The origins of conflict and the First Crusade, c1071-c1099

The Council of Clermont

27th November 1095. A call to free the holy city of Jerusalem from the hands of the Muslims - appealed to almost all levels of society right across Europe. - in the following year between 60,000-100,000 people were drawn from across Western Europe - suggested that Urban only expected a few hundred knights to answer his call - he was surprised and quickly lost control NB: the council of Piacenza, 1-7th of March 1095. Urban held the council to show his authority over the HRE. Envoys from Alexios arrived requesting for help to regain the lost lands of Anatolia. Erdmann suggested that the real reason for the expedition was to answer a request for help sent by the Byzantine emperor, Alexius Comnenus, to the Council of Piacenza in March 1095. Since the Great Schism in 1054 there had been some dialogue between the two sides to end it, and Erdmann also argues the unification of the Christian Church as part of the rationale for the crusade. The problem with this argument is that by 1095 the Turkish threat to Byzantium was receeding, and Urban did not mention support for the Greeks in any of the accounts of his speech at Clermont. Erdmann claimed that when the pope asked people to liberate the Eastern Church he meant Byzantium rather than Jerusalem The Holy City was such a potent image that the pope could not have used it as a decoy to cover a campaign to aid the Greeks. Liberating Jerusalem and the Christians was what stirred the people to go and also importantly provided the mission with its necessary just cause. The tour was so popular that people spilled out of the abbey into the fields Clermont - attended by 13 archbishops, 82 bishops and countless clerics and abbotts from all over Europe Raymond of Toulouse gave his support (told about before the council) - most powerful lord in the south of france, more land than the King! Adhemar of Le Puy is recruited by Urban as the Papal legate and spiritual leader Urban is a very charismatic speaker - also symbolic nature of physically using cloth to 'take the cross.' Planned miracles adding to theatrical element - e.g. blind men who could see once they had taken the cross. Also took the 'true-cross' (relic) with him on tour - was Urban a master of Propaganda? Arguably Urban owes his success to the bishops that actually spread the message

The Rise of the Seljuk Turks

A further muslim group - recent converts to Islam and staunchly Sunni. Had been the dominant power in the region since the mid-11th century. - Had created a power base in Iran and Iraq - consolidated and expanded into southern syria by the 1070s. Hold extended to northern syria by the end of the 1080s. - Sulayman and then Malik Shah exerted wide area of power - Shah's brother's (Tutush) children Duqaq and Ridwan argued so Kerbogha of Mosul became the preeminant power in Northern Syria - Danishmends controlled north and eastern Anatolia - South an West became the Sultanate of Rum under Kilij Arslan (Sulayman's son) - the authority of the Seljuks was entirely on marital ability - fiercely orthodox ruling over Shiahs and Christians! Political turmoil had also afflicted both Sunni and Shi'i lands in the early 1090s - a number of key leaders in both camps died, often in mysterious circumstances... - 1094 saw a particularly heavy mortality rate of caliphs and viziers - one Arabic writer Ibn Taghribirdi wrote that 'this year is called the year of death of caliphs and commanders.' In contrast to the powerful rule of the Seljuk Sultan Malikshah (d.1092), by 1097-99 there was a power vacuum in Asia Minor and northern Syria - when the Christians arrived they were therefore confronted by a series of small rival lordships

The Siege of Jerusalem

After a period of rest (4-5 months until they leave Antioch) the crusaders moved south. In December 1098 they besieged the town of Ma'arrat al Nu'man. Once again supplies were an issue and reports said they resorted to cannibalism to sustain themselves. Raymond made it his base and early in January 1099 some poor Franks took down the walls and forced Raymond to advance to Jerusalem with his 7000 men. Other internal disputes include Raymond of Toulouse and Tancred of Sicily arguing over who will become lord of Bethlehem. Baldwin of Boulogne took Tarsus from Tancred, and took Edessa. Bohemond builds up stronghold around Antioch. JP writes how 'the first months of 1099 were marked by a series of squabbles between the leaders of the expeditions and also an underlying pressure from the rank and file of the army who were desperate to press on to Jerusalem to fulfil their vows, thereby displaying their religious devotion.' Bohemond made contact with the Italian Merchant States - Genoa, Piza, Veniciens - for supplies as the Byzantines were going to cut off supplies as it was clear he was going to break his oath and not give up Antioch. He begins to build up his stronghold around Antioch Bout of typhoid goes through Antioch and Adhemar dies on the 1st of August 1098 - his 'leadership had once revived the crusade.' Some knights left to support Baldwin in Edessa, others rode off to take more land in northern Syria etc. - Raymond of Toulouse for example offered thousands of gold coins to Robert of Normandy and Tancred to switch their allegiance Hugh of Vermandois was sent to Constantinople to persuade Alexios to come and lead but he refused - the Franks now believed any land they took would be their own As Raymond marched he was joined by Godfrey of Bouillon's and Robert of Flanders' forces along with men sent by Bohemond. On 7th of June 1099 the Franks finally reached Jerusalem... The city was controlled by Egyptian Shi'i forces (had displaced the Sunnis the previous year) As with Antioch they made little progress in the early stages of the siege - only around ¼ had survived at this point JP 'Yet now they had finally reached their goal the crusaders' spiritual strength was renewed.' A fast was proclaimed for 8th July and barefoot, carrying the relics of saints, the bishops and the the clergy led the army in procession to the Mount of Olives and implored God's help An attack was prepared and on 15th July Godfrey of Bouillon's men managed to fill the moat and cross on to the ramparts and enter the city Jerusalem fell to the crusaders - after years of tension there was a huge massacre (and loot, rape, pillaging etc) of the Muslims and Jewish defenders William of Tyre sums up the religious fervour and extreme brutality: 'it was impossible to look on the vast numbers of the slain without horror; everywhere lay fragments of human bodies, and the very ground was covered with the blood of the slain.' TA - the success was 'a very clear indication that God's hand was at work.' "The leaders of the western force adapted quickly not only to the diplomatic possibilities but also to the alien military tactics of their enemies." - Tyerman (on the 1C as a whole, not just Jerusalem!) The Genoese fleet had provided crucial help arriving at Jerusalem, bringing wood so that two siege engines could be constructed Raymond did not become 'King' of Jerusalem - his official reasoning was that he said no one could be except christ however he was not actually offered it and he had lost popularity (association with Peter Bartholomew as protector of the holy lance) compared to Godfrey who had definitely gained it.

