Unit 2 AP psychology

How do we describe data using three measures of central tendency, and what is the relative usefulness of the two measures of variation

1. A measure of central tendency is a single score that represents a whole set of scores 2. Three such measures are the mode, the mean, and the median 3. Measures of variation tell us how diverse data are. Two measures of variation are the range and the standard deviation 4. Scores often form a normal curve

Is psychology free of value judgements?

1. Psychologists' values influence their choice of research topics, their theories and observations, their labels for behavior and their professional advice 2. Applications of psychology's principles have been used mainly in the service of humanity

What is a random assignment in an experimental method of research? How is it different from random sampling?

1. Assignment is the process by which participants are put into a group, experimental or control 2. Random assignment: assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups a) Random assignment: randomly assigning your random population sample to a random group b) If it is not randomly assigned, you will have more confounding variables c) Random assignment minimizes pre-existing differences between the two groups d) Each participant has an equal chance of being placed into any group 3. Benefit is that it limits the effect of confounding variables a) Diminishes the chance that participants in the two groups differ in any meaningful way, or in other words it controls for confounding variables b) The idea behind random assignment is that in general, the groups will be equivalent. c) The place of a random sampling in a well done survey was mentioned earlier and is of equal important to random assignment in a well done experiment d) To minimize any preexisting differences between the two groups, researchers randomly assign people to the two conditions e) Random assignment effectively equalizes the two groups f) Ages, attitudes, and other characteristics which will be similar in all volunteers will be equally broken up into in the experimental and control groups g) Thus, if the groups differ at the experiment's end, we can surmise that the treatment had an effect 4. No single experiment is conclusive, but randomly assignment participants to groups will eliminate all variables a) Of a behavior changes when we vary an experimental variable then we infer the variable is having an effect 5. The point to remember: unlike correlational studies, which uncover naturally occurring relationships, an experiment manipulates a variable to determine its effect Investigators evaluate new drug treatments and new methods of psychological therapy by randomly assigning participants in these studies to research groups a) One group receives a treatment and the other group receives a pseudo treatment-an inert placebo (perhaps a pill with no drug in it) b) The participants are often blind (uninformed) about what treatment, if any, they are receiving c) If the study is using a double lind procedure, neither the participants nor the research assistants who administer the drug and collect the data will know which group is receiving the treatment 6. Difference between random assignment and random sampling? a) Random assignment controls for participant relevant confounding variables b) While both involve randomization, sampling is the process of choosing the research participants from the population, and it happens before assignment c) Assignment is the process of dividing participants into groups, for example the experimental and control groups, and it cannot be done until after you identified the sample

Does behavior depend on one's culture and gender?

1. Attitudes and behaviors may vary somewhat by gender or across cultures, but because of our shared human kinship, the underlying processes and principles are more similar than different

What is the difference between correlation and causation?

1. CORRELATION DOES NOT MEAN CAUSATION 2. CORRELATION IS NOT CAUSATION, IT ONLY PREDICTS a) Causation is one thing causes another like cause and effect b) Correlations help us predict c) A neary irresistible thinking error is assuming that an association, sometimes presented as a correlation coefficient, proves causation d) But no matter how strong the relationship, it does not 3. The point to remember: association does not prove causation. Correlation indicates the possibility of a cause-effect relationship, but does not prove such Remember this principle and you will be wiser as you read and hear news of scientific studies

What is inferential statistics?

1. Data is noisy because the average score in one group could conceivably differ from he average score in another group not because of any real difference but merely because of chance fluctuations in the people sampled 2. For guidance to insure that we can infer that an observed difference is not just a chance result of sampling, we can ask how reliable and significant the differences are a) These inferential statistics help us determine if results can be generalized to a larger population b) Inferential statistics: numerical data that allow one to generalize-to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population c) The purpose is to determine whether or not findings can be applied to the larger population from which the sample was selected d) If the samples does not represent the larger population, one cannot infer anything about the larger population from the sample e) Guaranteeing that a sample is representative of a population is impossible. f) It is used to help psychologists decide when their findings can be applied to the larger populations

How do psychologists use case studies, naturalistic observation, and surveys to observe and describe behavior, and why is random sampling important

1. Description methods, which include case studies, naturalistic observations, and surveys, show us what can happen and they may offer ideas for further study 2. The best basis for generalizing about a population is a representative sample; in a random sample, every person in the entire population being studies has an equal chance of participating 3. Descriptive methods describe but do not explain behavior, because these methods do not control for the many variables that can affect behavior

How can we test our hypothesis and refine our theories? (research methods)

1. Descriptive methods describe behaviors, often by using case studies, surveys, or naturalistic observations 2. Correlational methods associate different factors or variables (variable: It refers to anything that contributes to a result.) 3. Experimental methods manipulate variables to discover their effects 4. To think critically about popular psychology claims, we need to understand the strengths and weaknesses of these methods

Compares the features of psychology's research methods:

1. Descriptive: a) Basic purpose: To observe and record behavior b) How it is conducted: Do case studies, naturalistic observations, or surveys c) What is manipulated: nothing d) Strengths: A) Case studies require only one participant; naturalistic observations may be done when it is not ethical to manipulate variables; surveys may be done quickly and inexpensively (compared with experiments) e) Weaknesses: Uncontrolled variables mean cause and effect cannot be determined single cases may be misleading 2. Correlation: a) Basic purpose: To detect naturally occurring relationships; to assess how well one variable predicts another b) How it is conducted: Collect data on two or more variables; no manipulation c) What is manipulated: nothing d) Strengths: Works with large groups of data, and may be used in situations where an experiment would not be ethical or possible e) Weaknesses: Does not specify cause an effect 3. Experimental: a) Basic purpose: To explore cause and effect b) How it is conducted: Manipulate one or more variables; use random assignment c) What is manipulated: The independent variable(s) d) Strengths: Specifies cause and effect, and variables are controlled e) Weaknesses:Sometimes not feasible' results may not generalize to other contexts, not ethical to manipulate certain variables

Summarize a good theory?

1. Effectively organizes a range of self reports and observations 2. Leads to clear hypotheses (predictions) that anyone can use to check the theory 3. Often stimulates research that leads to raised theory which better organizes and predicts what we know. Or, our research may be replicated and supported by similar findings

How do theories advance psychological science?

1. Psychological theories are explanations that apply an integrated set of principles to organize observations and generate hypotheses-predictions that can be used to check the theory or produce practical applications of it. 2. By testing their hypotheses, researchers can confirm, reject, or revise their theories 3. To enable other researchers to replicate the studies, researchers report them using precise operational definitions of their procedures and concepts. If there's achieve similar results, confidence in the conclusion will be greater

What is experimenter bias? What is an example of it?

1. Experimenter bias is a special kind of confounding variable a) It is the unconscious tendency for researchers to treat members of the experimental and control groups differential to increase the chance of confirming their hypothesis. 2. Note that experimenter bias is not a conscious act. If researchers purposely distort their data, it is called fraud, not experimenter bias. 3. Experimenter bias can be eliminated by using a double blind procedure 4. Example of experimenter bias: a) Had subjects rate neutral photos which are all 5/10 in an attractiveness study b) Those experimenters who were lead to expect positive answers achieved positive results c) Those experimenters who were led to expect negative answers achieved negative results d) Had to follow the same speech for both parties but the non verbal communications affected the participants e) Runs the same experiment again, just with a tape recording to say what the experimenters used to say to get rid of the nonverbal communication, but there is still some bias

How do hindsight bias, overconfidence, and the tendency to perceive order in random events illustrate why science based answers are more valid than those based on intuition and common sense?

