus on his weakest point, his fondness for beautiful woman. Although naive about Hera's intent, Aphrodite is supreme in her own area, love, and Zeus is helpless to resist the band she loans to Hera. Book 14 also features Hector's second one-on-one face off with Great Ajax, in which he again comes out the loser. This illustrates the relative strength of each side's armies and heroes. Hector is the strongest Trojan fighter, but he consistently cannot stand up to the second-strongest fighter on the Achaean side. And if he falls, there is no fighter nearly as strong to replace him, whereas the Achaeans have a deep pool of mighty warriors. Even with Zeus's help, Hector's progress toward the ships is painfully slow and full of setbacks. Homer portrays both sides sympathetically—both display honor and fight heroically—but as the epic continues, it becomes increasingly clear the comparative strength of the Trojans just doesn't stack up.

Book 11

Summary: In the morning the armies clash, wreaking destruction on both sides. Then Achaean fighters begin to gain ground. Agamemnon kills many enemies and drives the Trojan army back to the gates of Troy. Allowing Agamemnon his hour of glory, Zeus sends Hector a message to charge once Agamemnon is wounded and retreats. At the signal Hector advances, pushing back the Achaeans until Diomedes nearly knocks him unconscious with a spear to the helmet. He retreats back to his forces. In quick succession most of the best Achaean fighters are wounded and forced to retreat. Paris shoots Diomedes in the foot with an arrow, leaving Odysseus vulnerable. He is also wounded and is about to be overwhelmed when Great Ajax arrives and beats back the Trojans. Hector, who is battling in another area, rushes to block Ajax's advance but avoids fighting him directly. Zeus forces Ajax to retreat, but he nonetheless holds the Trojans back until others come to support him. Watching the battle from his ship, Achilles sends Patroclus to identify the wounded fighter Nestor is bringing in. Nestor wonders why Achilles cares about wounded Achaeans now after so many have died for his pride. He suggests Patroclus convince Achilles to return to battle, or at least let Patroclus, wearing his armor, lead his troops and intimidate the Trojans. They have little hope of holding off the Trojans otherwise. Analysis: Book 11 begins with Agamemnon's aristeia, or "best work" in the poem, a passage in which he dominates the fighting and cannot be opposed. The traditional arming sequence is extended to focus on a detailed description of Agamemnon's arms and armor. They are gloriously decorated: precious materials emphasize his richness, and the Gorgon on his shield, which also appears on Athena's shield, symbolizes the support of the gods. For a time, he turns the tide of battle against the Trojans despite Zeus's plan for the Achaeans to be driven back. Zeus is still the only god allowed to intervene, and he mostly works from afar to intimidate the Achaeans and nudge Hector this way or that. The goddess Strife (or Hate in some translations) appears as an extension of his will and a manifestation of the brutality of war. Homer shows the cost of this brutality throughout the poem, but he is by no means condemning war. Although it is terrible, it is also a vital means of winning the glory and honor that was so important in the ancient world. In other words, it is an unavoidable part of life. Achilles's reappearance in the narrative at the end of Book 11 starts the progression of events that leads to the fated deaths of Patroclus, Hector, and (after the end of the poem) Achilles himself. When Patroclus answers Achilles's call to question Nestor, Homer says "from that moment on his doom was sealed." After Nestor's suggestion that Patroclus pretend to be Achilles in battle, the shape of that doom starts to become clear. Patroclus's character also sheds light on Achilles. Although they are great friends and foster brothers, they are quite different. The humanity of Patroclus's compassion for the wounded fighter Eurypylus contrasts with Achilles's choice to place his pride above the fate of his fellow Achaeans. Patroclus himself even speaks with some disapproval of Achilles's anger, saying he would "leap to accuse a friend without a fault."

