Unit 4 - American History

Sectional Squabbles

- "Bloodied Sumner" and "Bleeding Kansas" spilled over into the 1856 election - Republicans nominated John Fremont and borrowed heavily from the Whig platform to form their own; it endorsed federal funding for a transcontinental railroad/transportation improvements; denounced the repeal of the Missouri Compromise, the Democratic party's policy of territorial expansion, and slavery - Democrats nominated James Buchanan; platform endorsed the Kansas-Nebraska Act, called for enforcement of Fugitive Slave Act, and stress that Congress stay out of slavery decision in states/territories - During 1856 campaign, Republicans had little southern support and a handful along the border states; Buchanan won the election and it would result in Democrats controlling the Congress/White House/Supreme Court

Life of a Soldier

- 1/2 of Union soldiers and 2/3 of Confederate soldiers were farmers - Army camps had their own libraries, theatrical stages, churches, "mascot" pets, and monotonous routine; they only fought during the summer and spent the majority of the rest of the year preparing and relaxing - in their free time, soldiers would talk, read, play cards/checkers, sing songs, smoke, wash/mend clothes, fight insect pests - diet: baked bread crackers, salted meat, and coffee - some soldiers were so overwhelmed by military life or concerned for their families that they deserted; punishments varied for desertion, some were shot/hung, while other were chained to a ball and forced to bury dead horses or tend to animals, or were drummed out of service; desertions soared with each passing year as did incidents of drunkenness, thievery, insubordination - most soldiers came to view the military as beneficial experience

Lone Star Republic

- 1836: Texas legalized slavery, banned free blacks, elected Sam Houston as its first president, and voted for the annexation to the U.S. - its statehood would be difficult; southerners wanted it to be annexed to the U.S.; northerners didn't want any state that approved the existence of slavery - Jackson wanted to Texas to join the Union, but knew that it would fracture the Democratic party and hurt the chances of his chosen successor, Van Buren, from getting elected; it would also likely mean war with Mexico, who didn't recognize the independence of Texas - Jackson waited until his last day to recognize Republic of Texas, and Van Buren didn't talk about Texas annexation during his term

Whigs and Democrats

- 1841: William Harrison succeeded Van Buren and became 1st Whig and oldest man to be president - Whigs, who now control both houses of Congress, continued to promote federal government support for economic growth/industrial development, high tariffs, federal funding for infrastructure - Harrison primarily won for status as military hero; didn't take sides on controversial issues; didn't really matter because he died a month into his presidency due to pneumonia; succeeded by VP John Tyler - Clay thought that he could manipulate Tyler to do what he wanted, but that was not the case

Tensions w/ Britain

- 1841: slaves being transported from VA to LA revolted and took the ship, Creole, to Nassau, in the Bahamas, where British authorities set 128 of them free - It was the most successful revolt in American history, which angered southern slaveowners; Webster demanded the return of the slaves, but Britain refused - Webster and Tyler acquiesced to the British because they would likely lose a fight with them, which infuriated southern slaveholders - Britain sent Alexander Baring to meet with Webster, who viewed good relations with Britain as essential for the American economy - Webster-Ashburton Treaty: provided for joint naval patrols off of Africa to police the outlawed slave trade; solved dispute over northeastern U.S. boundary with British Canada; di nothing about returning the slaves - wasn't until 1853 that British gov't paid slaveowners $110,000 for the slaves - May 1843: Webster resigned as sec. of state

Moving West

- 1845: John O'Sullivan wrote about the idea of manifest destiny in his newspaper - Manifest Destiny: idea that assumed the U.S. had a God-Given mission to extend its Christian republic/capitalism from Pacific to Atlantic - took advantage of American ideals and institutions, including liberty/prosperity to native peoples - offered moral justification for territorial growth/expansion of slavery/conquering of weaker peoples

Democrats Divide

- 1860: Democrats gathered for a disastrous nominating convention in Charleston, SC - Buchanan wouldn't run again for pres., which left Douglas to run; northern supporters promised to defend slavery in the South, but assured the northerners it would not spread to the new territories; southern supporters wanted federal protection for slavery in the territories and states - when the pro-slavery advocates lost, eight southern states walked out, thus splitting the Democratic party - Douglas supporters met in Baltimore in June and nominated him for pres; Southern Democrats met first in Richmond and then in Baltimore, where they adopted the pro-slavery platform suggested in Charleston; John Breckinridge for VP and Buchanan for pres. because he promised to make Congress protect emigrants rights to bring slaves to western territories

Emancipation

- 1862 Confederate victories destroyed Northern morale and convinced Lincoln he needed to take bolder measures - However, emancipation was a touchy subject because it would risk losing the support of the border states; most Northerners were in support of slavery so long as it stayed in the South - Lincoln wasn't sure blacks and whites could coexist

Antietam: A Turning Point

- 1862: Robert Lee made the decision that he would invade Maryland and push McClellan out to relieve pressure off of Richmond, the Confederate capital - Lee hoped the invasion would influence the upcoming election in the North; wanted to gain British/French recognition which would get them needed supplies - Lee/Jefferson Davis planned to take Maryland, separate it from the Union, and gain control of its farms, crops, and livestock - Sept. 1862: Lee moved his army across the Potomac River into western Maryland; army was rough-looking - Sept. 17: Union/Confederate armies clashed in Battle of Antietam (Sharpsburg) - Confederates might have won had Union soldiers not discovered Lee's plan dropped in a bundle of cigars dropped by a Confederate soldier; still, McClellan was too slow in mobilizing, which cost him a decisive victory; Lee's forces were able to regroup at Sharpsburg, Maryland - over the 14 hour battle, thousands were killed and wounded as Union troops repeatedly attacked the Confederate troops; ended in a draw - Lee's invasion was repelled, which pleased Lincoln; Lincoln was upset at McClellan for again not pursuing Confederate army; ended up moving him to recruitment in New Jersey - McClellan wouldn't command an army, but would challenge Lincoln in election of 1864 - Battle of Antietam revived North morale and dashed Southern plans for alliance with British/France; convinced Lincoln to move the focus of the war to end slavery -