Preparations for the Crusade

After his speech at Clermont, Urban wrote letters eliciting support and toured northern France himself to seek recruits for the expedition. It was the first tour a pope had done in france for 50 years! He carefully scheduled his tour to coincide with local saints' days and other important festivals to ensure as large a gatherings as possible After his sermon people came forward and were assigned with the cross - they also received the pilgrim's staff and scrip (wallet) and were taken under the protection of the Church. This was a binding commitment, only released by fulfilling the vow or death! The 'voluntary' nature of the vow was a little tenuous in the case of a noble's household Personal Preparations: Organise the guardianship and running of one's housing and property - in theory their lands were protected by the Church but some legal cases from the early 12c showed that many who went to the East had their territory encroached upon during their absence Finance - to buy chainmail, horses and supplies was extremely expensive. Some estimates suggest over four years' annual income for most knights was needed. People would have had some idea of the resources needed due the the recent Norman conquest to England (1066) The land market became flooded with crusaders trying to raise money and churches were forced to melt down valuables to provide gold and silver The idea of expense can disprove the myth of many younger sons going on crusade

The People's Crusade

Before following the progress of the larger contingents it is important to note that a first wave of crusaders had departed from France in April 1096 (four months the departure date set by the pope) led by the charismatic preacher Peter the Hermit (led a very pious lifestyle, hence the name!) and the knight Walter the Penniless (Sansavoir). A force of c. 30,000. Another group proceeded down the Rhine led by Count Emicho of Leiningen and this force was responsible for the first atrocities of the campaign. JP writes how they 'twisted the idea of fighting God's enemies in the East to include those whom they saw as his enemies at home: the Jews.' They were responsible for Christs death and were incidentally a very wealthy section of society. Estimates of the number of Jewish men, women, and children murdered or driven to suicide by crusaders vary, ranging from 2,000 to 12,000. Fired by religious hatred and the need for money the side massacred the communities of Speyer, Mainz, Trier and Cologne As they moved to Constantinople the armies of Peter and Emicho struggled to secure supplies Outside the city itself the leaders were advised to wait for the remainder of the crusading army but their men became increasingly restive so they crossed into Asia Minor where they were quickly annihilated by the Turks - JP 'a fate that some western chroniclers viewed as thoroughly deserved given their earlier behaviour.' Until recently these armies have been assumed as peasant rabble but research actually indicates that there were a number of knights in their contingents JP - 'it was a simple overzealousness and indiscipline that brought about their downfall, rather than the inherent weakness of a group of peasants.'

Muslim Expansion

Following the death of Muhammed Islam split in two - the Sunnis asserted that Caliphs should be democratically elected (like the first four were) and the Shiah's asserted that while caliphs could be democratically elected only descendants of the Prophet could be Imams. Society and Economy: Since the birth of Islam it had spread out of the East to North Africa and into the Iberian peninsula. Under the leadership of Abd-al-Rahman Islam had even come close to defeating 'French' forces led by Charles Martel at Tours - shows how far Islam had spread in just 100 years Islamic cities were bigger and more 'civilised' than in Europe - Baghdad e.g. population of c.800,000 with Constantinople at only c.500,000 and London at only c.20,000 Islamic towns - trade centre, sacred centre, transport hub, garrison town or admin centre. Cosmopolitan mix of people lived their - Jizya tax for non-Muslims living in Muslim areas As in Europe wealth was based on an agrarian economy Typical goods were spices and cloth, incoming goods from Europe included fur and timber, flourishing trade in European slaves Politics: The 'Circle of Equity' summarises what it takes to be a good ruler of an Islamic society At the top was a caliph who by the crusades was no more than a symbolic figurehead but a potent one nonetheless On the eve of the crusades two rival Muslim power bases existed and they did not cooperate - (Sunni - Baghdad | Shiah - Cairo).