1. Hindsight bias is the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that we would have foreseen it 2. Overconfidence in our judgements results partly from our bias to seek information that confirms then 3. These tendencies, plus our eagerness to perceive patterns in random events, lead us to overestimate our intuition 4. Although limited by the testable questions it can address, scientific inquiry can help us overcome our intuition's biases and shortcomings

What are illusory correlations?

1. Illusory correlations are random events that we notice and falsely assume are related 2. Patterns or sequences occur naturally in sets of random data, but we tend to interpret these patterns as meaningful connections, perhaps in an attempt to make sense of the world around us

What are positive and negative correlations and why do they enable prediction but it causes an effective explanation?

1. In a positive correlation, two variables rise or fall together. In a negative correlation, one item rises as the other falls 2. Scatterplots can help us to see correlations 3. A correlation coefficient can describe the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables, from +1.00 ( perfect positive correlation) through zero (no correlation at all) to -1.00 (a perfect negative correlation)

When is an observed difference reliable?

1. In deciding when it is safe to generalize from a sample, we should keep three principles in mind 2. Representative samples are better than biased samples a) The best basis for generalizing is not from the exceptional and memorable cases one finds at the extremes but from a representative sample of cases. b) Research never randomly samples the whole human population c) Thus it pays to keep in mind what population a study has sampled 3. Less variable observations are more reliable than those that are more variable a) An average is more reliable when it comes from scores with low variability b) More cases are better than fewer c) Averages base on many cases are more reliable (less variable) than averages based on only a few cases 4. The point to remember: smart thinkers are not overly impressed by a few anecdotes. Generalizations based on a few unrepresentative cases are unreliable

What is the need for statistics?

1. In descriptive, correlational, and experimental research, statistics are tools that help us see and interpret what the unaided eye might miss a) Accurate statistical understanding benefits everyone. b) To be an educated person today is to be able to apply simple statistical principles to everyday reasoning c) One needn't memorize complicated formulas to think more clearly and critically about data 2. Off the top of the head estimates often misread reality and then mislead the public 3. The point to remember: doubt big, round, undocumented numbers 4. Statistical illiteracy also feeds needless health scares a) Example: 1990s, British press reported a study showing that women taking a birth control pill where 100% increased risk of blood clots that produced strokes which caused many women to go off the pill, have abortions, and unwanted pregnancies. b) Such false alarms underscore the need to teach statistical reasoning and to prevent statistical information more transparently

What is wrong with human beings' need to perceive order in random events?

1. In our natural eagerness to make sense of our world-consider our rage for order-we are prone to perceive patterns a) People see a face on the moon, hear Satanic messages in music, perceive the Virgin Mary's image on a grilled cheese sandwich 2. Even in random data we often find order because RANDOM SEQUENCES OFTEN DON'T LOOK RANDOM a) Given random data, we look for order and meaningful patterns b) Your chances of being dealt either of these hands is precisely the same c) Given large numbers of random outcomes, a few are likely to express order d) Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky found that most people believe that one sequence of flipping a coin six times would be most likely random sequences when in fact it is not more or less equally likely than any other sequence e) In actual random sequences, patterns and streaks (such as repeating digits) occur more often than people expect 3. When you look over the sequence, patterns jump out a) Similar streaks happen about as often as one would expect in random sequences, in basketball shooting, baseball hitting, and mutual funds stock pickers' selections b) These sequences often don't look random and so are overinterpreted 4. What explains these streaky patterns? a) There is no such explanation are needed for these are the sorts of streaks found in any random data b) Comparing each toss to the next, 23 of 50 comparisons yielded a change result-just the sort near 50-50 result we expect from coin tossing c) Despite seeming patterns, the outcome of one toss gives no clue to the outcome of the next 5. However, some happenings seem so extraordinary that we struggle to conceive an ordinary, chance related explanation a) In such cases, statisticians often are less mystified Statisticians Persi Diconis and Frederick Mosteller with a large enough sample any outrageous thing is likely to happen." b) An event that happens to but 1 in 1 billion people every day occurs about 7 times a day, 2500 times a year

What is descriptive statistics? What is a histogram?

1. Once researchers have gathered their data, they may use descriptive statistics to organize that data meaningfully 2. Descriptive statistics: numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation a) Describes a set of data b) One way to do this is to convert the data into a simple bar graph, called a histogram. 3. Histogram: a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution 4. When reading statistical graphs such as this, take care because it is easy to design a graph to make a difference look big or small. The secret lies in how you label the vertical scale (the y-axis) a) A meaningful description of data is important in research. Misrepresentation may lead to incorrect conclusion b) If you draw a data chart to scale, you could see that there is no difference c) Margin of error can swing a statistic in either direction 5. The point to remember: think smart. When viewing figures in magazines and on television, read the scale labels and not their range

What is a theory? What is a hypothesis?

1. In science, a theory explains behaviors or events by offering ideas that organize what we have observed 2. Theory: an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events a) An explanation that integrates principles and organizes an predicts behavior or events b) Theories are based on assumptions, challenging those assumptions as part of critical thinking c) Theories look at what you observe and makes sense of it d) For example, low self esteem contributes to depression 3. Aims to explain some phenomenon and allows researchers to generate testable hypotheses with the hope of collection data that support the theory a) By organizing isolated facts, a theory simplifies b) By linking facts with deeper principles, a theory offers a useful summary c) As we connect the observed dots, a coherent picture emerges d) Yet no matter how reasonable a theory may sound, we must put it to the test 4. A good theory produces testable predictions, called hypotheses a) Hypothesis: testable prediction, often implied by theory A) Testable prediction often prompted by a theory to enable us to accept, reject or revise the theory B) A statement that can be tested with an experiment and gives direction to research C) In order to develop a clinically useable survey, you have to give it to thousands of people, change wording or questions to prevent bias, lots of money, then get sample to get a baseline for self esteem and depression-running a hypothesis is very difficult to test D) Theory is making sense of an observation in general E) Hypothesis have to be specific to be tested-theories aren't tested F) A statement that expresses a relationship between two variables G) Although some research is purely descriptive, most psychological research is guided by hypotheses 4. Variable, by definition, are things that can vary among the participants in the research a) For instance, religion, stress level, and height are variables b) According to an experimental hypothesis, the dependent variable depends on the independent variable. c) In other words, a change in the independent variable will produce a change in the dependent variable d) In testing a hypothesis, researchers manipulate the independent variable and measure the dependent variable e) Hypotheses often grow out of theories f) Such predictions specify what results (what behaviors or events) would support the theory and what results would cast doubt on the theory g) Example: people with low self esteem are apt to feel more depressed h) Problem with studying it is that it is not very specific, people might not admit to you that they have low self esteem, it is difficult to get diagnosed with depression, study could influence the participants i) The results will either confirm our theory or lead us to revise or reject it. j) Our theories can bias our observations

What is the placebo effect? What is the nocebo effect?