Book 1

Summary: In the tenth year of the Trojan War, Achilles, the greatest fighter for the Achaeans (the Greeks and their allies), is enraged. King Agamemnon, who leads the Achaeans, has brought an illness upon the army by refusing to give up a woman, Chryseis, whom he seized as a prize in a recent battle. Chryseis is the daughter of a priest of the god Apollo. When Agamemnon refuses to give her back in exchange for a ransom, her father calls on the god, and Apollo sends a plague. When Achilles calls on Agamemnon to give up Chryseis in return for future compensation, Agamemnon seems to view the idea of future compensation as unlikely for a warrior who lives moment by moment and demands immediate restoration of his pride by claiming Briseis, the woman Achilles has taken as a prize. Only the intervention of Athena stops Achilles from killing Agamemnon at that moment, and he vows Agamemnon will beg for his skills one day. Achilles refuses to fight and appeals to his mother, the goddess Thetis, to avenge his pride. Thetis secures the pledge of Zeus, king of the gods, that the Achaeans will lose the war until the insult to Achilles's honor has been repaired. Analysis: As stated in its iconic first line, The Iliad is about the consequences of Achilles's rage. Why is he angry? It's all about pride and honor. Honor is a sacred concept in the ancient world. The Greek word for honor also means price or value, closely connecting honor with riches and prizes. Thus, Agamemnon's loss of a highly valued prize is also a significant loss of honor. However, it seems there would also be honor in giving up something of value to protect his army. But Agamemnon's pride gets in the way of his considering it, even for the promise of valuable future prizes. Agamemnon will only accept the immediate replacement of Chryseis with an equal prize. He zeroes in on Achilles who stands up to him. Each man insults the other's honor and pride: Achilles calls Agamemnon greedy and a coward, and Agamemnon disdains Achilles's battle skills. Nestor's unsuccessful appeal for peace between them is an attempt to soothe each man's honor. When Agamemnon takes Briseis, not only is Achilles dishonored, but also his mother Thetis by extension. Agamemnon has not only insulted his greatest warrior but he has also insulted the gods, bringing to boil all the ingredients that advance the plot. Many later readers of The Iliad would also have been aware that Agamemnon also has the blood of his daughter Iphegenia on his hands because he sacrificed her life to gain the winds in the sails of his stranded ships on their way to Troy prior to the events of The Iliad. They might also have known that Agamemnon was murdered by his wife after his return from the war partly in vengeance for the murder of their daughter. Although these stories are not part of The Iliad, they add to the modern reader's understanding of the character of Agamemnon and the arrogance that led him to risk all in serving his pride and achieving his ends. Throughout the poem the gods pull the strings of the human world. The conflict between Achilles and Agamemnon has obvious roots in human nature, but it would not have developed without the plague sent by Apollo. Hera, the queen of the gods, also contributes by prompting Achilles to seek the cause of the plague. To the ancient Greeks, both internal motivations and events beyond human control could be explained as the work of the gods. Achilles is only prevented from killing Agamemnon by the goddess Athena, emphasizing the power of his rage as beyond human control. Recognizing features of the improvisational oral performance tradition in which The Iliad was developed helps make sense of the poem. Recurring characters and objects are often referred to with epithets (characterizing words or phrases). Each character or object can be described a number of ways. Achilles is often described as "swift runner," "dear to Zeus," and "godlike." Apollo is usually referred to by his role as an archer, and the Achaean ships are often "black," "swift," or "beaked." In a performance, the poet chooses the description that fits the number of syllables needed to fill out the poetic line. The repetition of descriptions also helps listeners quickly identify recurring characters and objects. Some epithets are used for multiple people or things, such as the application of "lord of the war cry" to Menelaus, Diomedes, and occasionally others.