The Great Schism - 1054

In Italy: Papacy governed belt of land around Rome, the Normans ruled the South (taken from the Byzantines and Muslims), to the East was the Byzantine Empire => seat of the Orthodox Church. The Byzantine empire was seen as the Byz as having the largest authority and was not challenged unlike the pope. So... In 1054 the papacy tried to establish itself over the patriarch of Constantinople - a schism was declared (remained at the time of the 1c and to the present day!) As a result the Greeks faced many enemies on their borders - e.g. they suffered a terrible defeat at Manzikert in 1071 meaning they lost control over most of the land mass in Asia Minor.

Nicaea

In May 1097 the crusaders began the siege of Nicaea in Asia Minor. By mid-June Greek forces had joined the western armies and the city soon surrendered and was taken into Byzantine hands. From the 14th of May to the 19th of June the Crusaders laid siege to the well fortified city. Even without the Byzantines there was around 75,000 (=numerical advantage) Kilij Arslan was absent - his wife had been left in control of the city The crusaders made slow progress in sieging the city (well defended) Arslan planned to counter siege the crusaders (from the outside) - Raymond of Toulouse reinforced with his troops so he retreated - "his men were so outnumbered that they had to retreat." (Byrom and Riley) The Byzantine fleet arrived 5 weeks into the siege and the city surrendered to the Byzantines This angered the christians - they could also not kill the infidel which was the penitential act they believed they needed to do to keep the promise of heaven Did the Byzantines betray the crusaders on the eve of victory or were they instrumental in defeating the Turks?

The rising influence of the papacy - The Investiture Controversy

In the mid-1070s the emperor and the papacy (two leading powers in the west) tried to delineate the extent of their authority in a fast-evolving society. Reform movement Clergy corrupt - simony (more than one position = more money e.g. tithes) and marriage - clergy aren't held in high regard that you might expect them to be Gregory VII 1073-85. Aims: papal empowerment and clerical purification Characteristics of Gregory: single minded, ambitious, autocratic, uncompromising and undiplomatic Clashes with the greatest European Secular Leader - the Holy Roman Empire. Gregory the 7th and Henry the 4th. Context growing rivalry between the Pope and Kings over who has greater divine authority Issue - lay (secular) investiture. Appointment of the clergy. 1073 honeymoon period for Henry IV - defeats Saxon princes who revolted against him Gregory VII ascends to office of the Papacy 1075 Gregory VII (keen on reform) issues his first decree against lay investiture 1076 The Pope excommunicates (bans/removes from the church) Henry IV for lay investiture. Much to the delight of the German Princes. Timeline of Events At Canossa Henry had to humiliatingly submit to the Pope and swear acceptance of Papal authority to get his excommunication reversed Big boost for Gregory - Papacy visibly successful But this success was only possible due to the support of the German Princes. Gregory then loses their support by accepting Henry back into the Church. 1080 Gregory deposed Henry again for not submitting to papal judgement Henry's rivals (German Princes) elected an alternative Emperor - Rudolph - as anti-emperor - supported by the Pope Rudolph dies and so does their cause June 1080 Henry was hugely angry and deposed Gregory. Henry had the support of a large number of Italian bishops. They elect the archbishop of Ravenna as the replacement Pope (antipope) Clement III. from this point on Henry always had a Pope of his own and their was continued rivalry between the Gregorian line and Henry's anti popes During 1080 and 90s it was not clear which Pope would be accepted Gregory loses support 1084 Henry sieges Rome and installs his anti Pope who crowns him as emperor. 1084 Gregory dies Luckily for the supporters of the reformed Papacy - Urban becomes the elected choice to follow on from Gregory Urban rallied support of people who disliked Clement III. Slow progress but eventually established himself. 1089 urban retakes Rome and asserts his claim as Pope 1095 stroke of luck - Byzantium appeal for military aid. Urban galvanised (shocked into action) the RCC (Roman Catholic Church) behind the 1C. Popes Gregory and Urban had begun to establish the idea of an army fighting for them by bringing the Normans to fight on their side. Previous popes were no strangers to battles but now the papacy was getting stronger and asserting itself above the power of kings.

The Crusade sets out

It was in the late Summer (August) of 1096 when the main armies set out. Preparations for the expedition were marked by a burst of solar activity and the first good harvest in years - a favourable blessing. It is estimated that c.60,000 people set out from western Europe in the course of 1096. Of these only about 10% were knights - the rest servants, pilgrims and hangers-on: women children, the poor, the old and the sick. These hangers-on were a major handicap to the force as they needed feeding and protecting, but such had been the attraction of Urban's appeal that they still took part. At first the army didn't march as one - it marched in regional contingents which planned to assemble at Constantinople in the Spring of 1097 These forces were led by members of the senior nobility Some family groups were very receptive to Urban's call - e.g. the Montlhery clan traced by JRS. One member, Miles of Bray was accompanied by seven of his relatives all who had taken the cross in 1095/96 Some crusader families had an existing tradition of pilgrimage to the Holy Land which may have formed a further reason for taking the cross In addition to the forces of higher nobility, there were also smaller groups under lesser lords as well as independent knights who would join or leave the major contingents according to the support that they received. It should be noted that no Kings took part - Urban regarded the crusade as a papally directed enterprise and he had not explicitly invited any secular monarch to get involved - however anyway, King Philip I of France was an excommunicate (arduous relationship with the countess of Anjou), Emperor Henry IV of Germany was the Papacy's main opponent in the investiture contest, and William Rufus was too entangled in the government of still newly conquered England to be particularly interested.