1. Just thinking you are getting a treatment can boost your spirits, relax your body, and relieve your symptoms a) Placebo effect is well documented in reducing pain, depression, and anxiety and the more expensive the placebo, the more "real" it seems to us- a fake pill that costs $2.50 works better than one costing 10 cents. b) To know how effective a therapy really is, researchers must control for a possible placebo effect 2. Placebo effect: experimental results caused by expectations alone, any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent a) A change in an illness of behavior that results from a belief that the treatment will have an effect b) People react to their own positive or negative expectations c) Accounts for a third of pain or pain relief d) It is not a statistical abnormality or fluke e) Placebo effect is a self fulfilling prophecy caused by what you expect will happen when we take a pill 3. Placebo effect follows the same dose response curve of real medicine a) Placebo injections provide more relief that placebo pills b) The greater the pain, the greater the placebo effect c) Bigger placebo pills effect you better than smaller placebo 4. One important method of control is known as the placebo method a) Whenever participants in the experimental group are supposed to ingest a drug, participants in the control group are given an inert but otherwise identical substance. b) This technique allows researchers to separate the physiological effects of the drug from the psychological effects of people thinking they took a drug called the placebo effect 5. Nocebo effect: people get worse because they believe they will get worse a) Expectation alone, can make healthy people ill b) Nocebo effect are usually vague symptoms caused by the suggestion that something is harmful

What are longitudinal and cross section studies?

1. Longitudinal studies: studies where the same subjects are studied over a period of time a) Expensive to run b) Follow the same person every year of their life until they die 2. Cross sectional studies: studies where different subjects are studied at from a variety of age groups a) Studies are easier to run b) Just collect all data at once from different age groups

Should you rely on intuition or common sense?

1. Many people believe that intuition and common sense are enough to bring forth answers regarding human nature a) Intuition and common sense may aid queries but they are not free of error 2. Human intuition is limited 3. Common sense is more socially past down things whereas intuition is a gut instinct a) Can't always trust intuition because it is not the most reliable 4. Psychology is a science and it is therefore based on research a Thought people are often guided effectively by their common intuition, sometimes it leads us astray 5. Three phenomena illustrate why we cannot rely solely on intuition and common sense a) Hindsight bias b) Judgemental overconfidence c) Our tendency to perceive patterns in random events 6. The point to remember: hindsight bias, overconfidence, and our tendency to perceive patterns in random events often lead us to overestimate our intuition, but scientific inquiry can help us sift reality from illusion

What are the measures of variation?

1. Measures of variability are other types of descriptive statistical measures a) Again you may be familiar with some of these measures such as the range, variance, and standard deviation b) Attempt to depict the diversity of the distribution c) Knowing the value of an appropriate measure of central tendency can tell us a great deal, but the single number omits other information d) It helps to know something about the amount of variation in the data-how similar or diverse the scores are e) Averages derived from scores with low variability are more reliable than averages based on scores with high variability 2. The range of scores-the gap between the lowest and highest scores-provides only a crude estimate of variation a) Range: the difference between the highest and lowest scores in distribution b) A couple of extreme scores in an otherwise uniform group will create a deceptively large range c) The distance between the highest and lowest score in a distribution 3. The most useful standard for measuring how much scores deviate from one another is the standard deviation a) Standard deviation: a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score b) What the scores around the mean look like close to the mean or are they far apart c) A small standard division are tall and large deviations are flat d) A high number means scores are more dispersed around mean while low numbers means scores are close to the mean 4. Steps for standard deviation: a) Have to find the average b) Then take the scores and square them c) Add squared together to get the sum of deviation d) Divided the sum of deviation by the average to get standard deviation 5. A normalized curve for standard deviation is 15 or 16 a) Measures essentially the average distance of any score in the distribution from the mean b) The higher the variance and the standard deviation, the more spread out the distribution c) Standard deviation is simply the square root of the variance d) It better gauges whether scores are packed together or dispersed, because it uses information from each score e) The computation assembles information about how much individual scores differ from the mean f) You can grasp the meaning of the standard deviation if you consider how scores tend to be distributed in nature. g) Large number of data-heights, weights, intelligence scores, grades (though not incomes)- often form a symmetrical, bell shaped distribution h) Most cases fall near the man and fewer cases fall near either extreme

Compare the various descriptive research methods-naturalistic observation, case study, and surveys?

1. Naturalistic observation: a) Advantages: A) More accurate than reports after the fact and your behavior is more natural B) Can't generalize b) Limitations: A) Observer can alter behavior B) Observational bias C) Cannot be generalized 2. Case study: a) Advantages: A) In depth B) Takes advantage of circumstances that could not be coordinated in an experiment b) Limitations: A) Not representative B) Time consuming and expensive C) Observational bias D) Can't generalize 3. Surveys: a) Advantages: A) Immense amount of data B) Quick and inexpensive C)Can generalize if survey is don't correctly b) Limitations: A) Sampling bias can skew results B) Bad questions can corrupt data C) Accuracy depends on ability to willingness of participants

How do Psychologists ask and answer questions?

1. Psychologists, like all scientists, use the SCIENTIFIC METHOD to construct theories that organize, summarize, and simplify observations 2. Psychologist arm their scientific attitude with the scientific method: a self correcting process for evaluating ideas and observations and analysis a) In its attempt to describe and explain human nature, psychological science welcomes hutches and plausible soundings theories b) And it puts them to the test. If a theory works- if the data support its predictions-so much the better for that theory. If the predictions fail, the theory will be revised or rejected

How is psychology not value free and what effect does values have on research?

1. Psychology is not value free and values affect what we study, how we study it, and how we interpret results a) Researchers' values influence their choice of topics b) Values can also color the facts because our preconceptions can bias our observations and interpretations; sometimes we see what we want to or expect to see c) Even the words we use to describe something can reflect our values 2. In psychology and in everyday speech, labels describe and labels evaluate a) Popular applications of psychology also contain hidden values b) A science of behavior and mental processes can help us research our goals, but it cannot decide what those goals should be c) If some people see psychology as merel common sense, others have a different concern-that it is becoming dangerously powerful 3. Knowledge like all power can be used for good or evil Although psychology does indeed have the power to deceive, its purpose is to enlighten a) Psychology speaks to many of our world's great problems all of which involve attitudes and behaviors b) Psychology also speaks to our deepest longings for nourishment, for love, for happiness c) Psychology cannot address all of life's great questions, but it speaks to some mighty important ones

What is random sampling? How do you obtain a representative sample? What is the population?

