The public speaking project chapters 1-16

Sophists

5 th century B.C. Greek philosophers and teachers who speculated on theology, metaphysics, and the sciences, and who were characterized by Plato as superficial manipulators of rhetoric and dialectic (thefreedictionary.com)

Identification

A connection that is fostered between the speaker and their audience by highlighting shared attributes or attitudes.

Creative Commons License

A designation by the copyright holder of an image or other work that it can be reused. The license identifies what specifically is allowed under what conditions and what credit must be given

Attention Getter

A device or technique used to gain the audience's attention in the introduction or keep the audience's attention during the course of a speech.

Bad Reasons Fallacy:

A fallacy that occurs when then we assume the conclusion of an argument to be bad because a part of the argument is bad.

False Cause:

A fallacy that occurs when there exists a flawed connection between two events.

False Analogy

A fallacy that occurs when there exists a poor connection between two examples used in an argument

Accident Fallacy

A fallacy that occurs when a generally true statement is applied to a specific case that is unusual.

Ambiguity Fallacy

A fallacy that occurs when a word having more than one meaning appears in the argument.

Appeal to Pity

A fallacy that occurs when an argument attempts to win acceptance by focusing on the unfortunate consequences that will occur if it is not accepted.

Red Herring Fallacy

A fallacy that occurs when an irrelevant issue is introduced into the argument.

Strawman Fallacy

A fallacy that occurs when the actual argument appears to be refuted, but in reality a related point is addressed.

Black and White Fallacy

A fallacy that occurs when the audience is only given two choices.

Begging the Question:

A fallacy that occurs when the conclusion of the argument is also used as one of the premises.

Genetic Fallacy:

A fallacy that occurs when the individual is attacked.

Appeal to Authority

A fallacy that occurs when the truth of a proposition is thought to rest in the opinion of a famous other or authority.

Appeal to Ignorance

A fallacy that occurs when we argue something must be accepted because it cannot be proven otherwise.

Slippery Slope Fallacy

A fallacy that occurs when we assume one action will initiate a chain of events that culminate in an undesirable event.

Division

A fallacy that occurs when we assume that the trait of a whole occurs when the whole is divided into its parts.

Composition Fallacy

A fallacy that occurs when we assume that traits inherent in the parts are also present when the parts are combined into a whole.

Fallacy of Quantitative Logic:

A fallacy that occurs when we misuse quantifying words such as "all" or "some."

Masked Man Fallacy:

A fallacy that occurs when we substitute parties that are not identical within an argument.

Analogy

A figure of speech that essentially compares something that your audience knows and understands with something new and different.

Fallacy:

A flaw or error in reasoning.

Syllogism

A form of deductive argument in which the conclusion is inferred from the premises. Most syllogisms contain a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion.

Preparation Outline

A full-sentence outline that is used during the planning stages to flesh out ideas, arrange main points, and to rehearse the speech; could be used as a script if presenting a manuscript style speech

Rule of Thirds

A layout design grid that divides a page into nine equal squares. Placing or aligning content along the grid lines creates a more powerful image.

Prezi

A newer type presentation software that allows for nonlinear presentations and is more graphically oriented rather than text oriented.

Listening Reminder

A note made by a listener acknowledging intent to focus on the speaker's message and tune out distractions. A reminder might also encourage a listener to keep an open mind, or to provide open and encouraging body language.

Watermark

A noticeable image or graphic in an image that is placed there primarily to prevent reuse of that image by identifying the owner of the copyright. Often found on online images, it is designed to let you preview the image before you purchase it, at which time, the watermark is removed.

Thesis Statement

A one- or two-sentence encapsulation of the main points of a speech, also called the central idea.

Exploded View

A picture or diagram where an object appears disassembled so the viewer can see the component parts in proper relationship to each other. They are used to show how things fit together and how parts interact to make a whole.

Pecha Kucha

A presentation format that uses exactly 20 slides, and each slide is only viewed for 20 seconds. This format focuses on timing, brevity, and practice.

Coercion

A process whereby thoughts or behaviors are altered through deceptive or harmful methods.

Premise

A proposition (statement) supporting or helping to support a conclusion; an assumption that something is true

Argument

A proposition supported by one or more reasons or pieces of evidence.

Specific Purpose Statement

A sentence of two that describe precisely what the speech is intended to do.

Evaluation Criteria

A set of standards for judging the merit of a proposition.

