Theories of Human Development Test #2

3 Temperament Types

1. Easy Child: displays regular routine, adapts to novelty are cheerful and makes approx 40% of children 2. Difficult child: display irregular routine such as eating and sleeping, slow to adapt to novelty, react negatively and intensely and there is a risk for later anxious withdrawal and aggression and makes approx 10% of children 3. Slow to warm-up child: slow to adapt to novelty however over time the tend to respond more adaptively, display negative moods and tend to be inactive and makes approx 15% of children. All these are identified in infancy up to 1 years of age.

What is "Moral Development"?

1. Freud: emotional understanding 2: Bandura: actions 3. Piaget/ Kohlberg: reasoning

9 Dimensions of Temperament

1. Level and extent of motor activity 2. Regularity of basic functions 3. Withdrawal or acceptance of new stimuli 4. Adaptability to environmental changes 5. Sensitivity level to stimuli 6. Energy intensity of responses 7. General mood or disposition 8. Distractibility potential 9. Attention span and persistence in activity

Processes of Self-Efficacy Dev.

1. Origins of a Sense of Personal Agency: Through observation and experiencing the results of their own actions, infants, gradually gain self-recognition and "learn they can make things happen". 2. Developing Self-Appraisal Skills: Young children can improve their self-appraisal skills, and they begin to judge their own efficacy in relation to certain actions. Self-appraisals are fostered by two types of experience: direct experiences and social comparison. Because of immature self-evaluation skills, they may try actions that they are not yet capable of performing well, and this may undermine their developing sense of self-efficacy. 3. Broadening and Validating Self-Efficacy: As children move into the broader community, the role of peers becomes increasingly important. Competent age-mate peers provide models of efficacious styles and social comparisons of self-efficacy. Certain aspects of self-efficacy, such as self-regulation, self-directedness, and self-instructional capacity can be fostered in school settings. Bandura: School practices like "lock-step sequences of instructions," "sorting students," and emphasis on "social-comparative appraisals rather than self-appraisals" can lower many children's sense of self-efficacy. 4. Self-Efficacy in Transition: Adolescence is another period where self-efficacy development can be affected by many factors. The mastery of many new skills are required, more responsibility must be assumed, and decisions that will affect their life course may be made. Bandura stresses that self-efficacy beliefs can be "enablement factors" to help adolescents meets the transitions they must encounter. Their beliefs about their self-efficacy in social and academic situations also affect their emotional development. One aspect that must be managed is sexuality. The ability to self-regulate is especially important as a means for making this transitional period a positive experience. Self-appraisal and self-regulatory skills are also important for vocational and higher education successful experiences. 5. Career Development and Family Roles: For career development, individuals' beliefs about how they should prepare, their efforts to find opportunities for education and employment, and their effort and persistence in performing employment responsibilities are all related to their efficacy beliefs. A strong sense of self-efficacy positively affects the emotional well-being of parents of children with special needs as well. Perceived self-efficacy usually drops during periods of transition. 6. Midlife and Later Life Changes: Little research. There may be a need to "restructure" goals and deal with self-doubts about the meaning and direction of one's life, especially during the middle and later years. "Opportunities for further self-development always exist" A reappraisal of self-efficacy does occur with advancing age, since many of the efficacious behaviors that made of their self-efficacy are reduced or lost. A key issue in this expanded perspective is how the elderly maintain a sense of personal agency and exercise it in ways that give meaning and purpose to their lives.

Infant Attachment Styles

1. Preattachment (birth to 6 weeks): the infant is helpless, but has appearance, behaviors that cause the mother to respond quickly and consistently to infant needs. The responsiveness of the mother or caregiver is crucial during this period. 2. Attachment in the making (6 weeks to 8 months): The infant begins to respond to the actions of the mother or caregiver and begins to trust that his/her needs will be met by the responsive person. The infant's responsiveness then creates a circle of interaction that encourages more responsiveness from the caregiver and causes attachment to grow between them. 3. Clear-cut attachment (6 months to 24 months): The attachment of the infant to the mother or caregiver is clear in infant behaviors such as proximity seeking, distress when separated, and language that prompts closeness. Child and caregiver seem "tuned in" to each other's actions. The child uses the adult as a "secure base" by ranging further from the adult to explore new settings while at the same time keeping eye contact and using verbal means to maintain contact with the mother or caregiver. The adult encourages exploration but sets limits that assure the child of adult care and concern. 4. Reciprocal relationship (18 months to 24 months): If the attachment process has gone well, the child will show autonomy and a strong self-assurance in exploring the world. The child is confident that the attachment figure will if needed, maintain interaction, and monitor situations. In new or strange situations, the child and adult will connect more closely in a pattern of reciprocity.