Divided Families

- Abraham Lincoln's wife, Mary Todd, saw her youngest brother, three of her half-brothers, and a brother-in-law join the Confederates - Varina Davis, Confederate First Lady, had divided loyalties, being pro-slavery but privately pro-Union - June 1862, Alexander and James Campbell met on the field of battle during an attack on a Confederate fort

Fighting in the East

- After Battle of Bull Run, there were 9 months of relatively quiet - Lincoln appointed General George McClellan head of the Army of the Potomac; insisted press call him "little Napoleon" - spent so much of his time training his troops, Lincoln eventually got tired of it and made him attack

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

- After invasion of Mexico City, Santa Anna fled and the Mexican government started negotiations Jan. 1848 - @ Guadalupe Hidalgo - Different men claimed to have authority, which made negotiations drag on - Mexico had to transfer land that would be New Mexico, California, Texas, Arizona/significant parts of Colorado, Utah, Wyoming, and Nevada - Area bought through Gadsden Purchase of 1853 (southern Arizona/New Mexico; cost the U.S. $15 mil.) and this treaty, U.S. doubled in size - U.S. soldiers left Mexico in March 1848

Battle of San Jacinto

- After learning of the Mexican victory at Alamo, Houston led his troops on a long retreat, hoping Anna would slip up - April 1836: Houston caught Anna and his troops napping near the San Jacinto River, and the Texians and Tejanos charged screaming "Remember the Alamo, Remember Goliad!" - They overwhelmed the Mexicans; battle lasted only 18 min.; they spent two hours slaughtering fleeing Mexicans - Anna escaped, but was captured the next day; bought freedom by signing treaty that recognized the independence of Texas and the Rio Grande as the southern boundary with Mexico - Texas Revolution over in 7 weeks

Preparing for Battle

- America was unprepared for the war - number of troops at the start of war was dwarfed by the Mexican army; however, by the end of the war, America had around 80K troops - Most of the troops were frontier toughs who lacked supplies and discipline; they engaged in plunder, rape, and murder; still outfought Mexican troops - Mexican-American War (1846-1848): fought on 4 fronts 1) southern Texas/northern Mexico 2) central Mexico 3) New Mexico 4) California - Early: U.S. won in battles at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma - May 18: General Taylor crossed Rio Grande and occupied Matamoros; victories made Taylor a popular figure, which earned him the title of overall commander - Taylor was nicknamed "Old Rough and Ready"

Kansas-Nebraska Crisis

- Americans discovered the markets of Asia during the mid-19th century, which led merchants/manufacturers to call for transcontinental railroads going from one coast to another to facilitate flow of commerce and settlement of western territories - this would reignite sectional rivalries and the debate over westward extension of slavery - John Davis of Mississippi proposed a southern route across the territories acquired from Mexico - Senator Stephen Douglas proposed that Chicago be the Midwest hub for the rail line and urged Congress to pass the Nebraska-Kansas Act, so territory west of Missouri and Iowa could be settled - To enlist support from southern legislators, Douglas championed popular sovereignty of states choosing to be free/slave states; southerners wanted more, and so supported the formal repeal of the Missouri Compromise and creation of two territorial governments of Nebraska and Kansas - May 1854: Douglas convinced Democrats/Southern Whigs to pass the Kansas-Nebraska Act - anti-slavery faction in Congress, mostly Whigs, had been crushed, and with it the majority of the Whig Party died; this would result in the Republicans

American Settlements in Texas

- Americans wanted Texas for its rich land, abundant wildlife, etc.; they offered to buy it twice, but Mexicans absolutely refused - they were afraid of Yankees owning their land; by 1840s, thousands of Americans lived in Texas illegally - leading promoter of American settlement in Mexican Texas was Stephen Austin, who convinced the Mexican government to allow Americans to settle between the Colorado and Brazos rivers; American settlements would act as a buffer between Mexican settlements and Comanche Indians; Americans weren't allowed to bring slaves and had to convert to Catholicism - Americans rushed to settle Austin's settlement, where they were given 177 free acres and thousands of acres of common pasture; many were farmers/ranchers attracted to fertile land, while some were wealthy planters who brought slaves despite the law - 1830: more Americans than Tejanos (Spanish-speaking Texans) and Indians; slaves were brought in to build up cotton economy; flood of Americans led to clashes with Indians and Mexican officials who had second thoughts about allowing Americans to stay

Texas War for Independence

- April 1830: Mexican officials were so worried about Texian intent that they banned emigration of Americans from U.S; Americans kept coming anyway - Austin planned to make Texas fully Americanized and become a slave state - political situation of Mexican government aggravated growing tensions; 1834, General Antonio Anna, Mexican pres., suspended the national congress and became dictator; Texans feared that he would free their slaves and make them the slaves - 1834: Anna imprisoned Austin for inciting rebelliousness, and when Austin was release, he urged other Americans that war was the only answer to be rid of General Anna - fall of 1835: Texans rebelled, and Anna declared all Americans expelled, all Texans disarmed, and all rebels to be arrested/executed as pirates - as fighting erupted, armed volunteers of southern states rushed in to support Texans and Tejanos in their fight against 7 mil.

Donner Party

- April 1846: George Donner, his family, 74 other settles, and 23 wagons left Springfield, IL, and headed on the Oregon Trail - at first, things were fine, but after fatal mistakes, the group suffered - mistakes: they started too late in the year, overloaded their wagons, took a bad shortcut to California southward across the Wasatch Mountains and toward the Great Salt Lake in the Utah Territory - they had inadequate food, water, clothing, and experience - as challenges arose, discipline broke down; man murdered another for his gold; one banished for murdering another in self-defense - they got lost in the Wasatch Range and lost 3 weeks to backtrack; September snow slowed them down more; eventually found their way to the desert leading to Great Salt Lake, but crossing cost them dearly - when the party reached Truckee Pass in eastern CA, last barrier in Sierra Nevada before the Sacramento Valley, blizzard trapped them in two separate camps - by December, the pioneers were trapped in the snow with only a month's worth of rations - 17 members called the "Forlorn Hope" decided to cross the pass on their own, but ended up trapped; 2 turned back, 8 died - Before Billy Graves died, he told his daughters to eat his corpse; at first, they were appalled, but soon ate his corpse out of hunger; more were eaten; only seven reached the Sacramento Valley - the survivors back at the other camps had resorted to cannibalism after eating all the livestock; the rescuers led 47 survivors over the pass; George Donner was too weak and stayed behind to die, and his wife stayed with him