Book 8

Summary: On Olympus, Zeus has had enough. He forbids the other gods from interfering in the war and goes off to the mountains of Ida near Troy to take charge. He weighs the fate of the two armies on his scales, and the Achaeans lose. Zeus drives them back with thunderbolts. Even bold Diomedes retreats. Hector and the Trojans advance, vowing to break down the Achaeans's new wall and burn their ships. The Achaeans are in danger of being wiped out. Hera rants at Poseidon, but neither wants to defy Zeus. Agamemnon rallies the Achaeans and prays to Zeus to allow his men to live. Zeus sends a sign of assent. Achaean fighters kill some Trojans, but Zeus then spurs on Hector, who pushes Achaean fighters back against their own walls. Furious, Hera and Athena head for battle again despite Zeus's warning. He sends Iris to warn them off, telling them Hector will rampage until Achilles returns to battle. Down on earth, night ends the fighting. Feeling victory is imminent, Hector has his army camp on the plain to ensure the Achaeans can't sail away. They watch fires blaze like stars. Analysis: Until this point in the story Zeus has largely stayed out of the war, mostly overseeing the squabbles of the other gods and sending the occasional dream. Now he takes direct control, changing the dynamics considerably. Before, the gods fighting for each side tended to balance each other out, not giving either army too much of an advantage. But then Zeus sets his will against the Achaeans. Not even the bravery of Diomedes can save them from disaster. He slightly counteracts his own will by giving the Achaeans a bit of a rally to answer Agamemnon's prayer. But he makes it clear to Hera that the Achaeans will continue to lose until Achilles stops sulking and fights. This section contains a number of significant symbolic objects. The Achaean ships represent home and escape to their army, so Hector's intention to burn them is a direct threat to their survival. Without any means of escape they would be trapped and slaughtered—and this is exactly what Hector wants to do. Zeus's scales symbolically weigh the fates of the two armies, and they tip against the Achaeans. Rather than determining fate, the scales seem to be an official indicator of what has already been decided. Zeus's promise to Thetis means the Achaeans must lose until Achilles relents. However, the scales provide a sense of fairness and balance that makes Zeus's intervention more detached than the meddling of the other gods. Zeus's rebuke of Hera portends an important future event—at some point Achilles's comrade Patroclus will die. He also says Hector will not stop fighting until then. Because Hector is unlikely to ever stop fighting to defend his city, this likely means his death as well.

Book 4

Summary: On Olympus, the gods argue over the war. Zeus suggests that the peace hold and Helen go home with Menelaus, both because Troy is his favorite city and to mock Hera's and Athena's passion for the death of Trojans. Hera protests she wouldn't object if Zeus destroyed all her favorite cities, so he shouldn't protest the destruction of Troy. Zeus yields and sends Athena to provoke Troy to break the truce. Disguised as a soldier, Athena urges Pandarus, a Trojan archer, to kill Menelaus. His arrow hits Menelaus in the belt and draws blood, but Athena doesn't actually want Menelaus dead and prevents a mortal wound. However, the truce is broken. Agamemnon uses praise and scorn to rouse his troops, and the Achaean army surges in violent waves to the attack. As gods drive them on, warriors on both sides die in droves. Analysis: As Book 4 begins, the gods are arguing about mortals as usual. Unlike in most modern religions, the Greek gods embody all of the same passions and flaws as humans. They also freely interact with humans to persuade them into action through reason and emotions. The difference is they cannot die. This makes their conflicts seem somewhat trivial, even comical, in contrast to the death and destruction happening down on earth. Because they face no consequences, they take more pleasure in the conflict than the mortals, for whom it is a deadly serious business. With a truce declared, there is a real chance that the war can be ended peacefully, but Hera and Athena keep it going to avenge their own injured pride. War erupts in the second half of Book 4. Although he alludes to the death of foot soldiers, Homer primarily focuses on individual clashes between champions and other notable fighters. His descriptions of the deadly wounds fighters inflict on one another are brutal but also based on a consistent formula. Spears, arrows, swords, and rocks crush, stab, slash, and rip a rotating list of body parts, with the occasional embellishment of an organ or other internal element. Homer rearranges these basic elements with different specific details to create an almost endless variety of battle deaths. Stripping armor from fallen enemies or taking possession of their horses is an important element of battle. These are valuable prizes, and claiming them both increases the winner's honor and dishonors the dead fighter. Seizing this honor is important enough that fighters make themselves vulnerable in the middle of battle to do so, sometimes with fatal consequences. After the first battle death described in the poem, another fighter immediately attempts to strip the gear off the body of the dead man and is killed because he exposes his side in the process. Neither side is portrayed as better than the other in the poem—fighters from both sides die the same tragic deaths. This is illustrated poignantly at the end of Book 4 with an image of two dead fighters from opposite sides lying next to each other as men from both sides of the conflict die around them.