Stages of Attachment

1. Preattachment (birth to 6 weeks): the infant is helpless, but has appearance, behaviors that cause the mother to respond quickly and consistently to infant needs. The responsiveness of the mother or caregiver is crucial during this period. 2. Attachment in the making (6 weeks to 8 months): The infant begins to respond to the actions of the mother or caregiver and begins to trust that his/her needs will be met by the responsive person. The infant's responsiveness then creates a circle of interaction that encourages more responsiveness from the caregiver and causes attachment to grow between them. 3. Clear-cut attachment (6 months to 24 months): The attachment of the infant to the mother or caregiver is clear in infant behaviors such as proximity seeking, distress when separated, and language that prompts closeness. Child and caregiver seem "tuned in" to each other's actions. The child uses the adult as a "secure base" by ranging further from the adult to explore new settings while at the same time keeping eye contact and using verbal means to maintain contact with the mother or caregiver. The adult encourages exploration but sets limits that assure the child of adult care and concern. 4. Reciprocal relationship (18 months to 24 months): If the attachment process has gone well, the child will show autonomy and a strong self-assurance in exploring the world. The child is confident that the attachment figure will if needed, maintain interaction, and monitor situations. In new or strange situations, the child and adult will connect more closely in a pattern of reciprocity.

Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Reasoning

1. Preconventional (starts at age and decreases with age): Reward and punishment orientations—the moral reason is that the action will have a consequent reward or punishment (going through a red light—no, because will get a ticket; yes, because will get there faster and no one will see me. Naïve reciprocity orientation—the moral reason is exchange and retaliation; a "good" act is one that exchanges help or retaliates for hurt; it is an egoistic orientation (sharing your sandwich if your friend shares his cake; hitting someone because she hit you.) 2. Conventional (increases to age 13 and stabilizes): Good boy/girl orientation: the moral reason is to maintain good relations and approval of others (image); intentions matter but person and role are combined (I'm a good girl so I'd never cheat because my family would be hurt; I'm "bad" (clever and tough" so I'd show my friends how to cheat without getting caught.) Authority and social order maintenance orientation: the moral reason is to obey authority and maintain the social order as it is; intentions matter more than consequences; the moral role extends outside family and friends (I would give to charity because it is a requirement of belief at my church; I would obey an unjust law because it is the law of the land; I won't help the poor because there is no law that says I must.) 3. Postconventional (increases to age 16/18 to adult): Contract and democratic law orientation: the moral reason is to maximize social welfare and fulfill duty as a citizen; if an unjust law exists, it should be changed; there may be conflict between the rights of individual and society; contracts are binding but can be negotiated (the rights of political prisoners are violated by the new law so I will fight to repeal it—the more rationale of the ACLU; it is our duty to declare independence if rulers are unfair—the moral rationale of the Declaration of Independence!; we need to support a law that will permit people to choose if they want assisted suicide—the Oregon law.) Conscience or principle orientation: the moral reason is to meet higher universal human rights or justice; guided by universal moral principles, not the laws of society (I will go to jail to fight the unjust laws of segregation—MLK's moral rationale; I will violate laws in order to save lives—the moral rationale of Germans who concealed Jews in their homes; I will risk my life to save earthquake victims.)

Patterns of separation

1. Protest: cry, scream, reject substitute 2. Despair: quiet, withdrawn, mourning 3. De-attachment: accept substitute, when mother returns seems to not know

Gilligan's Stages of Moral Development

1. Selfish: concern w self 2. Social: concern w others 3. Post conventional: balance of self and others

Erikson stages of psychosocial development

1. Trust vs. mistrust (1st year) 2. Autonomy vs. Shame (2-3) 3. Initiative vs. Guilt (4-6) 4. Industry vs. Inferiority (6-puberty) 5. Identity vs. Role confusion (teens- early 20s) 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (early adulthood) 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (middle) 8. Integretity vs. Despair (late adult)