Wilmot Proviso

- Aug. 1846: David Wilmot, Democratic congressman from Pennsylvania, endorsed the annexation of Texas as a slave state, but came up with the Wilmot Proviso stating that any other territory gained during the war would not be allowed to have slavery - At first, the House approved it and the Senate didn't - When Congress reconvened in Dec. 1846, others were ready to take up the cause

Goliad

- Battle of Coleto Creek: Mexican force defeated smaller Texian army and marched them to a fort near Goliad - despite Anna's men asking him to give the captives mercy, Anna told them to execute them as pirates/outlaws - On March 27 (Palm Sunday) 1836, 300+ Texians were marched outside the fort and executed - The Alamo and Goliad fueled desire for revenge among Texians

Plains Indians

- Before the expansion to the west, there were over 200 Indian nations that had their own cultures, languages, religions - they were farmers or nomadic hunters, who followed the buffalo - Indian populations on the Great Plains depended upon buffalo, and the migration west threated the Indian's survival - when federal officials couldn't force Indian leaders to sell their land, fights broke out - Californian gold rush further pushing the expansion west, which harmed Mexicans and Indians

War in Northern Mexico

- CA and New Mexico were taken by General Taylor before the first major battle in northern Mexico - Sept. 1846: Taylor assaulted Monterrey, which surrendered after a five-day siege - General Antonio Anna, who was in exile in Cuba, told Polk that if he were allowed to return to Mexico, he could end the war; Polk allowed it in 1846 and promised to pay well for taken Mexican territories - Anna lied and took back the Mexican presidency and took command of the Mexican army - Oct. 1846: Battle of Buena Vista - Anna invited Taylor's outnumbered army to surrender, but he wouldn't; both sides claimed to have won, but the Mexican army lost more men; after this Mexicans continued to lose but wouldn't accept Polk's terms for surrender - Polk was frustrated by Taylor's inability to fully win a battle, and so he authorized an attack on Mexico City - March. 1847: American force led by Winfield Scott, landed on the beaches south of Veracruz, site of strongest fortress in North America - the assault was the largest amphibious operation ever attempted by U.S., and it paid off; Veracruz surrendered and the victory made Scott a national hero - after this troops decided to rest and wait for fresh supplies and men - Aug. 1847: Scott marched toward Mexico City and after four battles, the Americans overwhelmed Mexican forces

The Great Debate

- Calhoun stumbled into Congress sick to protest against California entering as a free state; he argued that it would upset the balance; if this happened, the North and South would need to be severed; only solution was to allow slavery in CA and other western territories or have the Union dissolved - Daniel Webster returned these arguments by saying that both sides were to blame for the crisis, but both sides had legitimate concerns; Webster argued that the South was right about fugitive slaves being returned to their owners and that the Constitution of 1787 already required fugitive slaves to be returned; pleaded with his colleagues to abandon absolutes and choose compromise; the speech was ill-received by northerners and other Whigs - William Seward gave a speech that insisted any compromise when it came to slavery was wrong; instead, there was something higher than the Constitution; he encouraged fellow New Yorkers to defy the fugitive slave law and offer the city as a sanctuary for runaway slaves

Mining Life

- California miners were mainly young unmarried men who intended to strike it rich and then return home - Mining camps sprang up and disappeared quickly; once gold was found in a location, everyone converged until there wasn't anything left - Mining life was dangerous, the camps were places of lawlessness, where many died - Whites looked at the other ethnicities disdainfully (Hispanics, Chinese, Hawaiians, etc.), but they mainly focused on the Indian, due to it not being illegal to kill or work them to death

Settlement of California

- California was influenced by Spain in 1769 as a response to Russian seal traders moving south along the Pacific coast from Alaska - Spanish sent an expedition that discovered San Francisco Bay and established presidios (military garrisons) at San Diego and Monterey - Franciscan friars, led by Junipero Serra, established a Catholic mission in San Diego, and twenty more mission were built from San Diego to San Francisco - missions differed from missions in Texas and New Mexico; missions in this area were larger, more influential, and longer lasting - By 1800s, Spanish Catholic missionaries and Spanish soldiers controlled most Indians living along Californian coast; friars enticed Indians with gifts and magical religious rituals; once inside these missions, Indians were baptized, taught Spanish, and stripped of their heritage

Fighting in the West

- Civil War fighting spilled into the West, all the way to California - 1862: Confederate army tried unsuccessfully taking over New Mexico territory - western settlement slowed and new discoveries of gold/silver drew in prospectors - 1861: Dakota, Colorado, and Nevada gained territorial status - 1863: Idaho and Arizona gained territorial status - 1864: Montana and Nevada gained statehood

Compromise Efforts

- Clay was angry at everybody for delaying a vote on his proposal, and he got little help from Taylor; all parts of Congress was opposed to his plan, and despite all of his efforts to create the Great Compromise, it was dead in the water - Taylor was mainly focused on admission of CA - July 4, 1850: during Independence Day celebrations under the unfinished Washington monument, Taylor suffered a mild sunstroke and later died - His successor, VP Millard Fillmore, supported Clay's proposals; Fillmore wanted to establish peace between North and South; got his cabinet to resign and appointed Webster as Sec. of State to support his position on compromise - Fillmore benefited from southern Democratic senator, Stephen Douglas, who proposed to vote on each aspect of the compromise individually - The plan worked well, with each component of Clays proposal being approved by the House and Senate; once it was apparent that the Compromise of 1850 would be law, celebrations broke out - Final version of the Compromise: 1) California entered as a free state 2) Texas-New Mexico Act made New Mexico a separate territory and set the Texas state boundary at its current location, which in return, allowed Texas to receive $10 mil to pay off debts 3) Utah Act gave Utah Territory the authority over all rightful subjects of legislation, including slavery 4) Fugitive Slave Act required federal gov't/northern states to help capture/return runaway slaves 5) public sale of slaves with D.C. was abolished - As Fillmore signed the measures into law, he claimed that these bills would secure peace and tranquility between the North and South, but it was more of a band-aid than a solution to the problem