1. Random sample: a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion a) Political pollsters sample voters in national election surveys just this way b) Using only 1500 randomly sampled people, drawn from all areas of a country, they can provide a remarkably accurate snapshot of the nation's opinions. Without random sampling large samples including call in phone samples and TV or website polls often merely give misleading results c) If each member of a population has an equal chance of inclusion into a sample, it is called a random sample d) It is unbiased- everyone has a chance to get in e) If it is specific population it will be easier to get an accurate display of the population, but harder in a general population to get a representative sample of the population 2. Results can be skewed by the amount of people who respond to surveys a) In everyday thinking ,we tend to generalize from samples we observe, especially vivid cases b) The temptation to ignore the sampling bias and to generalize from a few vivid but unrepresentative cases is nearly irresistible c) Sampling bias: a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample 3. Random sampling increases the likelihood that the sample represents the population and that one can generalize the findings to the larger population 4. It is best done using a computer, a table of random numbers, or that tried and true method of picking names out of a hat a) Selecting a sample randomly maximizes the chance that it will represent the population from which it was drawn and allows researchers to draw generalizations about the population based on their findings about their sample b) For a research to use large, but no prohibitively large, samples is consider optimum c) Statistics can be used to determine how large a sample should be in order to represent a population of any particular size 5. The point to remember: the best basis for generalizing is from a representative sample a) But is not always possible to survey everyone in a group 6. How do you obtain a representative sample? a) Typically you would seek a random sample, in which every person in the entire group has an equal chance of participating b) You might umber the names on the list and then use a random number generator to pick your survey participants c) Large representative samples are better than small ones, but a small representative sample of 100 is better than an unrepresentative sample of 500 d) Population: all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. (not except for national studies this does ot refer to a country's whole population) e) Samples: the process by which participants are selected A) In order to select a sample one must first identify the population from which the sample will be selected. The population includes anyone or anything that could possibly be selected to be in the sample f) The goal of selecting a sample is that it be representative of a larger population g) Participants are the individuals on which the research will be conducted on 7. The point to remember: before accepting survey findings, think critically: consider the sample. You cannot compensate for an unrepresentative sample by simply adding more people

Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life:

1. Researchers intentionally create a controlled, artificial environment in the laboratory in order to test general theoretical principles. 2. These general principles help explain everyday behaviors

Why do psychologists study animals, and is it ethical to experiment on animals?

1. Some psychologists are primarily interested in animal behavior; others want to better understand the physiological and psychological processes shared by humans and other species 2. Government agencies have established standards for animal care and housing. Professional associations and funding agencies also establish guidelines for protecting animals' well being

When is a difference significant?

1. Statistical testing can estimate the probability of the result occuring by chance a) Here is the underlying logic: when averages from two samples are each reliable measures of their respective populations (as when each is based on many observations that have small variability) then their difference is likely to be reliable as well b) When the difference between the sample averages is large, we have even more confidence that the difference between thm reflects a real difference in their populations c) When sample averages are reliable, and when the difference between them is relatively large, we say the difference has statistical significance 2. Statistical significance: a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance a) This means that the observed difference is probably not due to chance variation between the samples b) In judging statistical significance, psychologists are conservative c) For most psychologists, proof beyond a reasonable doubt means not making much of a finding unless the odds of its occuring by chance, if no real effect exists are less than 5% d) When reading about research you should remember that given large enough samples, a difference between them may be "statistically significant" yet have little practical significance 3. The point to remember: statistical significance indicates the likelihood that a result will happen by chance. But this does not say anything about the importance of the results

What are the characteristics of experimentation that make it possible to isolate cause and effect?

1. To discover cause effect relationships psychologists conduct experiments, manipulating one or more variables or interest and controlling other variables 2. Using random assignment, they can minimize confounding variables such as preexisting differences between the experimental group (exposed to the treatment) and the control group ((given a placebo or different version of the treatment) 3. The independent variable is the factor the experimenter manipulates to study its effect; the dependent variable is the factor the experimenter measures to discover any changes occurring in response to the manipulation of the independent variable 4. Studies may use a double blind procedure to avoid the placebo effect and researcher's bias 5. An experiment has validity if it tests what it is supposed to test

What is a case study?

1. The Case study: a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studies in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles a) A technique in which one individual is studied in depth to reveal underlying behavioral principles b) Psychologists use the case study which is among the oldest research methods to examine one individual or group in depth in the hope of revealing things true of all of us. c) Some examples: much of our early knowledge about the brain came from case studies of individuals who suffered a particular impairment after damage to a certain brain region. d) Jean Piaget taught us about children's thinking through case studies in which he carefully observed and questioned individual children. 2. The case study method is used to get a full, detailed picture of one participant or a small group of participants. a) While case studies allow researchers to get the richest possible picture of what they are studying, the focus on a single individual or small group means that the findings cannot be generalized to a larger population b) Intensive case studies are sometimes very revealing and can show us what can happen and they often suggest directions for further study 3. Problems with case study: a) The person being studied are often unique and not typical b) Frued's theory is based on case studies of atypical people c) No control over variables d) Relies on how descriptive the person doing the study is, lot o room for interpretation and the person being studied e) But individual cases may mislead us if the individual is atypical f) Unrepresentative information can lead to mistaken judgements and false conclusions g) Anytime a researcher mentions finding, someone is sure to offer a contradictory anecdote h) Dramatic stories and personal experiences (even psychological case examples) command our attention and easily remembered i) Journalists understand that and so begin an article about bank foreclosures with the sad story of one family put out of their house, not with foreclosure statistics j) Stories move us, but stories can mislead k) Numbers can be numbing, but the plural of anecdote is not evidence 4. The point to remember: individual cases can suggest fruitful ideas. What is true of all of us can be glimpsed in any one of us. But to discern the general truths that cover individual cases, we must answer questions with other research methods

What are the measures of central tendency? Define them? What is the skewed distribution?

1. The next step is to summarize the data using some measure of central tendency, a single score that represents a whole set of scores a) Attempts to mark the center of a distribution b) The simplest measure is the mode, the most frequently occurring score and scores c) The most commonly reported is the mean, or arithmetic average, the total sum of all the scores divided by the number of scores d) With data, the media is the midpoint-the 50th percentile 1. Mode: the most frequently occurring scores in a distribution a) The score that appears most frequently b) If a distribution has more than one mode. If a distribution is bimodal then it has two scores that appear equally frequently and more frequently than any other score 2. Mean the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and the dividing by the number of scores that were added together 3. Median: the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it a) To find the median of a distribution, simple write the scores down in ascending (or descending) order and then, if there are an odd number of scores, find the middle one b) If the distribution contains an even number of scores, the median is the average of the middle two scores c) Median is better measure than mean because mean is affected by outliers and median isn't 4. If you arrange all the scores in order from the highest to the lowest, half will be above the media and half will be below it a) In a symmetrical bell shaped distribution of the scores, the moe, mean, and median scores may be the same or very similar 5. Measures of central tendency neatly summarize data a) The mean is the most commonly used measure of central tendency, but its accuracy can be distorted by extreme scores or outliers b) When a distribution includes outliers, the media is often used as a better measure of central tendency c) Unless a distribution is symmetrical, it is skewed d) Outliers skew distribution 6. But consider what happens to the mean when a distribution is lopsided or skewed, by a few way out scores a) Skewed distribution: a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value b) Mode, median, and mean will often be different. Mean is biased by a few extreme scores Mean and median tell different true stories c) Normal bell curves are for big populations. More common is a skewed distribution d) Positively skewed distribution: mean is greater than media A) When a distribution includes an extreme score or group of scores that is very high, the distribution is said to be a positively skewed distribution B) A positively skewed distribution contains more low scores than high scores' the skew is produced by some aberrantly high scores C) A positively skewed distribution the mean is higher than the median because the outlier has a much more dramatic effect on the mean that one the median e) Negatively skewed distribution: mean is less than median A) When the skew is caused by a particularly low score or group of scores, the distribution is negatively skewed B) A negatively skewed distribution contains more high scores than low scores C) Opposite is true for the negatively skewed distribution in regards to mean and median D) Used in statistics 7. The point to remember: always note which measure of central tendency is reported. If it is a mean, consider whether a few atypical scores could be distorting it

What is illusory correlation?