Piaget's Stages of Moral Reasoning

3 Levels of moral judgment: heteronomous, intermediate, autonomous. 1. Heteronomous/Moral Realism (ages 5 to 10): the child obeys rules handed down by authorities and views the rules as external features that can't be modified. Respect for the rules is derived from the authority figures and the rules are seen as sacred and unchangeable. Heteronomous (blind obedience to) rules is preeminent from ages 5-7, but by ages 7-10, the ability to reason with peers begins. 2. Intermediate (ages 8 to 12): Through interactions with peers, the child gains a sense of autonomy and egalitarianism, and beliefs in immanent justice and punishment begin to change to beliefs in reciprocal punishment that "fits the crime." 3. Autonomous/Moral Cooperation (ages 11+): Rules aren't rigid, but can be modified through negotiation. They are the products of group arrangements (consensus) and arrived at by cooperative means with reciprocity among equals. Acts are judged by their intentions not by consequences. By age 12, autonomous (internalized) rules based on mutual agreement are beginning to be predominant.

Freud's Stages of Development

5 phases of psychosexual development, each that have a conflict between instinctual desires (Id) and the need to meet the realities of the environment (Ego). In the 3rd phase, the conflict also includes the demands of the Superego. 1. Oral Phase (ages 0 to 1): bodily pleasure is primarily derived from the mouth (sucking). Conflict occurs if the parent is ineffective or erratic in satisfying this need, and conflict is intensified when weaning from breast or bottle occurs. It is resolved by the infant gaining satisfaction with a wider range of eating methods, occasional thumb sucking, oral exploration of objects, and use of other exploration means to gain pleasure. If an adult still derives from most pleasure from oral activities (excessive eating, drinking, smoking) then Freud would say that this phase was not resolved healthily. 2. Anal Phase (age 1 to 3): pleasure is derived from the anus (control of defecating). Conflict usually occurs with toilet training, since most infants don't find their fecal matter unpleasant. Aggressive impulses are higher. Conflict is resolved by infants gaining pleasure in the control of body functions and leads to their learning both to give and receive. If an adult is grasping, miserly, and selfish, profligate and wasteful, or overly aggressive, Freud would say that they phase was not resolved healthily. 3. Phallic Phase (ages 3 to 6): pleasure is often gained from touching their genitals. Most theorists agree that this is when gender identity is formed and because the genitals are the indicator of sex, they are the focus of attention. (This theory is most often questioned by theorists). Freud thought that in developing a stable gender identity, boys may go through a period of castration anxiety, and girls may have a period of penis envy as they learn the differences in male and female sexual organs. He also said that the conflict is that boys desire their mothers and see their fathers as rivals for their mother's affection (Oedipus complex), but conflict is resolved by eventual identification with the same-sex parent (the father). For girls, they see the mother as a rival but then gaining identification with the mother (Electra complex). If adults are not clear about their gender identity or have other sexual problems, Freud would say the stage was not resolved healthily. 4. Latency Phase (ages 6 to 12): Didn't see an erotic focus during this age period, because there were no psychosexual conflicts. Freud saw it as a time for acceptance of reality principle rules (Ego development), expanding nonsexual social interactions/friendships, and gaining ability to focus on school learning. 5. Puberty (age 12+): The genital phase. Also, the final phase of psychosexual development, and it results in the ability to have adult sexual intimacy. It is resolved by finding a sexual partner.

Alyssa, a 1-year old, has just been left with a baby sitter while her parents go on a month-long trip. According to Bowlby, how will Alyssa initially react to the new babysitter?

Alyssa will scream and cry.

Ainsworth's Strange Situation

An experimental procedure in order to observe the variety of attachment forms exhibited between mothers and infants. The experiment is set up in a small room with one-way glass so the behavior of the infant can be observed covertly. Infants were aged between 12 and 18 months. The sample comprised of 100 middle-class American families. The procedure, known as the 'Strange Situation,' was conducted by observing the behavior of the infant in a series of eight episodes lasting approximately 3 minutes each: (1) Mother, baby, and experimenter (lasts less than one minute). (2) Mother and baby alone. (3) A stranger joins the mother and infant. (4) Mother leaves baby and stranger alone. (5) Mother returns and stranger leaves. (6) Mother leaves; infant left completely alone. (7) Stranger returns. (8) Mother returns and stranger leaves. Strange Situation classifications: (i.e., attachment styles) are based primarily on four interaction behaviors directed toward the mother in the two reunion episodes 1. Proximity and contacting seeking 2. Contact maintaining 3. Avoidance of proximity and contact 4. Resistance to contact and comforting.