War's Early Strategies

- Confederacy's Goal: prove its independence to the world and the Union - U.S.'s goal: restore the Union - Many thought that the war would be quick and decisive and the press/politicians pushed generals to take the capitals of each quickly - summer 1681: Jefferson Davis told Beauregard to rush the Confederate army to Manassas Junction, which is close to Washington; Lincoln hoped the the Union army (Federals) would overrun the outnumbered Confederates (Rebels) and push on to Richmond

Confederate Strategy

- Confederate plan was to prolong the war until Britain and France might be desperate enough for the cotton to join the Confederacy's efforts, or the sentiment in the North might change, forcing Lincoln to seek a negotiated settlement - Confederate diplomats sought military/financial assistance from London/Paris, and Confederate sympathizers urged an end to the Union - Paris agreed to recognize the Confederacy if Britain did, but Britain would not, partly in response to pressure form Lincoln and partly out of their desire to continue trade with U.S. - Confederate leaders assumed the British needed their cotton, but they could get it from India to maintain production

What was at Stake

- Confederate soldiers fought to preserve slavery because they couldn't imagine a life without it and were convinced that should they lose, the Union would enslave them - Union soldiers fought to preserve the Union, free slaves, and some were convinced they were fighting to end slavery - loyalties changed throughout the war, some regretted secession, like Joseph Waddill

New Orleans

- David Farragut's warships destroyed several Confederate forts to take control of New Orleans - Union general Benjamin Butler was appointed military governor of the city - Confederate sympathizer ripped down Union flags --> they were hanged - After a woman dumped her chamber pot on Farragut's head, Butler made it illegal for citizens to harass Union soldiers/sailors; Butler referred to as "the Beast" - loss of New Orleans was a severe economic blow to the South; loss of slaves and plantations

Compromise of 1850

- Dec. 1849: Taylor pushed for the immediate statehood for California and for Congress to leave slavery out of it - Congress didn't agree; many southern representatives threatened to secede should California/New Mexico enter as free states - With the conflict came the "lions" of the Senate (Henry Clay, John Calhoun, and Daniel Webster) as well as supporting roles (William Seward, Stephen Douglas, and Jefferson Davis) - Compromise of 1850: 10 month debate over a series of resolutions intended to end the crisis between North/South

Choosing Sides

- Delaware remained firmly in the Union; Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri were disputed - Lincoln was convinced that if Kentucky was lost, the other two would follow; to keep Kentucky, he muffled all talk of abolition - To maintain Maryland and keep the capital, he arrested pro-Confederate leaders, including Baltimore's mayor/chief of police - neutrality of Kentucky ended when Confederate/Union armies entered the state; Kentucky voted a secessionist gov. and Union majority in the legislature, as did Missouri - when a pro-Confederate militia gathered in St. Louis to capture the arsenal, they found a group of German immigrants ready to meet them; the German militiamen chased the pro-Confederate governor into Arkansas - Once the Civil War reached Missouri, 4,200 men joined the Union army; German immigrants overwhelmingly supported the Union; they viewed the South as an undemocratic society, something they had escaped from - for areas that were Confederate, people who supported the Union faced extreme brutality

Popular Sovereignty

- Democrat Lewis Cass, territorial governor of the Michigan, proposed that each state should be given the choice to make that decision - appealed to states' rights supporters and was most democratic, but it had moral defects - wouldn't allow African Americans to have a say in their fate; it would give Whites the power to strip away African Americans' freedom - Pres. Polk lived up to his promise of serving 1 term; Cass won the nomination, but Congress refused to support his popular sovereignty plan; they claimed Congress shouldn't interfere with state affairs - Whigs nominated General Taylor - Taylor opposed the expansion of slavery into new western territories, but owned a plantation - Taylor was a reluctant candidate; he agreed based on a sense of duty not from inclination

Election of 1852

- Democrats chose Franklin Pierce, who had few presidential qualities; platform was based on support of Compromise of 1850, including the Fugitive Slave Act - The Whigs didn't choose Fillmore again, instead, choosing General Scott, a hero from Mexican-American War; Scott proved to be an inept campaigner, being conceited and short-tempered; only won TN, KY, MA, and VT - Whigs had lost southern supporters without Clay and Webster - Pierce won the electoral college/popular vote - Pierce was like Jackson; he promoted western expansion and the conversion of more territories into states, even if it meant more slave states; acknowledged Compromise of 1850 defused a crisis and urged North and South not to antagonize each other - Pierce and his wife lost another son close to the inauguration, and after that his wife blamed him for everything that had happened; - Pierced to be an ineffective leader and often sought comfort in alcohol, which later caused his death - Pierce couldn't acquiesce Cuba as a slave state, was unable to unite the warring factions of his party

Reactions to Emancipation

- Emancipation Proclamation was poorly received by Democrats, Confederacy, and Union troops - troops deserted because they didn't sign up to establish racial equality or to free slaves - Lincoln responded that the freed African Americans seemed to be willing to fight alongside whites, and that they should still fight on account that the proclamation was merely meant to help save the Union - even though it wasn't states in the proclamation, slaves in the border states still tried to claim their freedom; the proclamation was like an earthquake, causing disruptions in the South, despite planters attempts to keep the news quiet - the proclamation angered Confederate leaders, who thought it would create race war; abolitionists rejoiced in it - Lincoln hoped it would boost the Union effort; it enabled African Americans to join the navy/army and undermined support for Confederacy because it gave legitimacy to the war - Union armies became forces of liberation; at Camp Saxton, the First South Carolina Volunteers, Union regiment made up of former slaves, celebrated the signing of the Emancipation Proclamation