Silhouette

A simplified image of a person or object created from the outline of the image and filled in with a solid color, usually black.

Ethos

A speaker aims to establish credibility on the topic at hand with her audience by appealing to ethos. This reflects the speaker's character, her ability to speak to the values of the listener, and her competence to discuss the topic.

Audience Analysis

A speaker analyzes an audience for demographics, dispositions and knowledge of the topic.

Impromptu Speeches

A speech delivered without previous preparation.

Refutation Pattern

A speech designed to anticipate the negative response of an audience, to bring attention to the tensions between the two sides of the argument, and to explain why the audience should change their views.

Causal Pattern

A speech designed to explain a cause-effect relationship between two phenomena.

Direct Method Pattern

A speech designed to present a claim with a list of several supporting pieces of data.

Regionalism

A speech form, expression or custom that is characteristic to a particular geographic area.

Topical Speech

A speech in which main points are developed separately and are generally connected together within the introduction and conclusion.

Problem-Solution Speech

A speech in which problems and solutions are presented alongside one another with a clear link between a problem and its solution.

Spatial Speech

A speech in which the main points are arranged according to their physical and geographic relationships

Chronological Speech

A speech in which the main points are delivered according to when they happened and could be traced on a calendar or clock.

Informative Speech

A speech in which the primary purpose is to provide the audience with information that they did not already know, or to teach them more about a topic with which they are already familiar.

Comparative Speech

A speech in which two or more objects, ideas, beliefs, events, places, or things are compared or contrasted with one another.

Refutation Speech

A speech that anticipates the audience's opposition, then brings attention to the tensions between the two sides, and finally refutes them using evidential support.

Causal Speech

A speech that informs audience members about causes and effects that have already happened.

Descriptive Speech

A speech that provides a detailed, vivid, word picture of a person, animal, place, or object.

Demonstration Speech

A speech that shows listeners how some process is accomplished or how to perform it themselves.

Stereotype

A standardized conception or image of a group of people, a stereotype forces a simple pattern upon a complex mass and assigns a limited number of characteristics to all members of a group. Stereotypes are simple, acquired, often erroneous and resistant to change.

Speaking Outline

A succinct outline that uses words or short phrases to represent the components of a speech and that is used during speech delivery.

Slide Deck

A term that refers to all the slides in a slideware presentation. It is a more generic term for PowerPoint slides.

Serif Font

A type face whose characters have small lines or flourishes at the end points of letters. Serif fonts include Times New Roman, Georgia, and Palatino.

Sans Serif Font

A type face whose characters do not have the small lines or flourishes at the end points of letters. Sans serif fonts include Arial, Helevetica, and Tahoma.

Spiral Pattern

A type of holistic pattern in which the speaker builds up dramatic intensity by moving from smaller and less intense scenarios to bigger and more intense scenarios, in an upward spiral.

Star Pattern

A type of holistic pattern, the star pattern presents a set of main points connected by an underlying common theme. For different audiences, speakers will start with different main points. However, all main points will be united by one theme.

Definitional Speech

A type of speech in which the speaker attempts to explain or identify the essential qualities or components of concepts, theories, philosophies, or issues.

Dialect

A variety of language, cant or jargon that is set apart from other varieties of the same language by grammar, vocabulary or patterns of speech sounds.

Signposts

According to Beebe and Beebe, "words and gestures that allow you to move smoothly from one idea to the next throughout your speech, showing relationships between ideas and emphasizing important points" (2005, p. 204).

Rhetorical Situation

According to Lloyd Bitzer, "a complex of persons, events, objects, and relations presenting an actual or potential exigence which can be completely or partially removed if discourse, introduced into the situation, can so constrain human decision or action as to bring about the significant modification of the exigence" (1968, p. 6).

Primacy Effect

According to this principle, audiences are likely to remember what they hear or read first

Recency Effect

According to this principle, audiences are likely to remember what they hear or read last.

Critical Thinking

Active thinking in which we evaluate and analyze information in order to determine the best course of action.

Explanatory Speech

Also known as a briefing, the focus of this speech is on reports of current and historical events, customs, transformations, inventions, policies, outcomes, and options.

WIIFM

An acronym that stands for "What's in it for me?" This is the question that listeners ask themselves when they begin to listen to a speech. Listeners want to know; What does this speech have to do with my life? Is this information useful to me? Is the speaker talking about something I already know? Is the subject interesting? Why should I pay attention?