Kohlberg: Evaluation & Application

Application: expose children dilemmas and disequilibrium, reasoning responses, children reason one level above own Evaluation: universal theory cross cultural, higher stage thinking occurs often in western cultures.....

An ethologist might argue that an infant's attachment behaviors:

Are biologically determined

Defense Mechanism: Projection

Ascribing own unacceptable qualities to others

Superego

At about age 4 or 5, it is formed by guilt/shame over inappropriate desires related to the parents, is where conscience and morality develop. Operates as moral conscience

Suzie accidentally looked at someone else's paper during her math test, and her teacher caught her and gave her an F. Suzie thinks that because she didn't intend to cheat, she shouldn't have been punished. According to Piaget, Suzie is reasoning at which moral stage?

Autonomous

Which theorist argued that gender roles develop primarily through observing others?

Bandura

Which theorist viewed moral development as the actual decisions that we make?

Bandura

Collective Agency

Bandura believes that well-structured cooperative activities can create collective agency during this age period.

Patterns of Separation

Bowlby described 3 stages children went through during separation: protest, related to separation anxiety; despair, related to grief and mourning, and detachment/denial, related to defense of self. Bowlby connected a strong need of young children for attachment to their mothers to the ethological idea that certain behaviors have evolved as survival mechanisms. Infants' welfare really depends on their ability to attach to caregivers and to engage caregivers in reciprocal attachment. Bowlby believed that grief and mourning occur when children's attachment behaviors are activated by a need for the parent, but the parent continues to be unavailable. Separation anxiety cannot be terminated unless reunion is restored; although some coping strategies to deal with separation are used by children, these often lead to attachment problems.

Which of the following is NOT one of the major contributions that Greenspan made to help children with PDD? A. Cognitive-Behaviorial therapy B. Floor Time C. Identifying Patterns of Regulatory Disorders D. Relationship-based therapy

Cognitive-Behavioral therapy

George's brother is constantly asking him for money. This time, George is trying to decide whether or not he should give his brother money to bail him out once again. George reasons that it would serve the greatest good for his brother to learn how to live on his own. According to Kohlberg, which stage is George most likely in?

Contract & Democratic Law

A teacher say: "The rules we establish are agreements that maximize the greatest good. Because of this they are fair for all students, and good therefor we must honor them." Which of Kohlberg's stages does this best illustrate?

Contract and democratic law

John is faced with having to make a decision concerning his future career. He is now considering many different possibilities and is not certain wha he wants to do. According to Marcia, this is an example of a/an:

Crisis

Which term represents the time period during which ducks will form an attachment?

Critical Period

Lorenz: Imprinting & Critical Periods

Critical Periods: The critical period is the concept that certain behaviors must be learned at specific stages of development or they may not be learned at all. Imprinting: refers to the way newly hatched ducks and geese instinctively follow the first moving object they see. This is usually the mother but may be any living or non-living thing. -Heredity and environment are both important in critical periods of development.

Kohlberg gender

Developing gender roles is cognitive Culturally constructed Establish gender identity 1-3 Understand gender 3-5 Adapt to gender class 6-10

Children who show the ____________attachment pattern show inconsistent, contradictory, and confused behavior such as approaching the mother when she returns but not looking at her.

Disorganized

Which statement about moral development would Kohlberg most agree with?

During moral development, you cannot skip a stage.

KOHLBERG's theory of the development of moral reasoning assumes all of the following EXCEPT that: A. each stage is achieved by an increase in knowledge. B. each stage is qualitatively different. C. each stage represents increasing sophistication in reasoning. D. moral development occurs in an invariant sequence.

Each stage is achieved by an increase in knowledge.

Id

Earliest stage, governed by the Pleasure Principle that drives infants towards gaining their basic needs and wishes. Unconscious Part of the mind that contains sexual and aggressive drives of the unconscious (Eros & Thanatos)

4-year old Lindsey squeezes between her Mommy and Daddy as they sit together on the couch. She cuddles with her Daddy but refuses to cuddle with her Mommy. This best illustrates which Freudian concept?

Electra complex

Epigenetic Plan / Principle

Erickson The plan nature of sequenced stage development is supported or interfered with societal demand nurture Freud nature and Erickson nature

Libido

Eros energy, sexual energy, the "sexual life comprises the function of obtaining pleasure from any zones of the body".