Secession of the Lower South

- Feb. 1, 1861: state of the Lower South (SC, MS, FL, AL, GA, LA, TX) had seceded - Secession ordinances mentioned various grievances, but the main reason for secession was the preservation of slavery - Feb. 4, 1861: fifty representatives from the states met in Montgomery, AL, where they adopted a constitution for the Confederate States of America; institution of slavery would be protected - Jefferson Davis was elected president of the Confederacy; graduated from West Point and served as representative, senator, and Sec. of War under Franklin Pierce - Alexander Stephens was named VP; sickly man - In mid-February, Davis traveled throughout the Lower South

Lincoln's Inauguration

- Feb. 1861: Abraham boarded a train to D.C., but had to change trains and wear a disguise to get there after officials were alerted to a plot to kill Lincoln; measures also had to be taken during Inauguration Day to keep him safe - Lincoln promised that slavery would be guaranteed in the states it currently existed in and that the states who seceded would be taken back into the Union, but not through force - Southerners were not impressed - Both sides were prepared for a quick war

Tragic Cruise

- February 1844: Tyler and a group of dignitaries boarded the U.S.S Princeton, for an excursion down the Potomac River; sailors fired cannons and one, "the Peacemaker" exploded, killing the sec. of state and navy, and injuring more - Tyler had been below deck and rushed up to see the tragic scene - after the funerals, he reorganized his cabinet by naming southern Democrats to key positions; appointed Calhoun to sec. of state to complete annexation of Texas as slave state - April 1844: Calhoun signed treaty of annexation and sent it for Senate approval - Texas would become American territory if the U.S. assumed it debts; Tyler said annexation would add to the wealth and greatness of U.S. - Calhoun undermined the treaty by writing, what he thought was a confidential letter, to the British ambassador, saying that Africans were inferior and were better off enslaved and that Texas's annexation would keep the South in the Union - June 1864: enraged northerners in the Senate voted down the treaty for annexation

Union's "Anaconda" Plan

- General Winfield Scott devised a three-pronged plan 1) Army of the Potomac, main Union army, would defend D.C. and exert constant pressure on the Confederate capital, Richmond 2) Navy's blockade of southern ports would cut off Confederacy's access to foreign goods and weapons 3) Union armies divide the Confederacy by pushing south along crucial inland water routes (Mississippi, Tennessee, and Cumberland Rivers) - compared to anaconda strangling its prey

Outnumbered South

- In 1858, Minnesota entered as a free state, as did Oregon in 1859; South was becoming more of a minority - tensions over slavery was becoming more violent; in the House, 50 members fought each other until John Potter of Wisconsin ripped off the hairpiece of a Mississippi congressman - More Americans were beginning to feel like violence was the only way to solve the issue of slavery; southerns were talking of secession Ex) pro-slavery Kansas newspaper editor wanted to kill all abolitionists and William Yancey (former AL congressman) claimed it would be easy to throw the Cotton States into revolution - Frederick Douglass spoke in the North and claimed that the pure slavery party wanted to suppress abolitionists and increase its own political power by launching an onslaught against basic American rights; acknowledged that the party was also damaging itself by driving more people to abolitionism

Opposition to the War

- In New England and among abolitionists, there was more opposition to Pres. Polk's war (John Q. Adams, William Garrison, Ralph Emerson, etc.) - Most northern Whigs charged that the U.S. baited Mexico to attack; it was not ok for troops to be moved into a disputed territory - "Spot Resolutions": Lincoln tried getting Polk to pinpoint the exact spot troops were attacked to see if America was on Mexican soil

California Gold Rush

- Jan. 1848, workers building a sawmill found gold nuggets on John Sutter's property - Days later, the U.S. would now own California - News of the gold strike spread like wildfire, and nearly 300,000 Americans set out to CA for gold by 1854; was the greatest migration in American history up to that point - "forty-niners:" included people from every state and territory, Indians, slaves, and people from Central/South America, Canada, Australia, Asia, and Europe - people were motivated to get rich, leaving their farms, quitting their jobs, selling businesses and belongings, borrowing money, and deserting families - 1851-55: CA produced almost half of the U.S. gold; its infusion into U.S. economy led to extended prosperity - the gold shifted the nation's attention westward, and spurred the construction of transcontinental railroads/telegraph lines - The gold rush was disastrous for Native Americans; California law allowed white settlers to force "unemployed" Indians to work in mines; if infectious diseases didn't kill them, whites did - San Francisco and Sacramento grew exponentially - Levi Strauss supplied miners with denim jeans that would withstand the work - California was a male-dominated society

John Brown's Raid

- John Brown (from Pottawatomie Massacre in 1856) resurfaced in the East in 1859, having kept a low profile to collect money/weapons from New England sympathizers - Brown was convinced he was there for a divine mission; was one of few willing to live among and die for black people; brilliant propagandist for abolitionists - 1859: Brown hatched a plan to give weapons to slaves in western Virginia and Maryland, hoping slaves would cause uprisings across the South - Oct. 1859: Brown led a group of men across the Potomac River, where they took the federal rifle arsenal in Harpers Ferry, VA; Brown then dispatched men to kidnap prominent slave owners and call on local slaves to join their rebellion; few did and eventually, Brown and his crew were holed up in a firehouse, where they were surrounded by townsmen, armed whites, and a force of Marines led by Ltc. Robert Lee - the Marines ordered Brown and his men to stand down, to which Brown said he would rather die; Marines then burst through the door, where lieutenant Israel Green stabbed Brown in the chest - Brown's men killed four townspeople, one Marine, and wounded another dozen; ten of Brown's men were killed, five were captured, and five escaped - Brown and his accomplices were put on trial for treason, murder, and encouraging African Americans to have an insurrection; they were found guilty and Brown expressed pride in his actions and boasted that the issue of slavery wouldn't die with him, but would have to be settled with Blood - Ralph Waldo Emerson and Frederick Douglass admired his commitment to ending slavery - Southern states started rumors about slave rebellions, strengthened their militias, and passed new restrictions on movements of slaves