Dorylaeum

Later than month the crusaders faced another test when they were attacked by a large Turkish army, but in spite of their unfamiliarity with the Muslims' tactics they again triumphed. 1st July 1097. The muslims left Nicaea and 3 days later they divided into two halves There was a sudden attack on Bohemonds' side - he quickly sent a message to the others telling them to come to the battlefield. They set up a tight defensive formation. one contemporary said "The valiant Bohemond made haste to send a message to the others ... telling them to hurry and come to the battlefield wit all speed." As soon as the force regrouped they charged and the vast number of the enemies fled and they went in and raided the camp - they had amazingly held out for five hours. But around 4,000 crusaders were killed and 3,000 Muslims Fulcher of Chartres claims that the Muslim enemy may have numbered as many as 360,000 fighters Religion arguably played a role in the success - Passed a message along their lines saying "Today, please God, you will all gain much booty."

The Pope's motivations in calling the First Crusade

Motivations of the Pope: To push through the reforms Centralise power in Rome Increase influence of Pope Unify Europe behind one Pope Strengthen Gregorian line Potentially, the Pope had some alternative motives... motivation of the Pope to try and secure his position. Europe was in constant in-fighting - unite them against one single cause of a common enemy. The main arguments for why the crusade was launched come to: Kill infidel (enemies of the (other) religion) Alexius' call for aid Retake Jerusalem Assert Papal Authority Get rid of the troublesome nobles Salvation of his people Continuation of notion of crusading - pushing forward the Gregorian Reform movement