Book 3

Summary: Paris boldly strides in the front rank of the Trojan forces, but he hides when he sees Menelaus, Helen's abandoned husband, in the approaching Achaean army. Hector denounces Paris for being more beautiful than brave, and Paris doesn't argue. However, his pride is hurt. He proposes settling the conflict over Helen in single combat with Menelaus. Hector accepts the challenge, and the goddess Iris summons Helen to watch. Joining Priam on the walls, she identifies and describes the Achaean champions—Agamemnon, Odysseus, Great Ajax, and Idomeneus. Priam offers sacrifices to bind the agreement, but cannot bear to stay and watch Paris be killed. Neither Paris nor Menelaus wound each other with spear throws, and Menelaus's sword breaks on Paris's helmet. Menelaus gets the upper hand and attempts to strangle Paris with his helmet strap. At this turn of events, Aphrodite intervenes and saves Paris, spiriting him away to his bedroom. She then brings a resistant Helen to him. After Helen mocks Paris's cowardice, they make love. Unable to find Paris, Agamemnon declares Menelaus the winner and demands Helen's return. Analysis: After meeting the major Achaean players in the first two books, the audience is introduced to the main Trojan characters in Book 3. Helen is depicted as a sympathetic character. She deeply regrets the cost of the conflict being fought over her, maligning herself and wishing she had died before running away with Paris. She wonders if her brothers aren't in the Achaean army because they are ashamed of her. (Tragically, as Greek audiences knew, they are actually dead.) After her past history with Aphrodite, Helen recognizes and resists Aphrodite's urging to join Paris in his bedroom. She doesn't seem to like Paris much at that moment, criticizing him for cowardice. However, Aphrodite has the power to bend Helen to her will and make her continue to love Paris. This situation echoes the condition of Dido in relation to Aeneas in the later epic The Aeneid. Viewing divine intervention as an explanation for human mysteries, readers recognize Helen's feelings for Paris as deeply conflicted—she both loves and despises him. Unlike Helen, Paris doesn't seem to feel much shame or responsibility for his role in starting the war. Instead, Hector is the one who wishes Paris had died before bringing doom upon their city. Here Paris is motivated more by pleasure and self-preservation than by honor. It takes Hector calling him "a curse to your father, your city and all your people,/... rank disgrace to yourself!" to prompt him to the honorable idea of a duel. But his enthusiasm for combat wanes quickly. He is not in the least upset to end up back in his bedroom with Helen, leaving the army to continue fighting while he enjoys the spoils. It's not surprising the Trojan army hates Paris "like death, black death." Past the age of fighting for glory and honor, Priam is the character most connected with his humanity. The other Trojan elders, not without reason, want to send Helen back to save their city. However, Priam does not blame Helen and treats her compassionately despite all of the trouble she has brought on Troy.

Book 16

Summary: Patroclus tells Achilles how badly the battle is going and scolds him for his rage. If he will not relent, Achilles should at least let Patroclus take his armor and troops into battle. Tragically, Patroclus is begging for his own death. Achilles agrees but tells Patroclus he should only drive the Trojans back from the ships, not follow them to Troy. As the Trojans finally set fire to a ship, Patroclus dons Achilles's armor and Achilles musters his Myrmidons. The fresh fighters turn the tide of battle, and Hector and the Trojans break and run. In Achilles's chariot Patroclus sweeps through the retreating Trojan army. Sarpedon turns to face Patroclus, and they get out of their chariots to duel. Zeus wants to save his son from his fate to be killed by Patroclus, but Hera argues every god would then want to follow his example. Zeus agrees but weeps as Sarpedon dies. Hector and other Trojans return to fight a fierce battle to protect his body. However, Zeus decides to glorify Patroclus before he dies by driving Hector back to Troy, and he makes Hector retreat. The Achaeans get Sarpedon's armor, but Zeus sends Apollo to take his body home for burial. Patroclus chases the Trojan army to the walls of Troy, but Apollo holds him off. After he kills Hector's chariot driver and many others, Apollo strikes him in the back, knocking his armor and weapons away. A young Trojan spears him in the back, and Hector finishes him off with a spear to the gut. As he dies, Patroclus warns Hector of his fate that Achilles will bring him down. Analysis: As the story finally returns to Achilles in Book 16, his rage may be waning a bit, but his injured pride is still as fresh as ever. He continues to act without humanity, showing no concern for the fate of the Achaean army—in stark contrast to Patroclus, who is in tears over their plight. Patroclus accuses him of being born not of gods and mortals but of the ocean and rocks, forces with no feelings. Homer also creates a sense of tragic irony related to Patroclus's fate. Achilles prays for his success and safe return, but the poet reminds the audience the second part of that prayer will not be answered. Battles over fallen comrades become more significant in Book 16. The desire to protect Sarpedon's body motivates Hector to return to battle where Hector and Patroclus face off in a literal tug-of-war over the body of Hector's driver. Patroclus eventually wins these face-offs and gains the glory of stripping the bodies of armor. Zeus wants him to achieve glory in battle before he dies. As Patroclus rises in glory, Hector seems to diminish. He retreats without being wounded twice in this section. Although Homer says Zeus forces the second retreat to allow Patroclus his glory, Hector's earlier retreat from the ships, abandoning his fleeing army, seems out of character with his earlier conduct. (Even a few short lines earlier he was guarding the retreat.) Patroclus's death is strangely unheroic—for both him and Hector. Apollo knocks his armor and weapons away, allowing him to be stabbed in the back by one of the youngest Trojans. As Patroclus points out, Hector only delivers the coup de grâce—the gods did most of the work. Zeus's decision not to save Sarpedon illuminates the relationship between the gods and fate. Apparently, fate can be changed because Zeus considers making an exception for Sarpedon. However, even the king of the gods cannot block an established fate without consequences. If he saves his son, the gods will fail to respect him and think they can do the same, leading to all sorts of problems.

