Unit 1 History & Approaches — People

Charles Darwin

Charles Darwin (1809-1882) was a British naturalist and scientist who developed theories about evolution and natural selection and is credited with being the father of evolutionary theory. Darwin began to develop his ideas on a historical 5 year long scientific voyage on the HMS Beagle. While in the Galapagos Islands he noted that each island had finches that were closely related but each island's finch population had differing physical characteristics. This lead Darwin to the idea that would eventually become the concept of natural selection. Natural selection occurs because animals can have different traits from one another within the same species. The animals that have traits that are most advantageous for a particular environment are more successful and more likely to reproduce. They pass their beneficial traits on to their offspring who continue to be successful and pass the traits along to their offspring. Gradually the species will evolve so that the beneficial traits occur in all of the organisms. The finches that Darwin saw at Galapagos had different kinds of beaks. The beaks were more advantageous for the food on the particular island they were on and over generations the finches with the 'better' beaks got more food and had more offspring until the birds with the less advantageous beaks faded away in the population. Darwin worked on his theories for 20 years and collaborated with a man named Alfred Wallace who had independently reached many of the same conclusions. In 1859 Darwin published his major work "On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection." This work was considered revolutionary at the time because it defined humans as simply another animal who evolved from less complex organisms. Darwin's theories have been developed over time and are still widely used in many areas of science and beyond.

Edward Bradford Titchener

Edward Titchener (1867-1927) was a British psychologist who established the school of structuralism and coined the word empathy (which is the ability to put oneself in another's shoes). Structuralism proposed that by defining, categorizing, and organizing aspects of the mind then mental processes could be understood. There was no interest in the unconscious or the subconscious mental processes - only the conscious mind was considered to be a viable subject of study. Importance on introspection was also a focus within structuralism. Research participants were trained in identifying mental processes and presented with stimuli. They then used introspection to describe the sequence of mental processes. Titchener theorized there were three facets that comprised conscious experiences: images, sensations, and feelings.

Mary Whiton Calkins

Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930) was a philosopher and psychologist. In addition to these vocations, she was the first female president of the American Psychological Association and The American Philosophical Association. After having attended Smith College for an undergraduate degree she later attended Radcliffe and was permitted to attend classes at Harvard (an all-male school) so long as she was not an officially enrolled student. She taught psychology at Wellesley College and worked with Hugo Munsterberg, a German psychologist. During this time she published several papers on dreams and color/number association. Her greatest contribution to the field of psychology was "self-psychology," a field that emphasized introspection (primarily the self-examination of personal experiences). Her books and papers indicate a a view of psychology that primarily dealt with the mind and spirit while minimizing physical input such as sensorimotor and physiological experiences.

Sigmund Freud

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) is known as the Father of Psychoanalysis, a method for treating psychological pathology by means of dialogue between the patient and the psychoanalyst. During psychoanalysis, the patient talks about whatever thoughts come to mind, a process called "free association." The patient is also encouraged to talk about his wishes, fears, and dreams. The role of the analyst is to help the patient gain access to the unconscious conflicts that lie at the root of the psychological problem, and help him gain insight that will lead to resolution. One of Freud's most important contributions is the idea that the unconscious mind holds the key to understanding conscious thoughts and behavior, and the role that dreams play in unlocking what is hidden or repressed beneath conscious awareness. Freud is also known for proposing a theory of personality based on the Stages of Psychosexual Development. According to this theory, people gain pleasure from specific erogenous zones as they go through the stages. Freud believed there were 5 stages: Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latent and Genital. At each of these stages, pleasure is focused on a particular part of the body. Too much or too little pleasure in any one of these stages caused a fixation which would lead to personality or psychological disorders. For example, too much pleasure in the phallic stage could lead to obsessive masturbation and sexual dysfunction as an adult. Freud also developed the model of the psyche composed of the Id, Ego, and Superego. The Id works on the pleasure principle - it seeks to avoid pain and increase pleasure at any cost. It drives us to search for food when hungry, rest when tired, and other basic impulses that ensure our survival. The Superego acts as the moral police, and demands that we act in a moral and socially appropriate manner, no matter the circumstance. It works in direct contradiction to the Id. The Ego works as the executive of the psyche, striving to find a balance between the Id's hedonism and the Superego's moralism. Although many people find Freud's ideas controversial, he was one of the most influential figures in the entire field of psychology.

Wilhelm Wundt

Wilhelm Wundt (1832 - 1930) is known as the "Founder of Modern Psychology" and the "Father of Experimental Psychology". He established the first laboratory in the world that was dedicated to Experimental Psychology, particularly investigations on the senses and perceptions. Wundt used the method of Introspection to investigate psychological phenomena. This involved the subject's observation and reporting of his own inner thoughts and sensations, and was very difficult to master. Although Wundt's theories and methods fell out of favor in the 1920's, his greatest contribution was to demonstrate that psychology could become a true science.

William James

William James (1842 - 1910) was a psychologist and philosopher, and was recognized for writing the Principles of Psychology, which is considered to be a monumental work in the history of psychology. James is known for the James-Lange Theory of Emotion, which he formulated independently of Carl Lange. According to the theory, an emotion is simply the mind's interpretation of certain physiological processes that occur as a response to certain stimuli. One of James' most famous examples is that when we see a bear, we do not run because we are afraid. According to James, we see a bear and then we run, and that is why we are afraid. His explanation is that when exposed to a stimulus such as a bear, our nervous system reacts with an increased heart rate, a rush of adrenaline, or muscle tension, and our perception of those changes is what is referred to as emotion.