Nathan's female babysitter, Tracy, comes over dressed in hockey clothing. Nathan thinks hockey clothing is for boys, so he thinks that Tracy must be a boy. Which stage of gender role development is Nathan in?

Establishing Gender Identity (ages 1 to 3)

Defense mechanism: rationalism

Explaining unacceptable behavior or feeling in a rational logical manner to avoid truth

Fixation, Regression, & Personalities

Fixation: Insufficient or excessive gratification in ANY stage could lead to this. The attachment to objects of an earlier stage. Freud theorized that adults with oral ____, could experience exaggerated desires for oral activities such as smoking, thumb sucking, overeating, alcohol abuse, and nail biting. Regression: The return, under stress, to a form of behavior characteristic of an earlier stage of development. Ex: An adolescent cries like a child when forbidden to use the family car. Or an adult becomes highly dependent on his parents after a bad divorce. Personalities: refers to one's typical way of behavior that differentiates a person from others.

Daphne has always planned to marry early in life and have children. It's exactly what her parents want for her, and she has never seriously considered anything else. She has met a young man who is acceptable to her parents and plans to be married fairly soon. Daphne may be placed in the identity _______________ group.

Foreclosed

Eros & Thanatos

Freud identified 2 forces of energy. • Eros: the life instinct, self-preserving and erotic impulses. • Thanatos: the death instinct, self-destsruction, aggression, and cruelty.

Freud's Gender Role

Gender and moral development occur concurrently Gender identification in phallic stage Conscience: feel shame guilt Ego ideal; self aspiration

Nanette is trying to decide whether or not to leave her job. Although she is unhappy, she is worried that her boss will resent her. Because she doesn't want her boss to resent her, she decides to keep her job. According to Kohlberg, what stage does this best represent?

Good boy / Good girl

Jeffrey is drinking his juice, but accidentally drops his cup and the juice spills all over his mother's shirt. Even though Jeffrey didn't mean to do it, and even though his mother wasn't mad, Jeffrey thinks that he will be punished because the outcome was bad. According to Piaget, which stage of moral development is Jeffrey likely in?

Heteronomous

Defense mechanism: reaction formation

Hiding true feeling and behavior opposite manner

Freud perspective

Humans are irrational and influenced by hidden by unconscious motives driven by biological characteristics Empirical methods and psychoanalysis Development is predetermined and sequential but can be disrupted through fixation and regression

Marcia's Identity Statuses

Identity Diffusion - the status in which the adolescent does no have a sense of having choices; he or she has not yet made (nor is attempting/willing to make) a commitment. Identity Foreclosure - the status in which the adolescent seems willing to commit to some relevant roles, values, or goals for the future. Adolescents in this stage have not experienced an identity crisis. They tend to conform to the expectations of others regarding their future (e. g. allowing a parent to determine a career direction) As such, these individuals have not explored a range of options. Identity Moratorium - the status in which the adolescent is currently in a crisis, exploring various commitments and is ready to make choices, but has not made a commitment to these choices yet. Identity Achievement - the status in which adolescent has gone through a identity crisis and has made a commitment to a sense of identity (i.e. certain role or value) that he or she has chosen Note that the above status are not stages and should not viewed as a sequential process.

Juan has had difficulty maintaining a relationship because he seems to be too independent. He has trouble letting other people into his life, and prefers to just take care of himself. Which attachment style did Juan likely have?

Insecure-Avoidant

Chrissy, a 1-year-old, is sitting with her mother and the new babysitter. When the mother leaves, Chrissy cries uncontrollably, and will not accept any toys or comfort from the babysitter. Which attachment style does this best represent?

Insecure-Resistant

Fixation

Insufficient or excessive gratification in ANY stage could lead to this. The attachment to objects of an earlier stage. Freud theorized that adults with oral ____, could experience exaggerated desires for oral activities such as smoking, thumb sucking, overeating, alcohol abuse, and nail biting. Remaining at an immature level of libido and result from over gratification

Gilligan argues that there is a male gender-bias in most psychological theories for all of the following reasons EXCEPT:

It is not possible to develop theories from a feminist perspective.

Which of the following events best illustrates the crisis of industry vs. inferiority?

Joan is trying to become first clarinet in her junior high school band.