Book 19

Summary: The next morning Thetis delivers Achilles's new armor, gives him strength, and promises to keep Patroclus's body from decaying. Calling his Myrmidons and the commanders of the army together, Achilles foreswears his rage toward Agamemnon and intends to immediately go into battle. Agamemnon also speaks, again blaming the gods and madness for his actions but promising Achilles the formerly offered treasures and return of Briseis. Completely indifferent to treasure, Achilles is eager to start fighting immediately. But Odysseus insists the army needs food to fight. Agamemnon quickly delivers the promised treasures. Although he will not eat, Athena fuels Achilles for battle with the food and drink of the gods, ambrosia and nectar. He dons his new armor and boards his chariot, chiding his immortal horses to keep him alive. Given voice by Hera, one horse replies that they will save him once more, but they cannot fight Achilles's fate that is coming soon. Achilles isn't moved—he has already chosen his fate. Analysis: The conflict that has driven the story to this point is resolved as Achilles reconciles with Agamemnon. However, the resolution is not due to any character growth on Achilles's part—he has only changed the target of his rage from Agamemnon to Hector. He continues to disregard the needs of his own army. Instead, he is trying to impose his method of mourning on everyone else. As Odysseus points out, if soldiers were always fasting to mourn their fallen comrades, they would never be able to fuel themselves for the next day's battle. They have to be able to move on to fight and win glory. Eating represents a degree of acceptance that life goes on even after the most tragic events. It is an idea that will play a significant role in Book 24 as well. Achilles's rejection of food is a rejection of life and a fatalistic acceptance of his fated death. To sustain him through battle, the gods grant him the privilege of living off their own food and drink, again emphasizing his nature as a demigod, being half mortal and half god. Even as he pledges to reward Achilles for returning to the battle, Agamemnon continues to deflect responsibility for his actions. He blames his actions on the goddess Ruin, a translation of the Greek Atê. This word has a range of meanings, from the afflictions of "delusion," "madness," and "infatuation," to their consequences "disaster," "doom," and "ruin." Ancient Greeks viewed these strong feelings as being from the gods rather than features of human nature that might be subject to human control. Even Achilles blames his anger on "the blinding frenzies" the gods send to mortals. However, from a modern perspective Agamemnon's decision seems less like "madness" and more like selfishness.