The Byzantine Empire

Partition of the Roman Empire in 295 - Rome in West, Byzantium in East. NB: Byzantium became Constantinople in 330 By the midd 11th century the Byzs faced threat from the normans, the Pecheng tribe and the Seljuks. By 1071 the Normans had taken sicily and parts of southern italy (used to harass the byzs), bribes were used to pay off the Pechengs, and Manzikert with the Seljuks... The Battle of Manzikert: In 1071 Byzantium faced a humiliating defeat at the hands of the Seljuk Turks in which they lost most of Asia Minor: Romanos was the Byzantine leader, Alp Arslan was the Seljuk leader Romanos arrived in Armenia in August and split his force in two. One half was sent north of Lake Van and the other half went to the small fortress of Manzikert, taken with little bother Romanos was then left with only that half of his force as the leader who had gone North (general Joseph Tarchaneitoes) 'disappeared' as it were - Muslim sources describe a vast victory, Byzantine sources are strangely quiet The sides met on 25th August near Manzikert and Romanos was drastically defeated because of: internal rivalries for Byzantine emperor Army neglected Overstretched empire - large borders and hostile neighbours on many fronts Army split in two - half possible defeated or fled - disorganised - foreign mercenaries were unreliable Alp Arslan - effective strategy - archers Mistakes on the battlefield - belief Romanus was dead - romanus was a poor leader (fighting) - reject truce at start of battle Byzantines left flank captured - army splits and retreats - cowardly What are the problems for the Byzantines? emphasises the decline of the Byzantine empire - shows their weakness Internal rivalries - coup d'états and civil war - creates a power vacuum in the Byzantine empire - political instability Loss of territory - most of Asia Minor lost to the Seljuks Growth in strength of the Seljuks - more Seljuk attacks Aftermath - conscription and mass migration to Constantinople = lack of manpower in the fields, economic crisis (attempts to curb inflation by debasing the coinage failed) and civil war How does Alexius I look to resolve them? Ambitious - take back territory - raise an army Resolves infighting - comes to power through a bloodless coup - appoints enemies in positions where he can keep a close eye on them Bide time - rebuild strength through alliances- aid from the West? Wait for Muslim infighting to weaken Alp Arslan - ally with Alp's enemies? FROM ESSAY: Internal Dynastic Rivalry Confused nature of Byzantine imperial politics in late 11th century - many nobles had been 'born in the purple' or could claim descent from a previous emperor Military defeat of Romanos IV at Manzikert can be seen as caused by the treachery of Andronicus Doukas, a rival of the Imperial throne - he announced that Romanos had been cut down and then deserted the battlefield! Period of civil war 1071-1081 was as a consequence of rivals to Romanos IV especially the Doukas family, exploiting his failure at Manzikert to blind and depose the emperor The rule of Michael VII between 1071 and 1078 was blighted by the constant attempted coups of rivals such as Philaretos Brachamios, John Doukas and Nikephoros Bryennios The fall of Michael VII and his replacement by another dynastic rival, Nikephoros III, ended the possibility of aid to Byzantium from Pope Gregory VII. he excommunicated the usurper The usurpation of Nikephoros III was used as a justification by the Norman Robert Guiscard to justify his own invasion Nikephoros III was himself overthrown by Alexios I, a dynastic rival from the Komnenos family, in 1081 Corrupt rule - 19 rulers between 1000 and 1100 Alexius comes to power after Manzikert in a bloodless coup Other Factors Alp Arslan's military victory at Manzikert in 1071 had a devastating impact on Byzantine morale Strong leaders of the Seljuk Turks had pushed the Byzantines back from their previous borders. Malik Shah ruled a Seljuk Empire that stretched from Syria to Iran. Rival Turkish groups established their own control over parts of Anatolia and established the sultanate of Rum as well as the holdings of caka and Danishmend The influx of refugees from recently lost territories in Anatolia put a strain on the resources of Byzantium The need to hire mercenaries to deal with the many military threats from the Normans in the west, Pechenegs in the North and Seljuks in the east increased the financial pressure on the empire Debasement of the coinage helped to relieve financial problems in the short term but led to inflation that further undermined the Byzantine economy. After Manzikert it lost control of Anatolia Alexios: Placed in charge of the Byzantine army (is a young general at this point) and sent to fight the Norman threat from the west at Epirus. Marched out of Constantinople and then sieged it - support for the emperor quickly fell away The emperor was placed in a monastery and Alexios was crowned emperor = coup! Consolidated his position with judicious use of appointments to key positions and then turned his attention to the Norman threat (Frankopan). Took control of the army and after initial setbacks was ultimately successful against the Normans By 1083 he was ready to deal with the Pechenegs - initial attempts were unsuccessful with the Pechenegs continuing to invade the empire up to 1091. However he mustered as many troops as he could and prepared for battle at Lebounion Hill (1091). the Pechenegs were completely wiped out posing no further threat to Byzantium, Alexios' stock continued to rise. Frankopan: "one of the most startling military victories in Byzantine history." To deal with the Turks he was different - negotiated with a Turkish chieftain Sulayman who agreed to protect the emperor's Anatolian holdings Mutually beneficial - Alexios was allied with a very able general who put down any Turkish raids on Byzantine territory under his charge - on one occasion even sending a few thousand troops to fight against Normans in Durazzo. Sulayman gained in riches and prestige This arrangement worked very well until Sulayman died in the early 1090s - his successor was different and launched attacks on Byzantine held land to the north of Nicaea. The sultan of Baghdad Malik Shah recognised the potential for disaster in Anatolia and probably worried this it would spill over into his lands - his death in 1092 not only robbed Alexios of a useful ally but plunged the Turkish world into two years of civil war. Alexios could not benefit from this power vacuum as warlord after warlord fought to rise to the top... Greatest Medieval Christian superpower. Sole surviving remnant of the classical Roman Empire. However by 1095 Byzantium had been fighting an almost constant battle with hostile Muslim enemies. At the beginning of the 11C Byzantium enjoyed a resurgence under Basil the Bulgar slayer, a ruthless character who blinded 99 out of every hundred soldiers of a defeated army of 14,000 men. But after Basil, Byzantium fell back into decline. Between 1025 and 1081 the throne was a place of danger-power changed hands 13 times often after violent coup d'états.

The Battle of Ascalon

Port named Ascalon - led by Al Afdaz Christians want to take it as it could be a place for a muslim counter attack against Jerusalem Franks don't want to siege the city - lost their religious motivation as have captured Jerusalem but recognise they have attack soon 9th August - accompanied by patriarch and the true cross - 1,200 knights, 9,000 infantry men - around ½ the size of the fatimid army 12th August (before dawn) - Raymond on right, Godfrey on left, rest in middle - Al Afdaz's army retreat and most are chased into the sea and drowned Leaders retreat into the main citadel - the only person he is willing to surrender to is Raymond because Al Afdaz knows hes a man of his word after the tower of david in jerusalem Godfrey doesn't want it to be surrendered to Raymond - thinks might usurp him - negotiations draw out and the crusaders are really done by this point so return to Jerusalem - remains in fatimid hands for next 20 years

The Appeal for the First Crusade and the Crusaders' motivations

Spiritual issues governed peoples' lives at the time Very religious age - number of saints' cults was increasing, interest in relics, and the observation of feast days Pilgrimage (local and international) and monastic life flourished JP: 'sin was ubiquitous in everyday life, particularly in the violent society of the late eleventh century and the need for all people - whether rich or poor, nobles or labourers - to atone for their actions is vital in explaining the level of enthusiasm for the First Crusade.' Urban pulled together these ideas to form the core idea of the crusade He also offered something new and very attractive - a decree from the council of clermont records his message: 'whoever for devotion alone, not to gain honour or money, goes to Jerusalem to liberate the Church of God can substitute this journey for all penance.' - in return for fighting for God on earth a person would receive a reward of 'unprecedented magnitude.' JP Urban laid great emphasis on the crusade as a penitential act throughout The lay nobility of France were so concerned for their spiritual welfare that it was 'an opportunity not to be missed' JP Urban himself came from a French noble family thus he could see how the crusade fitted the knightly classes - JP 'they could carry on doing what they did best, yet still receive a spiritual benefit.' For Urban it also benefited him as they would direct their energies against the infidel rather than the Church of people of France It will never be possible to obtain the precise motives of individual crusaders - the bulk of evidence suggests a strong religious motivation but other secular aspirations cannot be ignored. Urban's called for the crusaders to proceed for 'devotion alone' but even he must have been aware that some men would have to settle in the Holy Land after it was conquered. The broad principle of land would have motivation some Crusaders, and there was also a need for money to offset the cost of the crusade and to pay for expenses incurred en route. Other motives may have included a desire to escape from legal proceedings in the West, a curiosity of the wider world (they lived very localised lives), or due to membership of a noble household.