First Bull Run

- July 21, 1861: first battle of the Civil War - Civilians from D.C. traveled down to watch and have picnics, expecting it to be short/glorious - The two armies clashed on a branch of the Potomac River called Bull Run - it was the first battle for the untrained Union recruits, and many were disoriented by the smoke from gunpowder and saltpeter, cannon fire, etc.; no standard-colored uniforms yet, so it was hard to tell friend from foe - Union troops almost won the battle early in the afternoon, but then Confederate reinforcements arrived and, in a panic, the Union soldiers and civilians fled to D.C.; Thomas Jackson had led the Confederate troops in such a strong/powerful way that earned him the name "Stonewall" Jackson - The Confederate troops were too tired/disorganized to pursue the fleeing Union troops - The loss was a great morale booster for the South, and made the North realize this war would be longer and they needed to buckle down

Emergence of the Republican Party

- Kansas-Nebraska Act led northern anti-slavery Whigs and Democrats to gravitate to two parties: 1) American party - made up of nativists; many were opposed to expansion of slavery/fanaticism of abolitionists 2) Republicans - occurred when conscience Whigs split from pro-slavery southern Whigs; this group was joined by Free-Soilers and anti-slavery Democrats - Abraham Lincoln, a congressman, switched from Whig to Republican after the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act; believed that if something wasn't done to stop the pro-slavery Southerners, the Union was endangered

Blacks in the South

- Like the Revolution, slaves took advantage of the chaos to flee, engage in sabotage, join the fighting, or pursue their own interests - greatest example of slave rebelliousness was with Robert Smalls, an enslaved black harbor pilot, who stole the C.S.S. Planter, sold it up the Cooper River with his family and the families of his crew to Charleston harbor, where they turned it over to the Union forces - Smalls was considered a hero in the North, and urged that blacks be allowed to serve in the Union army and navy; he became a ship pilot for the Union navy; after the war, he became a SC legislator and U.S. congressman

Second Bull Run

- Lincoln/Halleck told McClellan to join General John Pope in Washington D.C. - Lee knew he needed to drive a wedge between the two armies, and so he attacked Pope's army before McClellan got there, using Stonewall Jackson's foot cavalry to go around Pope's flank and attack the supply lines in the rear - Second Battle of Bull Run fought on almost the same place as the first - Lee's Army soon joined Jackson's to crush Pope's, giving Confederates a victory

A New York Private

- Lyon Wakeman: 19 year-old, eldest of nine children, grew up with an upstate New York farm family - Wakeman enlisted in the Union army in 1862 and signed up for three years; some of the money would be sent back to the farm - Wakeman wasn't bothered by the idea of death and life in the military was tolerable - Wakeman would write letters home asking about the farm - Wakeman died of dysentery in Louisiana - Turns out Wakeman was a woman posing as a man the entire time; was it patriotism or the desire to discover alternative modes of gender identity?

Mexican-American War

- March 1845: Mexico broke off relations with U.S. to protest annexation of Texas - Polk was willing to go to war with Mexico to gain control over New Mexico and California, but didn't want Americans to fire the first shot; also didn't want the war to produce a war hero that could claim his nomination in the Whig Party - Polk ordered thousands of U.S. troops under General Zachary Taylor to take positions around Corpus, Christi Texas, at the mouth of Nueces River, which Mexico claimed as its border with U.S. - March: Polk ordered Taylor to move force to north bank of Rio Grande, where they built Fort Brown opposite of Matamoros, which was an invasive move that Mexican gov't perceived as a threat - May 1845: Mexican troops had attacked U.S. soldiers north of Rio Grande; Polk's scheme to provoke an attack worked - May 13: Congress declared war/authorized recruitment of 50,000 soldiers - Some doubted Polk's explanation of what led up to Mexico's attack - Polk denied the war had anything to do with expansion of slavery; he claimed efforts to extend America's boundaries to the Pacific were intended to create national unity; he argued that slavery would not expand to those places because cotton couldn't be grown there - Most Americans accepted the president's explanation and supported going to war; South was excited for more land; so many Southerners rushed to volunteer that thousands had to be turned away - 112,000 whites served in the war (blacks weren't allowed); young officers would later distinguish themselves as opposing leaders in Civil War: Ulysses S. Grant, George Meade, Joseph Hooker, Thomas Jackson, etc.

The End of the Waiting Game

- March 1861: Lincoln found a letter on his desk from Robert Anderson from Fort Sumter, saying they only had enough supplies to hold out for a few weeks, and that the Confederates had encircled the fort, refusing to let anything in - April 1861: Lincoln sent unarmed ships to resupply the fort, and Jefferson Davis ordered the Confederates to fire on Fort Sumter; General Pierre Beauregard, a friend of Robert Anderson, sent him cases of whiskey and boxes of cigars to try and convince Anderson to surrender, but Anderson refused - The shelling and eventual defeat of Fort Sumter was a declaration of war; the Civil War had begun

McClellan's Peninsular Campaign

- March 1862: McClellan moved his troops and ships down Potomac River through Chesapeake Bay to the mouth of the James River near the tip of Yorktown Peninsula, near Richmond, VA - McClellan waited too long to strike , and in May, Joseph Johnston (Confederate) attacked McClellan's army along Chickahominy River - Battle of Seven Pines (Fair Oaks): Union would have taken disastrous defeat had it not been for reinforcements; Johnston injured; heavy losses on both sides - Robert E. Lee takes command of the main Confederate army (Army of Northern Virginia); Lee would turn the tide for the Confederacy; Lee was a gifted strategist, who would make aggressive, daring moves - Lincoln visited McClellan's HQ in July, where McClellan lectured Lincoln on how he hadn't supported McClellan's methods; McClellan fired and Henry Halleck takes his place

War's Legacies

- Mexican-American War was U.S. first major military intervention outside U.S. and first time U.S. had conquered/occupied another country - innumerable soldiers died - helped end U.S. economic depression; however, as time went on, it was known as a senseless war - Americans were excited about the victory and gained land, but some called to take over the rest of Mexico; Calhoun argued against and he won - expansion allowed U.S. to become a transcontinental nation - led to creation of the Dept. of Interior to manage lands and the people within them

"Bleeding Kansas"