Pathos

An appeal to the audience's emotions, trying to trigger sympathy, pity, guilt, or sorrow. Pathos, along with ethos, and logos, make up the rhetorical triangle of appeals, according to Aristotle. An effective speaker will appeal to all three.

Induction:

An argument in which the truth of its propositions lend support to the conclusion.

Deduction

An argument in which the truth of the premises of the argument guarantee the truth of its conclusion.

Proposition of Policy

An argument that seeks to establish an appropriate course of action.

Proposition of Value

An argument that seeks to establish the relative worth of something.

Proposition of Fact

An argument that seeks to establish whether something is true or false

Non sequitor

An argument where the conclusion may be true or false, but in which there exists a disconnect within the argument itself.

Contrast

An attention getting technique whereby supporting ideas are compared to emphasize difference.

Receptive Audience

An audience that is generally supportive of, or open to, the persuasive proposition.

Neutral Audience

An audience that is neither open nor opposed to the persuasive proposition.

Hostile Audience

An audience that is opposed to the speaker or to the persuasive proposition.

atticism

An expression characterized by conciseness and elegance.

Greyscale

An image that has all the color information removed and replaced with appropriate shades of grey. These images are sometimes referred to as blackand-white.

Monroe's Motivated Sequence

An organization style that is designed to motivate the audience to take a particular action and is characterized by a five-step sequence: (1) attention, (2) need, (3) satisfaction, (4), visualization, and (5) action appeal.

Monroe's Motivated Sequence

An organizational pattern that attempts to convince the audience to respond to a need that is delineated in the speech through five sequential steps.

Information Overload

An overwhelming feeling of being faced with so much information one cannot completely process it.

Scrutiny Fear

Anxiety resulting from being in a situation where one is being watched or observed, or where one perceives themselves as being watched, is known as scrutiny fear. This sort of anxiety does not necessarily involve interacting with other people.

Communication

Attempts to reproduce what is in our minds in the minds of our audience.

"Listener's Lean"

Audience members who are intent on what is being said will lean forward. This is a nonverbal endorsement of the listener's attention and the effect of the speaker's message.

Body Language

Body Language Body stance, gestures and facial expressions.

Communication Apprehension

CA is the anxiety resulting from fear of public speaking

Cognitive Restructuring (CR)

CR is an internal process through which individuals can deliberately adjust how they perceive an action or experience.

Complementary Colors

Colors on opposite sides of the color wheel, such as red and green.

Analogous Colors

Colors that are next to each other on the color wheel, such as yellow and orange.

Similes

Comparisons made by speaking of one thing in terms of another using the word "like" or "as" to make the comparison

Metaphors

Comparisons made by speaking of one thing in terms of another.

Regionalisms

Customary words or phrases used in different geographic regions.

Demography

Demographics are literally a classification of the characteristics of the people.

dialectic

Dialectician be defined as a debate intended to resolve a conflict between two contradictory (or polar opposites), or apparently contradictory ideas or elements logically, establishing truths on both sides rather than disproving one argument.

Intrinsic Motivation

Effective listeners will find a reason within themselves to want to hear, understand, interpret, and remember the speaker's message. Wanting to pass a possible quiz is an extrinsic motivation, while wanting to learn the material out of curiosity about the topic is intrinsic motivation.

White Space

Empty space in your design that helps direct the viewers' attention to the parts of the slide that really matter. Use of white space can help reduce clutter on your slide.

Fallacies

Errors in reasoning that occur when a speaker fails to use appropriate or applicable evidence for their argument.

Interpretation:

Explaining and extrapolating the conclusions that we draw from a statement

Backing

Foundational evidence which supports a claim, such as examples, statistics, or testimony.

Outline

Hierarchal textual arrangement of all the various elements of a speech.

draco

In 621 B.C., the citizens of Athens commissioned Draco, an elder citizen considered to be the wisest of the Greeks, to codify the laws, which had remained an oral form of custom and tradition. He began the tradition of law, where cases were decided on clearly enunciated crimes and penalties determined by statute rather than by the whims of the nobility. His laws helped constitute a surge in Athenian democracy.

Noise

In design, it refers to excess information on a slide or image or a cluttered image.

Inference

Inference act or process of deriving logical conclusions from premises known or assumed to be true.

Sub-Points

Information that is used to support the main points of a speech.