Tarsus and Edessa - Baldwin and Tancred

Tarsus: After Dorylaeum the crusade headed south towards Antioch but began to split up. One took the more direct route (Baldwin and Tancred) through the Cilician plains. The other longer route went through the Anti Taurus mountains. Baldwin set out with 300-500 knights and Tancred 100-200. Tancred forged ahead with an Armenian guide until he reached Tarsus on September 21st 1097 It was a natural centre of trade and commerce retaining much of its classical glory - Tancred intimidated the inhabitants telling them Baldwin would soon be there to siege the city and the garrison fled over night so his banner was raised above the walls At the end of the day Baldwin arrived, relieved Tarsus had surrendered but jealous that it was to Tancred. Tancred was willing to give him some but not the 50% he wanted Although Tancred's claim was stronger he was in a weaker position - Baldwin out-negotiated Tancred and persuaded the Turks to fly his banner saying his brother Godfrey would destroy them if they didn't Tancred marched on recognising he'd lost and Baldwin installed his men within the city A force of 300 italian normans arrived who had been sent to reinforce Tancred's expedition - they begged Baldwin for entry but he refused in fear that they may turn on him They set up camp outside the walls and were massacred at night by the Turks who had fled Enraged, Baldwin's men flew into a rage and sacked the whole city The main crusading body headed north to Caesarea. The turkish garrisons fled as they approached and they were met with no resistance. Friendly relations were formed with the armenian christians. The journey was still troublesome and around ¼ crusaders died on this journey - fighting prowess was damaged as they ditched horses armour etc. 10th of October 1097 - Marash. The crusaders rest before continuing and they are joined by Tancred Baldwin briefly meets them but whilst they prepared for the push on Antioch he went about pursuing his own fortunes and abandoned the Crusade Edessa: Baldwin of Boulogne, Godfrey of Bouillon brother headed further east towards the city of Edessa. This territory was controlled by Armenian Christians who welcomed the crusaders' support against the Muslims that surrounded them. Baldwin was soon adopted (as son to Thoros, the ruler) as heir to the country although he quickly sidelined the Armenian rulers (revolt against Thoros ended with him being ripped to pieces) and by March 1098 he had set up the first of the Latin settlements in the Levant. The county of Edessa was a fertile region located astride the Euphrates river and in the 46 years the crusaders held the are it provided important food and resources for the other settlements. Was also a lot of intermarriage between the Franks and the Armenians - the two noble classes finding they had enough in common to overcome any differences between them

Result/Aftermath

The Muslim World There was shock and in some cases an outrage that the crusaders had succeeded. Emotion was generated at the failure to react. The Seljuk sultan was preoccupied with events and Peria and did no lead an army to confront the westerners - Hillenbrand concludes that 'the fate of Jerusalem was sealed, therefore, in Isfahan.' This neglect of his co-religionists was crucial because it gave the Franks the chance to conquer and then to consolidate their presence in the Levant - the birth of the Latin East... Christians recognise they need to clean up the streets (disease) Only one fatimid leader in the city is allowed free passage out - he held the tower of David and surrendered it to Raymond of Toulouse - kept his word so = free passage! 17th July → leaders meet: raymond says he can't be king as only Jesus can (even though he's not offered it), Godfrey becomes 'protector of the Holy Sepulchre.' Godfrey's popularity has increased - one who broke into Jerusalem, Raymond's has decreased as of association with Peter, stalled outside Jerusalem, and his main supporter (adhemar) was dead - Peter claims he has a vision outside Jerusalem that sinners should be expelled => uproar. Peter dies 2 weeks after walking through fire with the holy lance to show his legitimacy due to his burns 22nd July - agreement about Godfrey - compromise as the church doesn't have a ruler since Adhemar died Raymond is mad so doesn't give up the stronghold of the tower of David but continues to lose popularity - gives it up and goes on pilgrimage and makes camp in Jericho Arnalf de Choques (one who challenged Peter's authenticity thus he walked through the fire!) becomes patriarch (religious figure - roman catholic) - he persecutes the greek muslims - continues harm with Byzantine relationship Conclusions... Most widely written about event in western christendom in the medieval world Christian → sent shockwaves through Europe of motivation - increase in pilgrimage Islam → takes some time for Jihad and fighting against the christian foe to settle in The majority feel they've reached their goal and leave (although none returned home with vast riches) - only 300 knights left defending Jerusalem. Nobles with a chance of power stay Fulcher of Chartres - "his mighty arm mercifully protected us." (God!)