Book 7

Summary: The return of Hector and Paris reinvigorates the Trojan troops. Alarmed, Athena rushes back toward the battle, but Apollo proposes they end the fighting for the day with a duel. Athena sends a telepathic message to the seer Helenus: Hector should challenge the strongest Achaean to fight. Prompted by wise old Nestor, Achaean heroes volunteer, and Great Ajax is selected by drawing lots. Hector is intimidated by the giant, but he doesn't waver. He attacks boldly, but each blow is blocked by Ajax's huge shield. Ajax's return blows come very close to wounding Hector seriously, and he finally knocks him over with a great rock. Because night is coming on, they agree to end the duel, exchanging goodwill gifts. Neither side is eager to resume fighting the next day. A Trojan adviser suggests returning Helen, but Paris will not give her up. However, he does offer the treasure he took with her, plus more. Sensing weakness, the Achaeans reject Paris's treasure but agree on a day for burial of the battle dead. They also take the opportunity to build a wall with a trench in front of it around their ships. Sea-god Poseidon objects to the wall, but Zeus chides him, saying he can wash it away as soon as they leave. Analysis: Homer builds parallels throughout The Iliad in which an event in one group is mirrored in a scene of another group. (See the conflicts in Book 1, first between mortals and then between the gods.) In Book 7, the desires and actions of Achaeans and Trojans mirror each other in many ways. In the duel Hector attacks with a weapon; then Ajax counterattacks with the same weapon, usually doing a bit more damage. After the duel both sides go home and eat, and both wish to bury their dead. Homer references the grief of the Trojans as they burn their dead to describe the grief of the Achaeans. In so doing, Homer lays the foundation of compassion that finally finds its way to Achilles when Priam petitions him for the body of his slain son, Hector. Common cause and the recognition of it binds enemies to the same principles of honor. Burial rituals were extremely important to the ancient Greeks. As Patroclus's ghost points out in Book 23, they believed that a person's spirit could not enter the world of the dead until they were properly buried. In The Iliad, bodies are usually burned on pyres. The remaining bones are either interred in a decorative jar or box, or are buried in an earth tomb mounded over the site of the fire. Like many of the gods's reactions, Poseidon's anger at the end of the chapter is petty—he mostly seems worried that the Achaeans's wall is going to take away from the glory of the wall he built around Troy. But it's also a reminder of an important principle: The gods should always be respected because they can wipe away human works at a whim.

Book 9

Summary: There is panic in the Achaean camp. Agamemnon fears they must sail home, but Diomedes argues against such cowardice. He still has faith in Zeus's promise of their victory. Nestor calms everyone and says it's time to approach Achilles. Agamemnon offers great treasure—the return of Briseis, future plunder, one of his daughters, and seven cities—to Achilles if he will fight again and acknowledge his authority. Three captains deliver his proposal: Great Ajax, Odysseus, and old Phoenix, who raised Achilles. Odysseus appeals to Achilles's responsibility to help his fellow Achaeans. Achilles refuses the treasure and threatens to sail home. He doesn't want Agamemnon's payoff, "not if his gifts outnumbered all the grains of sand/and dust in the earth"—he wants to preserve his pride. Phoenix asks Achilles to forgive, telling a story of an angry prince who lost the honor of rich gifts because he waited too long to relent. However, Achilles doesn't want honor that way; Zeus has promised him honor enough if he stays. Ajax urges him to earn the love of his comrades and puts Achilles's loss in perspective. Achilles responds more warmly to Ajax, but he still will not fight until Hector burns the ships. When Odysseus and Ajax deliver Achilles's message, the Achaeans are stunned. Finally, Diomedes says not to mind Achilles. They will sleep and Agamemnon will lead them bravely in the morning. Analysis: In Agamemnon's and Achilles's second interaction in the poem, this time through intermediaries, issues of pride and honor are again central. The turn that the war has taken forces Agamemnon to bend his pride enough to admit fault, but only as much as he has to. He claims "mad, blind I was," deflecting responsibility onto a disordered state of mind rather than a choice he made. And he is not exactly humbled. The wealth of prizes he offers to honor Achilles is contingent on Achilles submitting himself to Agamemnon as the greater king. Achilles bends his pride even less. Even though Odysseus wisely leaves out Agamemnon's demand for Achilles to bow to him, Achilles apparently notices the lack of an apology. He doesn't trust Agamemnon to make good on his offer of rich prizes, and he doesn't want them anyway. He seems to have given up on prizes as a means of achieving honor, saying the only honor he needs is the fate that Zeus has decreed for him, the honor of a glorious death. Because he doesn't have long to live, prizes would be of little practical use; something of an echo of Agamemnon's refusal to take stock in future glories and prizes. A warrior's enjoyment of them is very brief. Achilles's positive response to Ajax's appeal shows he values the respect of his comrades (although he doesn't seem too bothered that they're dying without him). But he just can't forgive the insult to his pride. Up to this point Achilles's anger has seemed fairly justified. However, he starts to lose the audience's sympathy when he turns down an extravagant (if not humble) offer of compensation and stubbornly holds onto his pride and anger. Achilles, more than other fighters, is described as and acts godlike. The pettiness of his reaction calls to mind the grudges of gods such as Hera and Poseidon. The many speeches in Book 9 are demonstrations of the skill of oratory, or effective public speaking. The Greeks considered it to be as valuable as skill in battle. Phoenix references these two values when he says he raised Achilles to be "a man of words and a man of action." Odysseus's speech is the most formally structured, making a series of different appeals to try to change Achilles's mind. Each speech demonstrates some facet of oratorical skill.