- Nebraska entered as a free state, which left Kansas up for grabs - Kansas was entitled to make its own decision, but didn't determine when that decision would be made until the state chose to have it decided during the 1855 territorial legislature election - groups on both side of the slavery debate pushed people to move into the state and vote - the territorial legislature removed its few anti-slavery members and declared that Kansas would be a slave territory; the gov. of Kansas went to Pierce and pleaded to have troops sent to Kansas to intervene; Pierce replaced the governor with a governor that would support the pro-slavery faction - free-state advocates in Kansas, now the majority, elected their own delegates to a constitutional convention in Topeka in 1855, where they applied for statehood and drafted a constitution that excluded slavery - 1856: free state governor and legislature was operating in Kansas - the existence of two government competing for authority, which led to a civil war, which journalists called "Bleeding Kansas" - "Sack of Lawrence" (May 1856): pro-slavery force invaded free-state town of Lawrence, Kansas, destroying the town; this ignited the passions of John Brown - John Brown: believed that was slavery was wrong, and Christians had the responsibility to crush those who supported/partook in slavery; some saw him as a saint others as crazy; left his home in Springfield, MA, to fight for social equality and the equal rights of African Americans - Brown, four of his sons, and a son-in-law went into the pro-slavery town of Pottawatomie, dragged out five men, and hacked them to death with their swords - The Pottawatomie Massacre launched guerilla war in Kansas Territory; Aug. 30, pro-slavery Missourians raided free-state settlement, Osawatomie, where they looted and burned houses, and killed Frederick Brown, John's son

Regional Advances

- Once battle lines were drawn, Union = 23 states and Confederacy = 11 states - The Union had a higher population than the Confederacy, which pushed the Confederacy to mobilize 80% of its military-age men; 1/3 would die during the war - Union benefits: superior industrial development, transportations (ships giving them the power to control riverways and maritime trade) - Confederate benefits: could fight on their own territory in defense of their own homeland; easier to defend than attack; all they had to do was defend against attacks long enough for the North to give up

Forming Armies

- Once fighting began, Lincoln called for 500,000 more men, which the South had to trouble matching - Ulysses S. Grant was given a second chance to redeem his life, after being reduced to a pauper after being dismissed from the peacetime military for binge drinking; was given command of Illinois regiment - Confederates were also committed, with many young men ready to volunteer - Average age of soldiers = 26, but there was a substantial number of soldiers younger than 15; almost a 1/5 were immigrants, many couldn't speak English - Immigrants' reasons for fighting: strong belief in Union cause, cash bonuses, extra food, regular pay, the need for a steady job - Confederacy had a small male population, and so Jefferson Davis enacted a conscription law, which forced all white males between 18-35 to serve for three years; made many men hate the Confederacy - Loopholes to the draft: pay a "substitute" who was no of draft age, pay $500 to the government, or if you were an elected official or key civilian worker - 1863: the Union enforced a draft - Loopholes for Union draft: pay $300 to government, exemptions granted to selected federal/state officeholders and others on medical/compassionate grounds - led many to complain that this was a rich man's war and poor man's fight

Great Migration

- Oregon's rich soils, plentiful rainfall, and forests spread eastward, leading teachers, missionaries, fur traders, shopkeepers, and farmers to travel along the Oregon Trail - Oregon Trail: path the connected St. Louis, MO, to Columbia River valley in Oregon - Oregon fever spread, especially after the government promised 160 free acres to anyone who worked the property for four years - settlers sought to escape debts, bad marriages, etc.; thousands set out on the trail, but many didn't make it - 1841/42: first sizable wagon trains began moving west - 1843: movement became mass migration - most pioneers walked, with all their food/belongings being packed into wagons called prairie schooners/Conestogas - wagons were pulled by mules/oxen; ends were higher to prevent items falling out while climbing a mountain ridges; wheels were wide to traverse mud/sand and could be removed to help wagons float on rivers - women worked as hard as men in these traveling groups and when they made it to Oregon - wagon trains following Oregon Trail west from Independence, MO, along North Platte River, into modern-day Wyoming, through South Pass to Fort Bridger, then down Snake River through Idaho, to Columbia River, from there moved through Cascades to Oregon - Oregon Trail tore through Indian lands; buffalo disappeared, and Indian nations (Arapaho/Cheyenne) had to split into northern and southern groups - federal government insisted that Indians be moved unto reservations far from the Oregon Trail

Annexation of California

- Polk wanted California for the ports (San Francisco, Monterey, and San Diego) and was afraid Britain/France would take it if U.S. didn't - Polk told Commodore John Sloat, commander of Pacific naval squadron, that if there was a war with Mexico, he was to gain control of San Francisco port and blockade or occupy the city - 1846: Sloat sailed to California and his troops went ashore in San Francisco and claimed California for the U.S. - Sloat turned over command to Commodore Robert Stockton, who sailed south to capture San Diego and Los Angeles - Aug. 18: General Stephan Kearny's army captured Santa Fe, the capital of New Mexico, then joined Stockton's forces in California; took control of Los Angeles on Jan. 1847; remaining Mexican forces soon surrendered - Stockton and Kearney then quarreled over who was in command because both had received orders to conquer/govern CA - Fremont arrived from Sonoma and claimed Stockton was in charge, and Stockton made Fremont governor of CA - Fremont set about his duties, which put Kearney off; Kearney was told by Polk to be governor - June 1847: Kearney had Fremont arrested and transported him across the country for a court-martial - Fremont was convicted of insubordination and mutiny, but Polk reversed the sentence due to Fremont's service; Polk urged Fremont to stay in the army, but he was too angry of how he was treated and left the army to settle in CA

Senate Bloodshed

- Republican senator, Charles Sumner, had given a speech insulting southern slaveowners and directed an attack against Andrew Butler for allegedly engaging with a prostitute - this speech enraged Butler's cousin, Preston Brooks, who attacked Sumner with his golden cane and almost killed him - Brooks was seen as a hero in the South - Incident created a martyr - "Bloodied Sumner" - for the anti-slavery cause - It served to push more northerners into the Republican party