1. The perception of a relationship where none exists a) The perception of a relationship where no relationship actually exist b) When we believe that there is a relationship between things we are more likely to see a correlation between the two when there isn't one. THIS IS CONFIRMATION BIAS 2. Correlation coefficients make visible the relationships we might otherwise miss a) They also restrain our "seeing" relationship that actually do not exist b) When we believe there is a relationship between two things, we are likely to notice and recall instances that confirm our belief c) Because we are sensitive to dramatic or unusual events, we are especially likely to notice and remember the occurrence of two such events in sequence 3. Illusory correlations help explain many superstitious beliefs a) They occur when we over rely on confirming evidence, ignoring equally essential information like disconfirming evidence b) We are it sees prone to perceiving patterns, whether they're there or not 4. The point to remember: when we notice random coincidences, we may forget that they are random and instead see them as correlated. Thus, we can easily deceive ourselves by seeing what is not there

Why do Psychology?

1. The science of psychology helps make these examined conclusions which leads to our understanding of how people feel, think, and act as they do! a) Psychology tried to find a scientific way to solve problems by getting rid of variables to get to the truth b) Nobody redoes experiments because they won't get published 2. Today's psychological science does document a ast intuitive mind 3. Our thinking, memory, and attitudes operate on two levels-with the larger part operating automatically, off screen a) )Conscious b) Unconscious 4. We often underestimate intuition's perils a) Modules to come will show that experiments have found people greatly overestimating their lie detection accuracy, their eyewitness recollections, their interviewee assessments, their risk predictions, and their stock picking talents

How do the scientific attitude's three main components relate to critical thinking?

1. The scientific attitude equips us to be curious, skeptical, and humble in scrutinizing competing ideas or our own observations 2. This attitude carries into everyday life as critical thinking, which puts ideas to the test by examining assumptions, assessing the source discerning hidden values, evaluating evidence, and assessing conclusions

What is the descriptive method of research?

1. The starting point of any science is description. 2. In everyday life, we all observe and describe people often drawing conclusions about why they act as they do. 3. Professional psychologists do much the same, though more objectively and systematically though: a) Case studies (analyses of special individuals) b) Naturalistic observation (watching and recording the natural behavior of many individuals) c) Surveys and interviews (by asking people questions)

What is a normal curve?

1. This bell-shaped distribution is s typical that we call the curve it forms the normal curve a) Normal curve: aka normal distribution is a symmetrical, bell shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data, most scores fall near the mean (about 68% fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes. b) A symmetrical, bell shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data (normal distribution) most scores fall near the mean 2. About 95% of cases fall within two standard deviations 99% of scores fall within three standard deviations of the mean a) Knowing that the normal curve is symmetrical and knowing the three numbers given above will allow you to calculate the approximate percentage of score falling between any given z scores.

Is it ethical to experiment on animals?

1. This is why we research on animals because the cost is cheaper and it is unethical to do certain research on humans 2. Many psychologists study animals because they find them fascinating and want to understand how different species learn, think, and behave to to help them learn about people a) Humans are not like animals, we are animals and share a common biology b) Animal experiments have therefore led to treatments for human diseases c) Humans are complex, but the same processes by which we learn are present in rats, monkeys, and sea slugs 3. We cannot defend our scientific work with animals on the basis of the similarities between them and ourselves and then defend it morally on the basis of differences. a) The animal protection movement protests the use of animals in psychological, biological, and media research b) Researchers remind us that the animals used worldwide each year in research are but a fraction of 1 percent of the billions of animals killed annually for food ad for every dog and cat used in an experiment and cared for under humane regulations, 50others are killed inhumane animal shelters c) Some animal protection organizations want to replace experiments on animals with naturalistic observations d) Many animal researchers respond that this is not a question of good vs evil but of compassion for animals vs compassion for people e) The answers to the question about using animals for research varies among cultures 4. Out of this heated debate, two issues emerge a) Whether it is right to place the well being of humans above that of animals b) Defenders of research of animals argue that anyone who has eaten a hamburger, worn leather shoes, tolerated hunting and fishing and supported the extermination of crop destroying or plague carrying pests has already agreed that yes, it is sometimes permissible to sacrifice animals for the sake of human well being c) Scott Plous nots that our compassion for animals varies as doe our compassion for people based on their perceived similarity to us d) We value animals according to their perceive kinship with us 5. If we give human life first priority what safeguards should protect the wellbeing of animals in research a) Many professional associations and funding agencies already have such guidelines b) British psychological society guidelines state that researchers must ensure the comfort health and humane treatment of animals and minimize infection, illness and pain c) The european parliament now mandates standards for animal care and housing 6. Animals have themselves benefited from animal research a) Some studies have helped improve care and management in animals natural habitats and helped ease the stress of transitioning from shelters to adoptive homes b) Experiments have also led to increased empathy and protection for them c) At its best, a psychology concerned for humans and sensitive to animals serves the welfare of both 7. Groups advocating the ethical treatment of animals are focusing more and more attention on how animals are treated in laboratory experiments a) The APA developed strict guidelines about what animals and how animals can be used in psychological research 8. Ethical psychological studies using animals must meet the following requirements: a) The research must have a clear scientific purpose b) The research must answer a specific important scientific question c) Animals chosen must be best suited to answer the question at hand d) Researchers must care for and house animals in a humane way e) Researchers must acquire animal subjects legally. Animals must be purchased from accredited companies. If wild animals must be used, they need to be trapped in a humane manner f) Researchers must design experiential procedures that employ the least among suffering feasible.

What is a control group and an experimental group in an experiment?

1. To do so they often create an experimental group, which people receive the treatment and a contrasting control group that does not receive the treatment 2. Control group: in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment a) The control group gets none of the independent variable b) It serves as a basis for comparison c) Without a control group, knowing whether changes in the experimental group are due to the experimental treatment or simply to any treatment at all is impossible 3. Experimental group: in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable a) The one that gets the treatment operationalized in the independent variable

How do we know whether an observed difference can be generalized to other populations?

1. To feel confident about generalizing an observed difference to other populations, we would want to know that: the sample studied awas representative of the larger population being studies 2. The observations, on average, had low variability 3. The sample consisted of more than a few cases 4. The observed difference was statistically significant

What is the experimental method? What is an experiment and what does it enable researchers to do?

1. To find answers to questions-to isolate cause and effect-researchers can experiment a) Experiment: research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable) by random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant variables b) It is the backbone of psychological research c) Experiments isolate causes and effects d) Have one variable (dependent variable) that you are working with 2. Experiments enable researchers to isolate the effects of one or more variables by a) Manipulating the variables of interest b) Holding constant (controlling) variables 3. Experiments manipulate factors that interest us, while others factors are kept under control a) Experimental group and control group b) Effects generated by non manipulated factors isolate cause and effect relationships c) Experiments aim to manipulate an independent variable, measure the dependent variable, and allow random assignment to control all other variables d) An experiment has a least two different conditions: an experimental condition and a comparison or control condition e) Random assignment works to equate the groups before any treatment effects occur f) In this way, an experiment tests the effect of at least one independent variable (what we manipulate) on at least one dependent variable (the outcome we measure)

What is the independent and dependent variable? What are confounding variables?