Book 2

Summary: To fulfill his promise to Thetis, Zeus sends Agamemnon a dream that he will defeat Troy, leading him to believe all the gods support him. Agamemnon gathers the troops, and in an act of trickery tests their will to fight by encouraging them to sail for home. Soldiers rush for the ships, but Odysseus and Nestor both berate and inspire the troops, recalling the signs that foretold their victory. Agamemnon commands the army to prepare for battle, and he makes sacrifices to Zeus. Seeing the Achaean army organizing, the Trojans muster as well. The poet celebrates the origin, commander, and strengths and talents of each group in both armies. Achilles and his Myrmidons are catalogued but, true to Achilles's vow, will be sitting out the upcoming battle. Analysis: Homer starts both his epics—The Iliad and The Odyssey—in medias res, meaning "in the middle of things." It is revealed in Book 2 that the Achaeans and Trojans have already been fighting for nine long years. Homer only refers to the cause of the war in passing. He assumes that his listeners know the whole backstory: Zeus (wisely not wanting to do it himself) appointed Prince Paris of Troy to judge which of the goddesses—Hera, Athena, or Aphrodite—was most beautiful. Paris picked Aphrodite because she promised him the love of the most beautiful mortal woman in the world. Unfortunately, that was Helen, the wife of Agamemnon's brother, Menelaus. When Helen ran away with Paris, the Achaeans gathered allies and attacked Troy. So Paris's choice has brought down the hatred of the powerful goddesses Hera and Athena upon his city of Troy. Homer's distinctive epic similes—extended comparisons between elements of the story and scenes from nature and everyday life—first appear in Book 2. In this section the Achaean army is compared to swarming bees and flies, a wildfire, and circling flocks of birds. Although these images evoke life outside of the war that dominates the poem, many contain suggestions of the aggression, violence, or destruction of war. The bees are "dark hordes," "seething over spring blooms"—an image more threatening than peaceful. Only the simile comparing captains splitting the army into groups to "seasoned goatherds" with their flocks is relatively organized and peaceful. The overall effect is a sense that war and conflict are integral parts of life. As at the beginning of the poem, Homer invokes the help of the Muses in Book 2 to list and describe the commanders of the Achaean army and where they come from. The Muses are goddesses of the arts and literature. This lends the human poet superhuman knowledge of what ancient Greeks regarded as historical events. This long catalog of places and backgrounds may be boring to modern readers, but Greek listeners would have been thrilled to hear their city or area celebrated in the entertainment of the day. The repetition of passages is another feature of oral poetry, from simple phrases up to long chunks of the poem. At the beginning of Book 2, Zeus dictates his message for Agamemnon in a personified dream. The dream repeats it nearly verbatim to Agamemnon. Agamemnon then relays the whole dream in exactly the same words to his troops. Descriptions of the ritual of sacrifice in other sections of the poem often repeat part or all of the description in Book 2. These repetitions highlight and reinforce important ideas for listeners (who cannot go back and reread if they didn't understand something the first time). They also give the poet time to think ahead to the next section to be performed.