The 'real' Crusaders arrive at Constantinople

The army of the great nobles arrived at Constantinople between November 1096 and May 1097. Problems: They were forces of extremely diverse backgrounds meaning problems with discipline were inevitable, old 'squabbles' resurfaced and there were practical issues such as with communication The language barrier was a massive issue and there was also the issue of rivalry between the different contingents There was also the question of overall leadership - until his death at Antioch on 1st August 1098, Adhemar of Le Puy had acted as effective commander of the expedition reflecting the Pope's role as initiator of the Crusade. Adhemar strength of personality had helped to maintain some control but even before his death there had been serious difference of opinion between the leaders, an issue first exposed at Constantinople. It seems that Emperor Alexius had been expected to join the crusade and possibly to lead it, but JP the trouble caused by Peter the Hermit's crusade and the size and strength of the main forces caused Alexius great concern lest the army turn against Constantinople itself. The presence of Bohemond of Taranto also increased his fears as he was an old enemy of the Byzantines. As a result, he tried to get each leader to swear that they would return to him all the lands they captured which had once belonged to the Greeks. Alexius also tried to extract oaths of loyalty and homage to ensure their obedience. Some, under severe pressure, agreed to this. Others, most notably Raymond of Saint Gilles, refused claiming that an oath of fealty was not compatible with his crusading vow to serve God. After much hard negotiating and threats to withdraw food supplies, Raymond took a much less binding oath to maintain the emperor's life and honour. Nevertheless, the Crusade had got off to an awkward start - the westerners were reliant on the Greeks for supplies and had expected full military support. JP writes how 'such arguments did not bode well for long-term co-operation; and this was before they had started to confront the Muslims.'

Leaders of the Crusade

The leading figures of the First Crusade came from France or its borders. Made up of: 8 princes, 200 lords, 6000 knights, 22,000 foot soldiers (well equipped), 25,000 (poor) foot soldiers, non-combatants (unknown number, around 20,000). Contingents were led by: Godfrey of Bouillon - Duke of Lower Lotharingia, wealthy lord, vassal (obligation to) of HRE, eastern france/HRE Baldwin of Boulogne - eastern france/HRE, brother of Godfrey, also go with their cousin Baldwin of Bourcq - land hungry sons argument is unsustainable Count Hugh of Vermandois - brother of the King of France (Philip), Northern French Duke Robert of Normandy - eldest son of William the conqueror, northern french, army joined contingent of Robert of flanders and stephen of blois, seems to have religious motivation as survives but doesn't stay out there Count Robert II of Flanders (of Curthose) - northern french, excellent warrior, links with the Byzantines - to raise money to go on the crusade he mortgaged his dulchy to his brother William I of England! = very committed? Count Stephen of Blois - northern french, cowardly? as flees at Antioch, husband to daughter of william the conqueror Raymond of Toulouse - count of toulouse, southern french, most powerful noble in southern france, one of 1st to take the cross, excommunicated in 1080s but later big supporter of Urban suggesting a religious motivation? Adhemar le Puy - southern french, papal legate, galvanises secular rulers (council of princes), dies at Antioch, one of first to take up the cross Bohemond of Taranto - Sicilian-norman, old enemy of byzantines (raiding land there), disinherited by his father suggesting personal motivation, arguably the best military leader Tancred de Hauteville - sicilian norman, nephew of bohemond of taranto, 17 years old!, rises from obscurity to become leading figure