1. We call experimental factors the independent variable because we can vary it independently of other factors a) Independent variable: the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied A) A factor manipulated by the experimenter. The effect of the independent variable is the focus of the study B) I am the experimenter so I manipulate the variable 2. These other factors, which can potentially influence the results of the experiment are called confounding variables. a) Random assignment controls for possible confounding variables b) Confounding variable: a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment c) Other variables that could affect the dependent variable besides independent variable d) Random assignment controls for confounding variables e) Any difference between the experimental and control conditions, except for the independent variable, that might affect the dependent variable f) An experimental can achieve this goal by randomly assigning participants to conditions and by using various methods of control to eliminate confounding variables 3. Experiments examine the effect of one or more independent variables on some measurable behavior called the dependent variable because it can vary depending on what takes place during the experiment a) Dependent variable: he outcome factor, the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable b) A factor that may change in response to an independent variable. In psychology, it is usually a behavior or mental process A) Dependent shows up at the end B) Independent is in the procedure 4. Both variables are given precise operational definitions which specify the procedures that manipulate the independent variable or measure the dependent variable a) These definitions answer the "what do you mean?" question with a level of precision that enables others to repeat the study

What is overconfidence?

1. We humans tend to think we know more than we do a) Asked how sure we are of our answers to factual questions, we tend to be more confident than correct b) Sometimes we think we know more than we actually know 2. Confidence is higher than actual correctness a) Knowing the answers tends to make us overconfident and our answers are not the reality 3. Are we any better at predicting social behavior? a) University of pennsylvania psychologist Philip Tetlock collected more than 27,000 expert predictions of world events, such as the future of South Africa or whether Quebec would separate from Canada b) His repeated finding: these predictions, which experts made with 80 percent confidence on average, were right less than 40 percent of the time c) Nevertheless, even those who errored maintained their confidence by noting they were "almost right." d) The quebecois separatists almost won the secessionist referendum."

What is validity? What is a variable?

A key goal of experimental design is validity which means the experiment will test what it is supposed to test 1. Validity: the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to 2. A variable is anything that can vary within the bounds of what is feasible and ethical

What is the correlation method? What is a scatter plot? What is the correlation coefficient? ?

Correlation: a) Describing behavior is a first step toward predicting it. b) Naturalistic observations and surveys often show us that one trait or behavior is related to another c) In such cases, we say the two correlate 1. Correlate: a measure of the extent to which two variables change together and thus of how well either variable predicts the other a) A statistical measure (the correlation coefficient) helps us figure how closely two things vary together and thus how well either one predicts the other b) When one trait or behavior accompanies another, we say the two correlate 2. Correlation coefficient: a statistical index of the relationship between two variables (from -1.0 to +1.0) correlation coefficient is a statistical measure of the relationship between 2 variables a) Can do from -1.0 to +1.0 b) Ex: r= +0.37 the + indicates direction of relationship (positive or negative) and the number indicates the strength of relationships (0.00 to 1.00) c) Correlations can range from +1.00 (scores on one measure increase in direct proportion to scores on another) to -1.00 (scores on one measure decrease precisely as scores rise on the other) 3. Correlations can be either positive or negative. a) A positive correlation between two things means that the presence of one thing predicts the presence of the other. A) Perfect positive correlation (+1.00) is a theoretical correlation because nothing is true 100% of the time B) Y and x units are the same C) Positive correlations have positive slopes and negative correlations have negative slopes D) Positive correlation: moving together in the same direction E) A correlation is positive if two sets of scores, such as height and weight, tend to rise or fall together F) When the line slopes upward, from left to right, it indicates a positive correlation b) A negative correlation means that the presence of one thing predicts the absence of the other A) Negative correlation: moving in opposite directions B) Saying that a correlation is "negative" says nothing about its strength or weakness C) A correlation is negative if two sets of sores related inversely, one set going up as the other goes down D) When the line slopes downward from left to right, it is a negative correlation c) When no relationship exists between two things, no correlation exists. A) When there is no relationship, there is no correlation (0.00) B) This is hypothetical for no relationship or a perfect positive or negative correlation because it rarely happens C) This means that knowing something about one variable tells you nothing about the other D) Knowing how much aptitude test scores correlate with school success tells us how well the scores predict school success 4. Line of best fit: line that makes all data as close as possible to see the statistical correlation on the graph a) The line drawn through the scatter plot that minimizes the distance of all the points from the line b) BE ABLE TO IDENTIFY STRONG, WEAK, MODERATE, OR NO POSITIVE/NEGATIVE CORRELATION c) 45-90 degrees is strong while 30 degrees is moderate/weak d) The weakest positive correlation is no correlation and is denoted by the number zero e) Throughout this book, we will often ask how strongly two things are related 5. In such cases, scatterplots can be very revealing a) Scatterplots: a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation) b) A graph consists of points that are generated by values of 2 variables. The slope of the points depicts the direction which the amount of scatter depicts the strength of the relationship c) Each dot in a scatter plot represents the values of two variables. d) A correlation can be graphed by a scatter plot e) Graphs a pair of values one on the y axis and one on the x axis f) Three scatterplots can illustrate the range of possible correlations from a perfect positive to a perfect negative (perfect correlations rarely occur in the "real world" 6. Statistics can help us to see what the naked eye sometimes misses a) Comparing the columns of percentages is difficult to detect relationships between two relevant data. b) Scatterplots can display te data more effectively moving from left to right, and up and down, to show how the two days relate to each other c) To see what is right in front of us, we sometimes need statistical illumination 7. The point to remember: a correlation coefficient, which can range from -1.0 to +1.0, reveals the extent to which two things relate. The closer the score gets to -1 or +1, the stronger the correlation

What is critical thinking?

Critical Thinking: thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, assesses the source, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions 1. Does not accept arguments and conclusions blindly a) It examines assumptions discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions b) Super skeptic is the amazing Randi 2. Whether reading a news report or listening to a conversation, critical thinkers ask questions a) Like scientists, they wonder: how do they know that? What is this person's agenda? Is the conclusion based on anecdote and gut feelings or on evidence? Does the evidence justify a cause-effect conclusion? What alternative explanations are possible? 3. Critical thinking, informed by science, helps clear the colored lenses of our biases a) When contemplating such issues, critical thinkers will consider the credibility of sources b) They will recognize multiple perspectives and they will expose themselves to news sources that challenge their preconceived ideas 4. Has psychology's critical inquiry been open to surprising findings? a) The answer as ensuing modules illustrate is plainly yes b) Believe it or not, massive losses of brain tissue early in life may have minimal long term effects c) Within days, newborns can recognize their mother's odor and voice d) After brain damage, a person may be able to learn new skills yet be unaware of such learning e) Diverse groups-men and women, old and young, rich and middle class, those with disabilities and without, report roughly comparable levels of personal happiness 5. Has critical inquiry convincingly debunked popular presumptions? a) The answer is again yes b) The evidence indicates that sleepwalkers are not acting out their dream c) Our past experiences are not all recorded verbatim in our brains; with brain stimulation or hypnosis, one cannot simply "hit the replay button" and relieve long buried or repressed memories d) Most people do not suffer from unrealistically low self esteem and high self esteem is not all good e) Opposites do not generally attract f) In each of these instances and more what have been learned is not what is widely believed

What is a double blind procedure?