Book 13

Summary: With the Trojans through the Achaean wall, Zeus takes his eyes off the fighting, and the sea-god Poseidon takes advantage. He inspires Great Ajax, Little Ajax, and the troops around them to hold back Hector. After his grandson is killed, Poseidon inspires Idomeneus of Crete and his fierce aide Meriones on the left of the battle. He doesn't dare openly defend the Achaeans for fear of Zeus's punishment, but with his support Idomeneus and other Achaeans kill or wound many Trojans. Polydamas successfully urges Hector to withdraw a bit and regroup. Looking for his captains, he finds that many are dead or wounded. However, Paris speaks bravely and raises Hector's spirits. Now Zeus remembers to drive on the Trojans, who advance like pounding waves. Great Ajax is not intimidated, making a brave speech. Hector responds, promising to kill Ajax and the Achaeans. With many war cries, the armies clash again before the ships. Analysis: Zeus, who has kept tight control of the action for the last few books, now takes his eye off the ball. Gazing at the peaceful land of Thrace to the north of Troy, he doesn't notice that Poseidon defies his order of noninterference—it seems Zeus isn't completely all-seeing. Poseidon manages to avoid detection by waiting until Zeus is distracted, and staying disguised and hidden. He avoids fighting directly for the Achaeans, which would presumably attract Zeus's attention. Instead he sticks to giving advice and whipping up morale. The effects of Poseidon's intervention can also be viewed as the bravery of desperation. The Achaeans rally because they have nowhere left to retreat to and need to protect their ships, without which they cannot survive. The action in Book 13 displays more strategy than past scenes of war. Leaders on both sides consider which part of their fighting line needs to be reinforced. Hector's and the Aeantes's (plural of Ajax) position in the center of the line illustrates their central roles in the conflict—at this point the Aeantes are the best fighters still unharmed on the Achaean side. Paris, who has been less than heroic in most of his appearances, actually demonstrates a fighting spirit that lifts up Hector at a time when he is tired and discouraged. The beginning of a pattern in the poem of warriors fighting to protect their comrades's bodies can be seen in this section. This interaction directly pits the honor of one side against the other. Both collecting plunder from fallen enemies and protecting a comrade's body can be honorable and glorious, but only one side of each conflict can claim the honor.

Book 20

Summary: Zeus calls the gods together and gives them permission to intervene in the war however they wish. The gods pick sides but are reluctant to start fighting directly. Apollo urges Aeneas to go up against Achilles; his mother is a goddess too, a more powerful one than Achilles's. Aeneas's spear doesn't pierce Achilles's shield, and Achilles throws a killing shot in return. Poseidon briefly switches sides to toss Aeneas to a different part of the battlefield so he won't be killed. The move is meant to preserve his destiny to survive the war and lead the remaining people of Troy. Hector wants to battle Achilles, but Apollo warns him to stay with his troops. However, when Achilles kills Hector's youngest brother, Hector can't hold himself back. He throws a spear at Achilles, but Athena flicks it away. When Achilles attacks back, Apollo wraps Hector in a protective mist and warns Achilles it is not yet time for him to die. Achilles rages on, killing warriors and allies of Troy without mercy. Analysis: In another Homeric parallel, the council called by Achilles at the beginning of Book 19 is echoed in the council of the gods called by Zeus at the beginning of Book 20. Zeus gives the gods free rein to intervene because Achilles could actually overpower the Trojans without divine help, bringing down Troy before its fated time. This suggests even mortals can change fate in some cases if the gods don't actively counteract them. Although Zeus is the god most responsible for ensuring that fate is fulfilled, all the gods play their parts. For later Greeks and Romans, fate was much more fixed, but Homer seems to view it as the result of a complex interplay of the actions of gods and mortals. Poseidon actually briefly switches sides to ensure fate is carried out when he rescues the Trojan hero Aeneas. He pities Aeneas because he has always respected the gods, and he has a destiny: "Aeneas will rule the men of Troy in power." Hundreds of years later, the Romans took Homer's words as prophecy and adopted Aeneas as an "ancestor" and the founder of that city. Aeneas's destiny and impressive pedigree seemed to explain and justify the greatness of Rome. The Roman poet Virgil made Aeneas the hero of his own epic poem, The Aeneid, which is modeled in many ways on Homer's epics. Two epic similes at the end of Book 20 describe Achilles at the beginning of a long killing spree. Interestingly, they both work together and contrast with one another. The first simile compares Achilles to a rampaging fireball in a wildfire, an image of uncontrolled destruction that repeats the frequent comparison of battle to fire. The second simile compares Achilles to a huge ox crushing grain for threshing (the process that removes the husk of the grain so it can be consumed). Although this is a peacetime task that sustains life, it also evokes the violence of war, emphasizing Achilles's strength and the crushing of his enemies. Sustenance and violence coexist in the same image, suggesting they are part of the same whole.