Writing for the Ear

Keeping in mind, when writing a speech, that you must use language, pace, repetition, and other elements to help your audience to hear and see what you are speaking about. Remember, the listener must hear and understand your message as you speak it.

Spotlighting

Language such as "male nurse" that suggests a person is deviating from the "normal" person who would do a particular job and implies that someone's sex is relevant to a particular job.

Heterosexist Language

Language that assumes the heterosexual orientation of a person or group of people.

Sexist Language

Language that unnecessarily identifies sex or linguistically erases females through the use of manlinked terms and/or the use of "he" or "man" as generics.

Generic "he" or "man"

Language that uses words such as "he" or "mankind" to refer to the male and female population.

Memorized Delivery

Learning a speech by heart and then delivering it without notes.

Extemporaneous Delivery

Learning your speech well enough so that you can deliver it from a key word outline.

Informational Listening

Listening to learn information. For instance, this is the kind of listening students employ in classroom settings to gain knowledge about a topic.

Parallel Structure

Main points that are worded using the same structure.

Thesis

One sentence or statement that succinctly and accurately lets the audience know what the speech will be about and what the speaker plans to accomplish in the speech.

Speeches to Actuate

Persuasive speeches which seek to change or motivate particular behaviors

Speeches to Convince

Persuasive speeches which seek to establish agreement about a particular topic.

Clichés

Phrases or expressions that, because of overuse, have lost their rhetorical power.

Transitional Statements

Phrases or sentences that lead from one distinct-but connected idea to another.

Nonverbal Communication

Physical behaviors that communicate the message or the feedback from the listener. These include leaning in, nodding one's head, maintaining eye contact, crossing arms in front of the body, and offering sounds of agreement or dissent.

Tag Questions

Powerless language exemplified by ending statements with questions such as "Don't you think?" or "Don't you agree?"

Hedges

Powerless phrases such as "I thought we should," "I sort of think," or "Maybe we should" that communicate uncertainty.

Qualifiers

Powerless words such as "around" or "about" that make your sentences less definitive.

Data

Preliminary evidence on which a claim is based.

Manuscript Delivery

Reading the text of a speech word for word.

Syllogisms

Reasoning beginning with a major premise, then moving to a minor premise, before establishing a specific claim.

Credibility

Refers to the audience's perception of the speaker's expertise, authenticity, and trustworthiness.

Evidence

Research, claims, or anything else that is used to support the validity of an assertion.

Pericles

Responsible for the installation of a pure democracy to maintain popular support, a liberalized judicial system to include poor citizens so that they could serve on juries, and the establishment of a popular legislative assembly to review annually all laws. In addition, he established the right for any Athenian citizen to propose or oppose a law during assembly. Pericles' democracy est

Antithesis

Rhetorical strategy that uses contrasting statements in order to make a rhetorical point.

Pronunciation

Saying words correctly, with the accurate articulation, stress and intonation, according to conventional or cultural standards.

Internal Previews

Short descriptions of what a speaker will do and say during a speech; may be at the beginning and within the body of a speech.

Summaries

Short recaps of what has already been said; used to remind the audience of the points already addressed.

Line Art

Simplified drawings made only of solid lines without color or shading. They are useful for showing the basic shape and construction of complicated objects.

Preview

Sometimes called a road map, a preview is a brief oral outline in which the speaker clearly and concisely states the main points of the speech.

Persuasive Speeches

Speeches which aim to convince an audience to think or behave in a particular way.

Argument

Statements that combine reasoning with evidence to support an assertion.

Demographics

Statistical information that reflects the make-up of a group, often including age, sex, ethnic or cultural background, socioeconomic status, religion, and political affiliation.

Intensity

Supporting material that is characterized by a high degree of emotion, color, volume, strength, or other defining characteristic.

Organizational Styles

Templates for organizing the main points of a speech that are rooted in traditions of public discourse and can jumpstart the speechwriting process.

Man-linked Terms

Terms such as "fireman" or "policemen" that incorrectly identify a job as linked only to a male

Warrant

The (often unstated) connection between data and claim.

Oratory

The ability to speak with rhetorical skill and eloquence

Diction

The accent, inflection, intonation and sound quality of a speaker's voice. Also known as enunciation.

Articulation

The act of producing clear, precise and distinct speech.

Relational Listening

The active and involved listening we do with people we love and care about. This is listening where we acknowledge our sympathy for the speaker, encourage them to tell more, and build trust with friends or family members by showing interest in their concerns.