Double blind procedure: an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug evaluation studies a) Neither the participant nor the research assistant knows whether the participants is receiving the treatment or a placebo 1. A double blind can be accomplished in a number of ways, the most common of which is for the researcher to have someone blind to the participants' condition interact with the participants a) Want people from diverse backgrounds-send them placebo or active ingredients that look the same-only one person knows who got what b) If the doctor knew which is active, he would have a bias and could consciously or unconsciously manipulate the data 3. Double blind procedure is gold standard a) Results can be manipulated by other things even in double blind because participants can affect the outcome of the study which is why they don't know b) This is a placebo effect which means that you can get side effects or feel better even when they get the placebo 2. In evaluating procedures, you have to look out for confounding variables that could affect our results a) This can affect the result even with double blind procedure b) Have to do trial all over so that the confounding variables of one doesn't affect the whole trial c) At the end of the study, whoever wants the treatment gets it if it worked d) In such studies, researchers can check a treatment's actual effects apart from the participants' and the staff's belief in its healing powers

What is hindsight bias?

Hindsight bias: the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it (also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon) a) It is the "I knew it all along" phenomenon b) We exaggerate our ability to foresee events c) Overconfident in our abilities 1. When two opposite findings both seem like common sense, there is a problem a) Such errors in our recollections and explanations show why we need psychological research 2. Just asking people how and why they felt or acted as the did can sometimes be misleading-not because common sense is usually wrong, but because common sense more easily describes what has happened than what will happen a) As physicist Niels Bohr reportedly said, "Prediction is very difficult, especially about the future 3. People have the tendency upon hearing about research findings (and many other things) to think that they knew it all along a) After an event occurs, it is relatively easy to explain why it happened. The goal of scientific research, however, is to predict what will happen in advance b) Some 100 studies have observed hindsight bias in various countries and among both children and adults 4. Nevertheless our intuition is often right a) Because we're all behavior watchers, it would be surprising if many of psychology's findings had not been foreseen. b) May people believe that love breeds happiness and they are right c) Indeed not Daniel Gilbert, Brett Pelham, and Douglas Krull, "good ideas in psychology usually have an oddly familiar quality and the moment we encounter them we feel certain that we once came close to thinking the same thing ourselves and simply failed to write it down/" d) Good ideas are like good inventions, once created, they seem obvious 5. But sometimes our intuition informed by countless casual observations, has it wrong a) We will see how research has overturned popular ideas that familiarity breeds contempt, that dreams predict the future, and that most of us use only 10 percent of our brain b) We will also see how it has surprised us with discoveries about how the brain's chemical messengers control our moods and memories about other animals' abilities and about the effects of stress

What is naturalistic observation?

Naturalistic observation: observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situations a) A second descriptive method records behavior in natural environments s b) Unobtrusive observation used by researchers opt to observe their participants in their natural habitats by not interacting with them at all 1. The goal of naturalistic observation is to get a realistic and rich picture of the participants' behavior. To that end, control is sacrificed a) Naturalistic observation, the researchers do not impact the behavior of the participants at all b) These naturalistic observations range from watching chimpanzee societies in the jungle to unobtrusively videotaping and later analyzing parent child interactions in different cultures, to recording racial difference in students' self seating patterns in a school cafeteria 2. Like the case study, naturalistic observation does not explain behavior a) It describes it b) Nevertheless, descriptions can be revealing c) For example: we once thought that only humans use tools. Then naturalistic observation revealed that chimpanzees sometimes insert a stick in a termite mound and withdraw it, eating the stick's load of termites d) Such unobtrusive naturalistic observations paved the way for later studies of animal thinking, language, and emotion which further expanded our understanding of our fellow animals e) Thanks to researchers' observations, we know that chimpanzees and baboons use deception and the more developed a primate species' brain the more likely it is that the animals will display deceptive behaviors 3. Naturalistic observations also illustrate human behavior. (stories on page 41) a) Observing and recording the behavior of organisms in their natural environment with interference b) Watch people for a study using cameras to learn things about people c) These describe behaviors, but don't explain them 4. Researchers can't interfere with the people they are watching because it has to be natural not manipulated a) Naturalistic observation offers interesting snapshots of everyday life, but it does so without controlling for all the variables that may influence behavior. It's one thing to observe the pace of life in various places, but another to understand what makes some people walk faster than others.

What is the operational definition? What are research observations?

Research observations 1. Research would require us to administer tests of self esteem and depression a) Ex: Individuals who score low on a self esteem test and high on a depression test would confirm our hypothesis 2. As a check on their biases, psychologists use operational definitions when they report their studies a) Operational definition: a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. For example human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures. b) A statement of procedures used to define research variables c) Has to be super specific to help people repeat your experiments d) Allows and facilitates replication of observations Researchers not only need to name the variables they will study, they need to provide operational definitions of them e) When you operationalize a variable, you explain how you will measure it f) The operationalization of the variables raises many issues about the validity and reliability of the research 3. Unlike dictionary definitions, operational definitions describe concepts with precise procedures or measures. a) These exact descriptions will allow anyone to replicate or repeat the research b) Replication: repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances c) Other people can they recreate the stud with different participants and in different situations d) If they get similar results, we can be confident that the findings are reliable

What ethical guidelines safeguard human participants?

The APA ethics code outlines standards for safeguarding human participants' well being, including obtaining their informed consent and debriefing them later

What is the scientific attitude? Define each term?

The Scientific Attitude: Curious, Skeptical, and Humble a) Curious about everything b) Be skeptical and asks questions c) Remain humble about things you don't know even when you are an expert in the field 1. Underlying all science is first a hard headed curiosity, a passion to explore and understand without misleading or being misled a) Some questions are beyond science and answering them in any way requires a leap of faith b) No matter how sensible seeming or wild an idea the smart thinker asks: Does it work? When put to the test, can its predictions be confirmed? c) Subjected to such scrutiny, crazy-sounding ideas sometimes find support d) Sometimes scientific inquiry turns jeers into cheers e) More often, science becomes society's garbage disposal, sending crazy sound ideas to the waste heap, atop previous claims of perpetual motion machines, miracle cancer cures, and out of body travels into centuries past 2. To sift reality from fantasy, sense from nonsense, therefore requires a scientific attitude: being skeptical but not cynical, open but not gullible a) As scientists, psychologists approach the world of behavior with a curious skepticism, persistently asking two questions: what do you mean? How do you know? b) When ideas compete, skeptical testing can reveal which one best match the facts c) As we will see, putting such claims to the test has led psychological scientists to answer questions correctly 3. Putting a scientific attitude into practice requires not only curiosity and skepticism but also humility-an awareness of our own vulnerability to error and an openness to surprises and new perspectives 4. In the last analysis, what matters is not your opinion, but the truths nature reveals in response to our questioning a) If people or other animals don't behave as your ideas predict, then so much the worse for our ideas b) This humble attitude was expressed in one of psychology's early mottos: "The rat is always right" 5. Historians of science tell us that these three attitudes helped make modern science possible a) Curiosity b) Skepticism c) Humility 6. There are some deeply religious people today that may view science, including psychological science as a threat. a) Yet many of the leaders of the scientific revolution, including Copernicus and Newton, were deeply religious people acting on the idea that "in order to love and honor God, it is necessary to fully appreciate the wonders of his handiwork." b) Of course scientists, like anyone else can have big egos and may cling to their preconceptions c) Nevertheless, the ideals of curious, skeptical, humble scrutiny of competing ideas unifies psychologists as a community as the check and recheck one another's findings and conclusions

What is the scientific method?