Jonas, a 2-year-old, and his father have been separated for 6 months because his father had to go overseas for the military. When Jonas's father returns, how will Jonas most likely react?

Jonas won't recognize his father.

Assumptions of Kohlberg's Stages

Kohlberg believed that children can comprehend reasoning of the stages lower than their own, and they often can comprehend one stage above their own if they hear that reasoning from others. If they can comprehend the higher stage, they usually prefer that reasoning to their own.

Which of the following is NOT a criticism of Kohlberg's theory?

Kohlberg's theory isn't based on internally valid studies.

Gilligan's Feminist Perspective

Most created by men and females do not fit male models

Erikson gender

Not an issue until adolescence Males search for identity and females concern with intimacy and partners identity

defense mechanism: suppression

Not letting ideas or impulses into awareness conscious

defense mechanism: repression

Not letting ideas or impulses into awareness unconscious

Observational & Vicarious Learning

Observational Learning: learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates behavior. Vicarious Learning: Learning the consequences of an action by watching others being rewarded or punished for performing the action.

Oedipal & Electra Complexes

Oedipal Complex: A conflict of the phallic stage in which the boy wishes to possess his mother sexually and perceives his father as a rival love. This complex is usually resolved by the ages of 5 or 6 and desires are then displaced or transferred to socially appropriate members of the opposite gender. Electra Complex: A conflict of the phallic stage in which the girl longs for her father and resents her mother. This complex is usually resolved by the ages of 5 or 6 and desires are then displaced or transferred to socially appropriate members of the opposite gender.

According to Kohlberg, what is the best method to help an individual "improve" their moral reasoning?

Point out where their reasoning is contradictory, then expose them to reasoning one stage above their current stage.

Gretchen is trying to decide what classes to take. Her friend really wants her to be in her philosophy class, but it conflicts with a psychology class that Gretchen is interested in. Gretchen is trying to figure out how to strike an appropriate balance, and decides to take the psychology class, but offer to do weekly dinners with her friend instead. Which stage of Gilligan's theory would Gretch be in?

Postconventional

During which stage of attachment will a baby smile at anyone, even a stranger?

Preattachment

Conscious, Preconscious, Unconscious

Preconscious: consists of anything that could potentially be brought into the conscious mind. Conscious: Self-aware. Contains all of the thoughts, memories, feelings, and wishes of which we are aware at any given moment. This is the aspect of our mental processing that we can think and talk about rationally. A part of this includes our memory, which is not always part of consciousness but can be retrieved easily at any time and brought into our awareness. Unconscious: is a reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges, and memories that outside of our conscious awareness. Most of the contents of the unconscious are unacceptable or unpleasant, such as feelings of pain, anxiety, or conflict. According to Freud, the unconscious continues to influence our behavior and experience, even though we are unaware of these underlying influences.

Tanya is a perfectionist , and it sometimes interferes with her ability to relax and have fun with friends. A new student, Beth, enters Tanya's school. Tanya immediately does not like Beth, and complains that Beth is an annoying perfectionist (although Beth is not a perfectionist). What defense mechanism is Tanya most likely employing?

Projection

According to Bandura, which process determines whether a behavior is performed?

Reinforcement & Motivation

During a grade school field trip, Ryan and his friends were running down a hill when he stepped on a snake. He was unharmed but shaken by the experience. When one of his friends mentioned the incident months later, Ryan could not remember running down the hill that day, Freud would say that this is an example of:

Repression

Alex, a stranger, and his mother are in a room full of toys. Alex is scared to explore the room. Later, the mother and the stranger leave the room for a moment, Alex begins to wail and cry. When his mother returns he runs up to her, but instead of giving her a hug/kiss he begins to punch her in the arm. This would be a description of what type of attachment pattern?

Resistant

Peter is learning how to throw a baseball. He watches his dad carefully, and doesn't have any physical disabilities. He also really wants to learn how to throw a baseball so he can join a baseball team. The trouble is that he has a hard time remembering to follow through. According to Bandura, which component of observational learning is keeping Peter from successfully throwing a baseball?

Retention

Betty is frustrated, because her daughter Keely wakes up at random hours in the night needing to go to the bathroom. She also can't get Keely to eat on a regular basis. What dimension of temperament does this best represent?

