The Science of Psychology Laura King Chapter 8

4 steps in problem solving

1. Find and frame problems; 2. Develop good problem-solving strategies; 3. Evaluate solutions; 4. Rethink and redefine problems and solutions over time.

Sternberg's Intelligence Theories

Analytical Intelligence, Creative Intelligence, Practical Intelligence

language

a form of communication - whether spoken, written, or signed - that is based on a system of symbols

intelligence

all-purpose ability to do well on cognitive tasks, to solve problems, and to learn from experience (it is a product of both heredity and environment)

mindless behaviors

automatic activities we perform without thought

systems of decision making

automatic system (1) and controlled system (2)

inner motivation

creative people are often motivated by the joy of creating (they are inspired more internally than externally)

validity, reliability, and standarization

criteria for a good intelligence test

functional fixedness

failing to solve a problem as a result of fixation on a thing's usual functions.

genetic markers

genetic locations on specific chromosomes for intelligence

inductive reasoning

reasoning from specific observations to make generalizations (from specific to general)

cognitive psychology

study of mental processes

infinite generativity

the ability of language to produce an endless number of meaningful sentences

fixation

using a prior strategy and failing to look at a problem from a fresh new perspective

benefit finding

Looking at a stressful life event in a particular way, focusing on the good that has arisen in one's life as a result.

practical skills

e.g. ADL such as personal care, occupational skills, health care, travel/transportation, and use of the telephone

automatic system of decision making (system 1)

involves processing that is rapid, heuristic, and intuitive (follow hunch feeling)

deductive reasoning

reasoning from a general case that is known to be true to a specific instance (from gral. to specific)

controlled system of decision making (system 2)

slower, effortful, and analytical (it involves conscious reflection about an issue)

algorithms

strategies - incl. formulas, instructions, and the testing of all possible solutions - that guarantee a solution to a problem.

semantics

the meaning of words and sentences in a particular language

coping

Managing taxing circumstances, expending effort to solve life's problems, and seeking to master or reduce stress.

flexibility and playful thinking

creative thinkers are flexible and play with problems

thinking outside the box

exploring novel ways of approaching tasks and challenges and finding solutions

types of reasoning

inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning

culture-fair tests

intelligence tests that are intended to be culturally unbiased. (One type has questions familiar to all people. A 2nd type contains no verbal questions)

heuristics

shortcut strategies or guidelines that suggest a solution to a problem but do not guarantee an answer.

cognition

the way in which info. is processed and manipulated in remembering, thinking, and knowing.

convergent thinking

thinking that produces the single best solution to a problem

Gardner's Intelligence Theories

Intelligences: Verbal, mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic, existensialist

conceptual skills

e.g. literacy and understanding of numbers, money, and time

subgoals

intermediate goals or intermediate problems that put us in a better position for reaching the final goal or solution. (Working backwards in establishing subgoals is a good strategy)

objective evaluation of work

most creative thinkers strive to evaluate their work objectively

linguistic relativity hypothesis

"language determines the way we think". Benjamin Whorf

strategies for parents in talking to their babies

1. Be an active conversational partner. 2 Talk as if the infant will understand what you're saying. 3. Use a language style which you feel comfortable.

syntax

a language's rules for combining words to form acceptable phrases and sentences

intelligence quotient (IQ)

an individual's mental age divided by chronological age multiplied by 100 => IQ=(MA/CA)x100

availability heuristic

prediction about the probability of an event based on the ease of recalling or imagining similar events

mindfulness

the state of being alert and mentally present for one's everyday activities

base rate fallacy

the tendency to ignore info. about gral. principles in favor of very specific but vivid info.

pragmatics

the useful character of language and the ability of language to communicate even more meaning than is said.

divergent thinking

thinking that produces many solutions to the same problem

social skills

e.g. interpersonal skills, responsibility, self-esteem, and ability to follow rules and obey

cultural-familial intellectual disability

mental deficit with no evidence of organic brain damage

creativity

the ability to think about something in novel and unusual ways and to devise unconventional solutions to problems

open-mindedness

the state of being receptive to other way of looking at things

cognitive reappraisal

Regulating one's feelings about an experience by reinterpreting that experience or thinking about it in a different way or from a different angle.

intellectual disability

a condition of limited metal ability in which an individual has a low IQ, usually below 70 on a traditional intelligence test, and has difficulty adapting to everyday life.

morphology

a language's rules for word formation

concept

a mental category that is used to group objects, events, and characteristics.

prototype model

a model emphasizing that when people evaluate whether a given item reflects a certain concept, they compare the item with the most typical item(s) in that category and look for a "family resemblance" with that item's properties

artificial intelligence (ai)

a scientific field that focuses on creating machines capable of performing activities that require intelligence when they are done by people.

normal distribution

a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve, with a majority of the scores falling in the middle of the possible range and few scores appearing toward the extremes of the range

mental age (MA)

an individual's level of mental development relative to that of others

organic intellectual disability

caused by a genetic disorder or brain damage; organic refers to the tissues or organs of the body

cognitive appraisal

individual's interpretation of events in their lives as harmful, threatening, or challenging and their determination of whether they have the resources to cope effectively with the events

secondary appraisal

individuals evaluate their resources and determine how effectively they can be used to cope with the event.

gifted

possessing high intelligence (an IQ or 130 or higher) and/or superior talent in a particular area (it is also a product of both heredity and environment)

representativeness heuristic

tendency to make judgements about group membership based on physical appearances on the match between a person and one's stereotype of a group rather than on available base rate info.

standarization

the development of uniform procedures of administering and scoring a test, and the creation of norms (performance standards) for the test.

validity

the extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure. (does the test measure what it purports to measure?) - purpose -

reliability

the extent to which a test yields a consistent, reproducible measure of performance - consistency -

thinking

the mental process of manipulating information mentally by forming concepts, solving problems, making decisions, and reflecting critically or creatively.

heritability

the proportion of observable differences in a group that can be explained by differences in the genes of the group's members (it applies to a group, not to a single individual)

hindsight bias

the tendency to report falsely, after the fact, that we accurately predicted an outcome ("I knew it all along effect")

critical thinking

thinking reflectively and productively and evaluating the evidence. (vital to effective problem solving)

concepts are important for 4 reasons

1. allow us to generalize; 2. allow us to associate experiences and objects; 3. aid memory by making it more efficient (so that we don't have to reinvent the wheel); 4. provide clues about how to react to a particular object or experience

critical thinking and creative thinking

2 strategies that lead to better solutions / skills associated with superior problem solving

conceptual skills, social skills, practical skills

3 life domains used by the American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities to examine a person's level of adaptive behavior. (can be used to determine the person's ability to negotiate life's challenges)

willingness to face risk

creative people make more mistakes than their less imaginative native counterparts because they come up with more ideas and more possibilities

primary appraisal

individuals interpret whether an event involves harm or loss that has already occurred, a threat or some future danger, or a challenge to be overcome.

phonology

a language's sound system

decision making

the mental activity of evaluating alternatives and choosing among them (rules are not established, and we may not know the consequences of the decisions)

reasoning

the mental activity of transforming information to reach conclusions (uses established rules to draw conclusions)

problem solving

the mental process of finding an appropriate way to attain a goal when the goal is not readily available. (It entails following certain steps and overcoming mental obstacles)

confirmation bias

the tendency to search for and use information that supports our ideas rather than refutes them