The Scientific Method Steps of the scientific method: 1. Observation: make observations 2. Question: ask a question or identify a problem 3. Research: search of existing answers or situations a) Literary search by reading articles to learn about subject matter that has already been done so your question is not already answers- if it is you have to build on what is already known 4. Hypothesis: formulate hypothesis 5. Experiment: design and perform an experiment 6. Test hypothesis: accept or reject hypothesis 7. Draw conclusions: make conclusions based on hypothesis 8. Report: share your results a) Report even if you are right or wrong b) Use statistics c) Submit for peer review and get it published which can be difficult depending on politics a lot when getting it published d) Thesis are interesting ,but never in journals e) Compare the results with your hypothesis using statistics

What is a survey? What are the problems with surveys?

The survey: a technique for ascertaining the self reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group a) The self reported attitudes, opinion, or behaviors of people b) Common method 1. The pros to using this is that you will get a lot of data cheaply (ot used as much anymore because you can get a lot of data about people now from the internet a) A survey looks at many cases in less depth b) Researches do surveys when wanting to estimate, from a representative sample of people, the attitudes or reported behaviors of a while populations c) Questions about everything from cell phone use to political opinions are put to the public d) But asking questions is tricky and the answers often depend on the ways questions are worded and respondents are chosen 2. Survey limits: a) Hard to get a representation of a population b) Be specific in population instead of general c) Difficult to get sample is more general-this is good data but it costs more to get and it takes more time d) People only report what they want to report A) Hard to get nowadays because people have caller id so they wont answer the phone or they would not want to share their opinions with others 3. However, one could use the survey method to investigate whether there is a relationship between the two variables, watching violence on television and aggressive behavior. 4. In the survey method, neither of the variables are manipulated and therefore, while there are two variables, there is no independent or dependent variable a) Using the survey method means that one can no longer control for participant-relevant confounding variables b) Although controlling confounding variables using the survey method is possible by bringing all of the participants to one place at one time to fill out the survey, it is rarely done 5. One advantage of the survey method is that conducting research by mailing surveys for people to fill out at their convenience is easy a) However if people fill out the survey in different places, at different times of day, by taking different amounts of time, and so on, the research will be plagued by confounding variables b) In addition, obtaining a random sample when one sends out a survey is difficult because relatively few people will actually send it back (low response rate) and these people are unlikely to make up a representative sample 6. Problems with surveys: a) Response bias: when participants responds in a way that changes the results of what they would have said b) Non response error: people refuse to participate c) Wording effects d) Context effects: plays a hue role for survey outcomes near the percentages of agreement with the statement depending on the order of the questions A) Order of question can have a huge influence in surveys B) You can manipulate the question to get what you want

What is the wording effect in surveys?

Wording effect: 1. Subtle changes in the order or wording of questions-the way we frame a question- can have major effects. a) Wording can change the result of a survey 2. You can get a different number with the change in wording a) An example is the difference between "not allowed" vs "forbid" because you are more likely to not allow something than to forbid it b) People are much more approving of "aid to the needy" than of "welfare" of "affirmative action" than of "preferential treatment" of "not allowing" televised cigarette ads and pornography than of "censoring" them and of "revenue enhancers" than of "taxes" c) Because wording is such a delicate matter, critical thinkers will reflect on how the phrasing of a question might affect people's express opinions

What are the ethical principles of psychology? Is psychology potentially dangerous?

Yes 1. Most psychological studies are free of stress a) With people, blinking lights, flashing words, and pleasant social interactions are more common b) Psychology's experiments are mild compared with the stress and humiliation often inflicted by reality TV shows c) Occasionally though researchers do temporarily stress or deceive people but only when they believe it is essential to a justifiable end, such as understanding and controlling violent behavior or studying mood swings d) Some experiments won't work if participants know everything beforehand 2. Ethical principles developed by the american Psychological Association, by the British Psychological Society and by psychologists internationally urge researchers to: a) Obtain potential participants' informed consent: A) Informed consent: an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate b) Protect them from physical or emotional harm and discomfort c) Keep information about individual participants confidential A) replace the names of the participants with numbers and put all of their private information in a locked place that is different from where you keep the data d) Fully debrief people (explain the research afterward) A) Debrief: the post experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants 3. Also need to make sure that participation is voluntary and not coerced 4. Moreover, most universities now have an ethics committee-an Institutional Review Board-that screens research proposals and safeguards participants' well being a) Any type of academic research must first propose the study to the ethics board or the Institutional Review Board at the institution b) The IRB reviews research proposals for ethical violations and or procedural errors c) This board ultimately gives researchers permission to go ahead with the research or requires them to revise their procedures d) The ideal is for a researcher to be sufficiently informative and considerate so that participants will leave feeling at least as good about themselves as when they came in e) Better yet, they should be repaid for having learned sometime

Is it ethical to experiment on humans?

Yes 1. The experimenter intends the laboratory environment to be a simplified reality-one that simulates and controls important features of everyday life a) A laboratory experiment let's psychologists re-create psychological forces under controlled conditions b) An experiment's purpose is not to recreate the exact behaviors of everyday life but to test theoretical principles c) It is the resulting principles-not the specific findings-that help explain everyday behaviors 2. When psychologists apply laboratory research on aggression to actual violence, they are applying theoretical principles of aggressive behavior, principles they have refined through many experiments a) Many investigations show that principles derived in the laboratory do typically generalize to the everyday world 3. The point to remember: psychological science focuses less on particular behaviors than on seeking general principles that help explain many behaviors. And remember: although psychological principles many help predict behaviors for groups of people, they minimally predict behavior for any individual

Does behavior depend on one's culture and gender? What is culture?

Yes 1. What can psychological studies done in one time and place often with people from the WEIRD (Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic) cultures really tell us about people in general? a) Culture matters because it shapes our behavior b) Culture: the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next c) Culture influences our standards of promptness and frankness our attitudes toward premarital sex, and varying body shapes, our tendency to be casual or formal, our willingness to make eye contact, our conversational distance and much more b) Collectivist cultures emphasize group goals, while individualist cultures put a priority on individual goals c) Being aware of such differences, we can restrain our assumptions that others will think and act as we do d) Given the growing mixing and clashing of cultures, our needs for such awareness is urgent 2. Our shared biological heritage unites us as a universal human family and the same underlying process guide people everywhere a) We are each in certain respects like all others, like some others, and like no other b) Studying people of all races and cultures helps us discern our similarities and our differences, out human kinship and diversity 3. Gender matters a) Researchers report gender differences in what we dream, in how we express and detect emotions, and in our risk for alcohol use disorder, depression, and eating disorders b) Gender differences fascinate us, and studying them is potentially beneficial c) Psychologically is well as biologically, women and men are overwhelmingly similar d) Whether female or male, we learn to walk at about the same age, we experience the same sensations of light and sound, we feel the same pangs of hunger, desire, and far, and we exhibit similar overall intelligence and well being 4. The point to remember: even when specific attitudes and behaviors vary by gender or across cultures, as they often do, the underlying processes are much the same