Rhythmicity / Regularity

ego

Second stage, develops over the first years of life and is governed by the Reality Principle, which controls the basic needs and wishes in response to environmental demands. Realistic part of the brain that mediates between desires of I'd and superego

Jerry, a teen, is trying to decide what he wants his college major to be. He is thinking about which subjects he did well at in school, and what he thinks he is good at. Which stage/process of self-efficacy development is Jerry in?

Self-Efficacy in Transition

Self-Efficacy

Self-efficacy is specific to human agency and contains the types of actions, skills, and competencies for which the person feel efficacious. Beliefs about ones' self-efficacy affect what choices people make about future actions, the amount of effort they expend on certain activities, their perseverance against obstacles, and their resilience when initially unsuccessful.

Lisa's parents tend to get frustrated when eighteen-month-old Lisa cannot perform a task they think she ought to be doing. According to Erikson, if her parents continue to become frustrated, they are likely to instill a sense of __________ in Lisa.

Shame and Doubt

Jenny and Melissa both want a cookie at lunch time, but there is only one cookie left. Jenny gets there first, but is overly worried that Melissa will be upset if she takes the last cookie. She decided to let Melissa have the cookie. According to GILLIGAN, what stage of female moral development is Jenny most likely in?

Social

Bandura gender

Social learning and observation Reinforcement Of gender roles

Bowlby's Theory of Attachment

Stages of Attachment— 1. Preattachment (birth to 6 weeks): the infant is helpless, but has appearance, behaviors that cause the mother to respond quickly and consistently to infant needs. The responsiveness of the mother or caregiver is crucial during this period. 2. Attachment in the making (6 weeks to 8 months): The infant begins to respond to the actions of the mother or caregiver and begins to trust that his/her needs will be met by the responsive person. The infant's responsiveness then creates a circle of interaction that encourages more responsiveness from the caregiver and causes attachment to grow between them. 3. Clear-cut attachment (6 months to 24 months): The attachment of the infant to the mother or caregiver is clear in infant behaviors such as proximity seeking, distress when separated, and language that prompts closeness. Child and caregiver seem "tuned in" to each other's actions. The child uses the adult as a "secure base" by ranging further from the adult to explore new settings while at the same time keeping eye contact and using verbal means to maintain contact with the mother or caregiver. The adult encourages exploration but sets limits that assure the child of adult care and concern. 4. Reciprocal relationship (18 months to 24 months): If the attachment process has gone well, the child will show autonomy and a strong self-assurance in exploring the world. The child is confident that the attachment figure will if needed, maintain interaction, and monitor situations. In new or strange situations, the child and adult will connect more closely in a pattern of reciprocity.

Ethology & Darwin's Theory

Study of animal and human behavior evolutionary context Endless variation and natural selection of humans Adaptive, social instincts, cooperation, physical abilities, reason

Defense Mechanism: Displacement

Taking out feeling and impulses in less threatening people objects

Attention, Retention, Motor Reproduction, Reinforcement & Motivation

The four main processes that are involved in observational learning. Attention: The first process that occurs in observational learning. Ex. Taking an art class and paying attention to the instructors hand movements. Retention: The second process required for observational learning to occur. Ex. Remembering the way the instructor taught you how to draw. Motor Reproduction: A third element of observational learning, the process of imitating that model's actions. Ex. Watching a basketball player do a reverse two handed dunk but being unable to reproduce. Reinforcement: The final component of observational learning. Ex. Vicarious Reinforcement: Seeing a model obtain a reward for an activity increase the chances that an observer will repeat the behavior. Motivation:

Regression

The return, under stress, to a form of behavior characteristic of an earlier stage of development. Ex: An adolescent cries like a child when forbidden to use the family car. Or an adult becomes highly dependent on his parents after a bad divorce. Returning to a less mature state to attain libido satisfaction

Reciprocal Determinism

Theory created by psychologist Albert Bandura. It states that a person's behavior both influences and is influenced by personal factors and the social environment. Bandura accepts the possibility that an individual's behavior may be conditioned through the use of consequences. At the same time he asserts that a person's behavior (and personal factors, such as cognitive skills or attitudes) can impact the environment. [1]These skill sets result in an under- or overcompensated ego that, for all creative purposes, is too strong or too weak to focus on pure outcome. This is important because Bandura was able to prove the strong correlation between this with experiments. He was able to show this with the Bandura Box experiment.