Persuasion

The art of influencing or reinforcing people's beliefs, attitudes, values, or actions.

Ethos

The audience's perception of a speaker's credibility and moral character.

Pixelation

The blurry appearance of images which are enlarged on a computer beyond their resolution. This often occurs when a small image is stretched to cover an entire slide.

Timbre

The characteristic quality of the sound of one's voice.

Status Quo

The current situation.

Masculinity-Femininity

The dimension of masculinity-femininity refers to the degree to which a culture values such behaviors as assertiveness and the acquisition of wealth or caring for others and the quality of others.

Individualism-Collectivism

The dimension of individualism-collectivism refers to the degree to which a culture relies on and has allegiance to the self or the group.

Performance

The execution of a speech in front of an audience.

Elocution

The formal study and practice of oral delivery, especially as it relates to the performance of voice and gestures.

Pitch

The highness or lowness of one's voice or of sound.

Main Points

The key pieces of information or arguments contained within a talk or presentation.

Logos

The logical means of proving an argument.

High-context Message

The meaning of the message is implied by the physical setting or is presumed to be part of the culture's shared beliefs, values and norms.

Language

The means by which we communicate—a system of symbols we use to form messages.

Z Pattern

The natural tendency of people from English-speaking countries, among others, to view images in the same way that they read text, that is, left to right, top to bottom. This results in the eye tracking along a Z-shaped path through the image.

General Purpose Statement

The overarching goal of a speech; for instance, to inform, to persuade, to inspire, to celebrate, to mourn, or to entertain.

Tone

The particular sound quality (e.g. nasal or breathy) or emotional expression of the voice.

Hearing:

The physiological process of receiving noise and sounds.

Analysis

The process of asking what is happening in a message through breaking it into its individual components and asking questions of each section.

Evaluation

The process of assessing the various claims and premises of an argument to determine their validity.

Causal Reasoning

The process of formulating an argument by examining related events to determine which one caused the other.

Inductive Reasoning

The process of formulating an argument by moving from specific instances to a generalization.

Deductive Reasoning

The process of formulating an argument by moving from a general premise to a specific conclusion.

Self-regulation

The process of reflecting on our pre-existing thoughts and biases and how they may influence what we think about an assertion.

Accent

The prominence of a syllable in terms of loudness, pitch, and/or length.

Claim

The proposition you want the audience to accept

Cognitive Dissonance

The psychological discomfort felt when a person is presented with two competing ideas or pieces of evidence.

Listening:

The psychological process of attaching meaning to the sounds and noises we hear.

Tempo

The rate, pace, or rhythm of speech.

Alliteration

The repetition of the initial sounds of words.

Color Palette

The selection of colors that are used throughout a single project

Slideware

The software used to display digital slide shows. Examples of slideware include Microsoft PowerPoint, Apple iWork, Keynote, Google Drive Presentation, OpenOffice Impress.

General Purpose

The speaker's overall goal, objective, or intent: to inform, to persuade, or to entertain.

Jargon

The specialized language of a group or profession.

Kinesics

The study of body movement including gestures, hand, arm and leg movements, facial expressions, eye contact and stance or posture.

Activity

The use of action words, physical or visual movement, or faster rate of speech to draw the audience's attention.

Humor

The use of amusing or comical facts, stories, or forms of expression to maintain an audience's attention.

Pathos

The use of emotional appeals to persuade an audience.

Hyperbole

The use of moderate exaggeration for effect.

External Credibility

This is a form of credibility based on attributes that a speaker can "borrow," such as using credible sources and referring to credible and popular people and events.

Internal Credibility

This is a form of credibility based on attributes that are largely controlled by a speaker, such as appearance, confidence, charisma, trustworthiness, and speaking ability.

"Breathe and Release"

This is a short-cut version of systematic de-sensitization appropriate for public speaking preparation.

Listening

This is the conscious act of focusing on the words or sounds to make meaning of a message. Listening requires more intentional effort than the physiological act of hearing.

Infer:

To draw a conclusion that rests outside the message.

Verbatim

To say with exactly the same words.

Imply:

To suggest or convey an idea.

Slang

Type of language that most people understand but that is not considered acceptable in formal or polite conversation

Inflections

Variations, turns and slides in pitch to achieve meaning

Vocalized Pauses

Verbal fillers in speech such as "um," "uh," "like," "and," or "you know.

Novelty

Very recent or unusual supporting ideas.