Antioch

The main crusading army had pushed on across the Anatolian plateau and in October 1097 they arrived at the city of Antioch in northern Syria. JP 'Here the expedition was to undergo its most testing period.' The city itself was strongly defended with a powerful ring of walls (25 miles of wall) and it was well provisioned and had a formidable citadel high above the main settlement. It had a population of around 300,000 and 400 towers. It was also a site of religious importance for the crusaders as the home of the apostle Luke and the seat of one of the five patriarchal seats in the Christian Church. The Turks had seized control of Antioch in 1085 - it had been passed through several hands showing it as a cosmopolitan city. There was also a diverse political history with Antioch and the surrounding area divided by factions: Two clashing Muslim brothers - Ridwan of Aleppo (power based north of Antioch) and Duqaq of Damascus (power based in south/east of Antioch) Sunni/Shi'ah division - predominantly a Sunni area The siege of Antioch would last for eight months and the crusaders endured terrible conditions including the bitterly cold Syrian winter. The Franks constructed their own fortifications and made sporadic attacks on the city but it was too big to blockade effectively and the defenders continued to receive supplies The Crusaders ran short of food thus they had to mount increasingly lengthy foraging expeditions - food costs hugely inflated - Raymond of Aguilers: 'famine drove prices so high that two solidi scarcely had purchasing power equal to one day's bread rations for one man.' Most of their horses died - JP 'only 1,000 horses had survived.' Natural disasters - earthquakes, flies etc. 500 of both sexes died in the 3 weeks it took to cross the mountains Cold and rain were an issue - tents and equipment rotted Unsurprisingly pestilence broke out and many of the crusaders deserted Baldwin's wife died on the way - JP 'his policy became one of acquisition and greed.' The Crusaders wanted to take Antioch as it was a strategic stronghold - arguably needed in order for them to be able to continue south safely. It was also a useful shipping point as connections could be cut if the city was not taken. It was needed for supplies. They explained the issues by reasoning they had incurred God's disfavour. Adhemar proclaimed a three day fast, banned all sex, gambling and swearing in an attempt to pull the expedition together and regain God's support. The siege dragged on with engagement and counter engagement. Tacitos advised the crusaders to wait in a nearby town but they favoured a more direct approach. Upon arrival the crusaders realised the scale of the city so they split into contingents based on national identity and blocked the main gates until June 1098... Bohemond intended to ignore his oaths to Alexius and to set up an independent principality at Antioch based upon the recently held Greek lands He contrived a plot with a renegade Armenian Christian (Firouz) to betray the city to the crusaders Concealing his intention he tried to persuade the other leaders to let him keep the city if he could engineer its fall - Raymond of Saint Gilles was unhappy at reneging on the oath to Alexius The military situation was worsening as the Mosul Muslims marched to relieve the city - Bohemond revealed his plan who in spite of Raymond's objections urged him to act Before dawn on 3rd June 1098 a rope was lowered from the walls of Antioch and the crusaders began to swarm over the walls. JP 'A terrible massacre took place and much booty was taken' - but the crusaders withdrew to the citadel which meant they had only taken the outer shell of Antioch. JP 'soon after this morale reached its lowest point.' The crusaders became besieged as the forces from Mosul arrived outside, trapping them within. The Gesta Francorum describes how 'we endured misery, hunger and fear for twenty-six days.' More began to desert including Count Stephen of Blois, who during his retreat across Asia Minor met Alexius who was coming to assist the westerners and convinced him that the Franks were doomed so the Greeks turned back to Constantinople. One consequence of this was that Bohemond claimed the Byzantines had broken their agreement to provide military support which, in turn, JP 'released the crusaders from their obligation to return captured lands to the Greeks.' They were now in a desperate situation, but: A pilgrim named Peter Bartholomew had a vision in which St Andrew revealed to him the Holy Lance that pierced Christ's side during his crucifixion - JP 'St Andrew promised that whoever carried this in battle would triumph' On the 14th of June the relic was discovered and JP 'moral in the Christian army was transformed.' Some contemporaries doubt its authenticity but it still gave the Franks a new determination On 28th June 1098 they performed a series of JP 'complex military manoeuvers' and forced the Muslims to flee - the defenders of the remaining citadel saw no relief so they soon surrendered and Antioch was taken Bohemond was able to establish his principality - but the breaking of the oath to Alexius frustrated the Greeks' long term intentions os re-establishing their influence in northern Syria which meant future relations between Antioch and Byzantium would be marked by periods of considerable tension

The Role of the Church

The medieval church was an all-powerful international institution. The position of the HREmperor emerged from the time of Charlemagne, Charles the Magnificent, King of the Franks and the formation of France and Germany in the ninth century. The relationship between the Pope and nobility of Europe was important - Church appointments (investitures) were the responsibility of the church. But, simony: Gave the nobility extra money A secure future for the second sons of noble families Against the 'canon law.'

How could the Pope justify Violence?

There was a recent tradition of papal involvement in warfare. Pope Leo IX had fought the Normans of Sicily in 1053 and in 1074 Pope Gregory VII had tried to assemble a group of knights known as the 'milites sancti Petri' (the knights of Saint Peter) to implement papal policy. However the main justification for war was through the reference to authoritative texts. By using the writings of Saint Augustine of Hippo (354-430) it was possible to construct a case whereby Christian violence could be commanded by God through his representative on earth - the pope - and if it was performed in the right circumstances (a just cause and a proper motivation) it was an act of Christian love. Part of the just cause was Urban's call for a war of Christian liberation - an idea very much vogue at the time as the reform church was trying to free itself from secular control (investiture contest). Also Sicily and parts of the Iberian peninsula were captured by Catholics in the latter half of the 11c In 1095 Urban posed to liberate two things: 1. The Christians living in the East who were persecuted by the muslims of the region (reports were likely exaggerated in the preaching of the expedition but probably necessary to provoke outrage and prompt people to take the cross) and 2. A place, Jerusalem. By making this his goal it was important to everyone in the West as it was the focal point of christianity, and he turned the journey into a kind of pilgrimage (burial place of the Holy Sepulchre). JP - 'When Urban spoke of the suffering of pilgrims to the Holy Land he was connecting with a recognisable experience and an aspiration to reach the East shared by many.' Urban also spoke of the need for vengeance - another familiar notion to nobles in the feud-ridden society of the West. Urban's message had to be JP 'carefully crafted' because of the immense commitment he was asking for - a 4,000km journey of enormous expense, away from homes family and friends, to fight a fierce and passionate enemy. JP - 'the effectiveness with which he touched upon so many ideas and values of importance to the people of the Latin West is evinced by the scale of the response to his appeal.'