Greenspan's Theory

Theory of emotional development. He assumes that the capacity to organize experiences is present early in life, but initially that organization is emotion based rather than cognition based. There are 4 stages of emotional development and 6 milestones. 1. Engagement: 3 weeks until 8 months. Infants learn to share attention, relate to others with warmth, positive emotion, and expectation of pleasant interactions, and trust they are secure. 2 milestones: self-regulation and intimacy. 2. Two-way Communication: 6 months until 18 months. Infants learn to signal needs and intentions, comprehend others' intentions, communicate information (motorically and verbally), make assumptions about safety, and have reciprocal interactions. 1 milestone: 2-way communication. 3. Shared Meanings: 18 months to 36 months. Children learn to relate their behaviors, sensations, and gestures to the world of ideas, engage in pretend play, intentionally use language to communicate, and begin to understand cognitive concepts. 2 milestones: complex communication and emotional ideas. 4. Emotional Thinking: 3 to 6 years old. Children can organize experiences and ideas, make connections among ideas, begin reality testing, gain a sense of themselves, and their emotions, see themselves in space and time, and develop categories of experience. Final milestone: emotional thinking.

defense mechanism: intellectualization

Thinking about events in a cold clinical way

Kelly's husband admires her for how unselfish and giving she is. She works for a real estate firm and is progressing nicely in her career, and her boss thinks she does excellent work. However, she thinks her boss is trying to take advantage of her professionally, even though he is not. Which of the following crises has Kelly LEAST well resolved?

Trust vs. Mistrust

Maria is able to tell her parents when she wants food by pointing to her bottle and saying "Ba!" She can also tell her parents when she wants her pacifier by pointing to it and making a certain noise. According to Greenspan, in which stage of emotional development is Maria?

Two-way communication

defense mechanism: Denial

Unable to face reality or admit truth unconscious

Which of the following best describes Bandura's notion of Reciprocal Determinism?

We learn because of biological predispositions for learning. We learn by observing others. We learn through the consequences of our own actions.

When the needs of the Id are not met

When the needs of the Id are not met or able to be regulated appropriately by the Reality Principle or when the demands of the Superego are unreasonable or difficult to perform, the Ego creates defense mechanisms to explain and control the Id's desires and the Superego's demands. Although everyone uses some defense mechanisms, they are the major coping mechanism of the unhealthy personality, and they do not result in effective resolution of problems. Uses defense mechanisms to cope when the ego (mediator) can't meet the needs of Id (desires) and superego (morality)

Defense Mechanism

an unconscious function of the ego that protect it from anxiety-evoking material by preventing accurate recognition of this material.

The major psychological crisis in the conflict of intimacy and isolation revolves around:

being able to give the self to someone else without fearing loss of identity.

defense mechanism: sublimation

converting unacceptable aggressive or sexual impulses into socially valued behaviors

Bobo Doll Experiment

is the collective name of experiments conducted by Albert Bandura in 1961 and 1963 when he studied children's behavior after watching an adult model act aggressively towards a Bobo doll, a toy that gets up by itself to a standing position when it is knocked down.

According to FREUD, an infant who fails to receive good care during the anal stage will most likely become:

overly stubborn

Mary got suspended from school for calling a peer an f-word and she never did it again. Grace got suspended out of school for calling a peer a four-letter-word and she almost immediately did it again when she returned to school. In light of the operant conditioning theory, for Mary the suspension was a __________; for Grace being suspended was a __________ .

punishment; reinforcer

Personalities

refers to one's typical way of behavior that differentiates a person from others.

Billy gives Cal a candy bar in return for a comic book. If Billy is at Kohlberg's Stage 3, he would view the behavior as "ethical" if it was:

what he thought was expected of him.

Ego, Superego, Id

• Id: Earliest stage, governed by the Pleasure Principle that drives infants towards gaining their basic needs and wishes. • Ego: Second stage, develops over the first years of life and is governed by the Reality Principle, which controls the basic needs and wishes in response to environmental demands. • Supergo: At about age 4 or 5, it is formed by guilt/shame over inappropriate desires related to the parents, is where conscience and morality develop. *When the needs of the Id are not met or able to be regulated appropriately by the Reality Principle or when the demands of the Superego are unreasonable or difficult to perform, the Ego creates defense mechanisms to explain and control the Id's desires and the Superego's demands. Although everyone uses some defense mechanisms, they are the major coping mechanism of the unhealthy personality, and they do not result in effective resolution of problems.