The rule of Nicholas II, 1894-1905

Nicholas II (1868-1918)

A shy and sensitive son of an overbearing and bullying father. Became Tsar at 26 (1894). Ill-prepared to carry out his responsibilities as a ruler, and he was ill at ease in the world of politics and administration. He was happiest in the company of his wife, Alexandra, and his five children, to whom he was devoted.

Nationalism

A political outlook that expresses itself in one of two ways: either in a demand for national independence (in circumstances where a nation is denied it) or (where a nation is already self-governing) in an insistence that the nation's interests are pursued aggressively. In Russia nationality made two key claims: (1) the domination of the tsar's multi-national Russia and the Russians was entirely right and proper state of affairs. Russians, it was argued, had built the Empire and were therefore entitled to control it; and (2) Russia and the Russians were unique, separated from the peoples of Western Europe by a distinctive language, religion and culture. As a result, claimed supporters of Tsarism, liberal and socialist ideas had no place in Russia because they were unRussian. In late 19th and early 20th century provided a justification for the regime's 'Russification' policies.

Unrest

Caused by fast-paced industrialisation, leading to fast-paced urbanisation due to population growth, disaffected workers went on strike (despite the fact that the Penal Code stated that both strikes and trade unions were illegal). Unrest not confined to the cities. Early 1900s saw outbreaks of serious peasant rioting. Tsar Alexander II assassinated in 1881 by the 'People's Will' terrorist organisation, which led to a ferocious government crackdown on radicals and agitators.

Autocracy

Form of government in which one person possesses unlimited power. Nicholas II's commitment to the principle of autocracy, was rigid and unwavering. He believed that it was his right to wield unlimited power derived from the will of God and therefore beyond challenge. He further believed that the system would not survive without the firm had that an autocratic system could provide. He viewed with contempt any calls for reform that involved diluting autocratic principle. Late 19th Century Russia was the most autocratic state in Europe. No formal checks on the Tsar's power. Russia did not have a constitution, there was no parliament, no legal safeguards protecting the rights of individuals. Russia was governed day-to-day by ministers who were appointed by, and accountable only, to the Tsar.

The Okhrana

One of the regimes instruments of repression. It censored newspapers and other publications in an attempt to halt the spread of subversive ideas. At the forefront of its struggle against its internal enemies. The political police force. Role was to infiltrate and destroy revolutionary and terrorist networks. Generally effective despite being quite a small organisation. Key to its success was the use of informants; leadership of both radical parties riddled with agents. Had a fearsome reputation but was nothing lilke as monstrous as the secret police forces under Stalin and Hitler.

Pogrom

Organised attack on communities, in particular minority communities, which involves murder, assault and the destruction of property. Governments may or may not be involved. The word 'pogrom' derives from a Russian word meaning 'to destroy'.

Orthodoxy, Autocracy and Nationality

Phrase coined in 1833 by Sergei Uvarov, minister for education under Nicholas I, to describe the beliefs he wanted to see instilled through Russia's educational system. It became a commonly used shorthand way of summarising the basic principles on which Tsarist rule was based. Of these autocracy was the most important.

Radical/Terrorist groups

Radical groups started to re-organise in the 1890s. The Bund, a Jewish socialist party based in Poland, established in 1897. The Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) established in 1898 and the Socialist Revolutionary Party in 1902. The Combat Organisation in 1902 (linked to the Socialist Revolutionary Party) launched an assassination campaign targeting senior government officials.

Orthodoxy

Refers here to the Russian Orthodox Church and its role and status within the Russian Empire. The religion of the Tsars and the Orthodox Church was the spiritual wing of the Tsarist regime. Firmly under state control; it was run by a government department. It did the state's bidding; in its various pronouncements it preached the need for obedience to the tsar's authority. At the end of the 19th century, the Church's value to the Tsarist regime was diminishing. It was an institution in decline: the reputation of its priests was low and it was struggling to get a hearing in Russia's fast-growing towns and cities.

Anti-Semitism

Russian Empire acquired its Jewish population when Russia seized control of large parts of the previously independent Kingdom of Poland in the late 18th century. By 1900 nearly 5 million Jews in Russia. Virtually all of them were compelled by law to live within the Pale of Settlement, a demarcated zone stretching along Russia's western border. No minority suffered more at the hands of the Tsarist regime than Russia's Jews. Anti-Semitic prejudice was endemic in government circles and gave rise to harsh discriminatory policies, especially in the reigns of Alexander II and Nicholas II. They also had to contend with popular, grassroots anti-Semitism and the pogroms that, from time to time, arose out of it.

Sergei Witte (1849-1915)

The driving force behind the Tsarist regime's industrial development policy in the 1890s. Attracted much-needed foreign capital into Russia by putting its currency, the rouble, on to the gold standard in 1897. Idea being to boost foreigners' confidence in the rouble by convincing them it would not lose its value over time due to inflation. Responsible for the expansion of Russia's railway network. Welcomed foreign investment but kept cheap foreign imports out of Russia by means of tariffs, thereby protecting Russia's developing industries. Policies produced very high growth rates in the 1890s but their downsize was the squeeze on the peasantry. Dismissed as Minister of Finance in 1903 but recalled in 1905 when the Tsarist regime had its back to the wall.

Oppression of nationalities

Took the form of Russification. Policy launched by Alexander III (1881-94) and continued under Nicholas II. An attempt to impose Russia's language, culture and religion on the Empire's non-Russian minorities. Implemented most aggressively in those parts of the Empire where nationalist feeling was strong. Was a counter-productive policy. Its aim was to halt the growth of nationalist movements in non-Russian areas. Instead it aroused resentment within minority nationalities and stimulated the growth of nationalism.