Rhetorical Question

When a speaker asks a question that is not meant to be answered outloud, or a question for which the audience already knows the answer. This is often used as a way to get an audience to think about the topic

Colloquialisms

Words or phrases used in informal speech but not typically used in formal speech.

Demographic characteristics

are facts about the make-up of a population.

Beliefs

are principles and are more durable than attitudes because beliefs are hinged to ideals and not issues.

Demographics

are the most recent statistical characteristics of a population.

Elocutionary movement

focused primarily on delivery. It not only involved the voice, but also incorporated the entire person with facial expressions, gesture, posture and movement

St. Augustine

had been a teacher of rhetoric before converting to Christianity in 386, and is considered to be the only major thinker on rhetoric associated with the Middle Ages

Holistic Pattern

instead of directly and explicitly presenting key ideas, use examples and stories to convey the main idea and leave it to the audience to interpret the message encoded in the examples and stories told.

Systematic de-sensitization

is a multi-stage, therapeutic regimen to help patients deal with phobias through coping mechanisms.

A variable

is a characteristic of a unit being observed that may assume more than one of a set of values to which a numerical measure or a category from a classification can be assigned.

An ordered category

is a condition of logical or comprehensible arrangement among the separate elements of a group.

Syllogism

is a deductive form of argument, proceeding from a generalization to a specific application. It is a systematic arrangement of arguments consisting of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion.

A psychological description

is a description of the audience's attitudes, beliefs, and values.

A value

is a guiding belief that regulates our attitudes.

Attitude

is a learned disposition to respond in a consistently favorable or unfavorable manner with respect to a person, an object, an idea, or an event.

A paradigm

is a pattern that describes distinct concepts or thoughts in any scientific discipline or other epistemological context.

Hearing

is a three-step process. It involves receiving sound in the ear, perceiving sound in the brain, and processing the information offered by the sound to

Trait-anxiety

is anxiety that is aligned with, or a manifestation of, an individual's personality.

Cicero

is considered to be the greatest of the Roman orators, and was, among other things, a lawyer, politician, and philosopher.

State-Anxiety

is derived from the external situation within which individuals find themselves.

Low-context Message

is one where the message is encoded in the words used or in the verbal expression and not as much in the context.

A connotative meaning

is the meaning you attach to a word based on your personal experiences and associations.

Denotative Meaning

is the socially agreed conventional meaning found in a dictionary.

Philosophical relativism

is the concept that points of philosophical views have no absolute truth or validity, having only relative subjective value according to differences in perception and thought.

Conversant

is the condition of being able to discuss an issue intelligently with others.

Rhetoric

is the faculty of discovering in the particular case all the available means of persuasion.

Ethnocentrism

is the notion that one's own culture is superior to any other

A quantitative analysis

is the process of determining the value of a variable by examining its numerical, measurable characteristics.

Expectancy Violation

occur when people engage in behavior that is unexpected or inappropriate for the situation.

Decartes

one of the most important Western philosophers of the past few centuries. He was also an original physicist, physiologist and mathematician who attempted to restart philosophy in a fresh direction.

Cultural Patterns

refer to common themes through which different cultures can be understood. They consist of beliefs, values and norms shared among a group of people and remain stable over long periods of time.

Polychronic time

refers to cyclical time. Time is less tangible and is seldom considered "wasted". People from polychronic cultures can often be involved in multiple activities at the same time, with no strict division among the different activities.

Monochronic time

refers to linear time; is tangible and can be "saved, spent, lost wasted," etc. People from monochronic cultures tend to focus on one thing at a time. Schedules and deadlines are sacrosanct, and punctuality is highly regarded.

Prejudice

refers to a negative attitude toward a cultural group, often based on little or no experience.

A frame of reference

refers to the context, viewpoint, or set of presuppositions or of evaluative criteria within which a person's perception and thinking seem always to occur; and which constrains selectively the course and outcome of these activities.

Power distance

refers to the degree to which the culture believes that institutional and organizational power should be distributed unequally and the decisions of the power holders should be challenged or accepted.

Paralanguage

refers to the vocal cues that accompany spoken language such as volume, rate and pitch

epistemology

the study of the origin, nature, methods, and limits of human knowledge.

Quintillian, Marcus Tullius Quintillianus

was a celebrated orator, rhetorician, Latin teacher and writer who promoted rhetorical theory from ancient Greece and from the height of Roman rhetoric.