Lincoln's Election

- Republicans met in Chicago and nominated Abraham Lincoln - reaffirmed opposition to the spread of slavery to the West, and to gain more support, endorsed higher protective tariff, free farms (homesteads) on federal lands in the West, and federally financed infrastructure - extremist views were focused in the Northeast and Lower South, with the middle being more moderate; border states of Maryland, Delaware, Kentucky, and Missouri met in Chicago and reorganized the Constitutional Union party, where they nominated John Bell; platform was vague - campaign became a choice between Douglas and Lincoln; Lincoln won the election in 1860, with a 39% popular vote, but clear majority in the electoral college; none of the southern states put his name on the ballot

Alamo

- San Antonio, a group of 200 Texans, Tejanos, and members of the volunteer army holed up in an abandoned Catholic mission called the Alamo; were assaulted by Anna's 3,000-man army - rebels were led by 3 adventurers: James Bowie, William Travis, and David Crockett - James Bowie: ruthless slave trader/deceitful land speculator; famous for Bowie knife he used to wound/kill; migrated from Louisiana to Texas in 1828, settled near San Antonio, and owned a mil. acres of land; married a Mexican woman, became Mexican citizen, learned Spanish, but lost his family to cholera outbreak; joined Texas volunteer army and commanded Texas volunteers in the Alamo - William Travis: led regular army; lawyer and teacher; left from Alabama, escaping a failed marriage, pregnant wife, son, considerable debts, and allegedly a man he killed; swore he would do something great/honorable in Texas, or die trying, which is why he didn't retreat at the Alamo - David Crockett: Tennessee frontiersman, sharpshooter, bear hunter, and story teller; fought under Jackson and served in Congress as a Whig; left Congress to go to Texas to make a fortune; received 4,000 acres for his service as a fighter, and was assigned to the garrison at the Alamo - defenders of the Alamo were committed to freeing Texas from General Anna's despotism; late Feb. 1836, Anna demanded the surrender of the Alamo; Bowie was sick and so Travis decided to answer that with cannon fire - Travis issued appeals to Texian towns asking for supplies/men, but no one came; Mexicans launched assaults, but for twelve days, the Mexicans suffered heavy losses - fighting at the Alamo turned the rebellion into fight for independence; March 1836, delegate from Texas towns met in Washington-on-the-Brazos and signed declaration of independence/drafted a constitution; Sam Houston was named the commander-in-chief of the "army" - Four days later, Mexican bugles playing "Deguiello" (no mercy song) - Santa Anna's man attacked on all fronts and were repelled twice, but the third time resulted in them breaking through the north wall; Travis was shot between the eyes; almost all Texans were injured/killed - Seven defenders, maybe Crockett, survived and Anna ordered them to be executed; only survivors were women, children, and Joe, Travis's slave - It was a costly victory for the Mexicans; provided rallying cry for Texians

Dred Scott Case

- Scott, born a slave in VA, was sold in St. Louis to an army surgeon, who took him to Illinois, then to the Wisconsin Territory, and finally back to St. Louis - Scot married Harriet Robinson in Wisconsin Territory, and eventually had 2 daughters - He went to court in 1816, claiming that since he resided in an anti-slavery area, he should be free - a Missouri jury ruled in his favor, but the MO State Supreme Court ruled against him - SCOTUS ruled against him 7 to 2, claiming that since Scott lacked and could never become a citizen, his argument was null; also decided that Compromise of 1850 was unconstitutional because the Constitution never provided Congress with the power to outlaw slavery in some territories - Basically, Scott was considered property without rights, and had no legal basis to claim freedom - decision challenged popular sovereignty; if Congress could not exclude slavery, then neither could a territorial government created by Congress; all of U.S. was open to slavery - Pro-Slavery and Buchanan loved the decision, but abolitionists and Republicans protested the decision

Emancipation Proclomation

- Sept. 22, 1862: Lincoln issued preliminary Emancipation Act that threatened to free slaves in the Confederacy if it didn't surrender in 100 days (Jan. 1, 1863) - wasn't based on racial equality/human dignity; was a military measure - only freed slaves in Confederacy; border states would maintain slaves since they were still a part of the Union - Lincoln believed Constitution only made it where states could decide slavery, so he acted as commander-in-chief to enact a fit and necessary war measure to save the Union - when Lincoln signed the actual Emancipation Proclamation, he amended it by saying it was an act of justice as well; constitutional concerns about abolishing slavery would lead him to promote 13th Amendment - goal of Civil War was now to transform the south and slave system

Saint Patrick's Battalion

- Since the beginning of the war, thousands of soldiers deserted the U.S.; several hundred of them, mostly poor Irish and German Catholic immigrants joined the Saint Patrick's Battalion in the Mexican army - Why they joined the Mexican army is disputed, but many Catholic defectors left because they resented the abuse they received from their Protestant superiors; they also joined due to the mistreatment of the Spanish Catholics; some were attracted by higher wages, land grants, and Mexican citizenship - Mexicans sent out leaflets trying to convince American Catholics to join their Mexican brothers - During one of the battles for Mexico City traitors were caught and tried; Scott ordered fifty of them to be hanged, others were whipped and branded with a "D" on the cheek - executions of the traitors were brutal and excessive

California Statehood

- To end the stalemate in Congress over slavery, Pres. Taylor wanted to automatically add New Mexico/California as free states - California already was implementing free state policies and had put in a request to enter as a free state - New Mexico responded more slowly

"Extension of Our Empire": Texas

- Tyler wanted to annex Texas and in his first address to Congress, he pledged to do so; nothing to fear from "the extension of our empire." - Tyler's efforts to recruit senators to approve annexation treaty excited Texan leader, who had been waiting for a while; Houston threatened to expand the Republic to the Pacific coast, but with little money, rising debt, continuing tensions with Mexico, this was mostly talk - Republic of Texas had no infrastructure (no schools, banks, industries); it had 2 choices 1) annexation to U.S. 2) establish closer economic ties with Great Britain, who recognized their independence and bought cotton from Texas - thousands were flooding into Texas on account of the guarantee of 128 acres to each white family; enslaved black population grew faster than whites

Response in the South

- With Lincoln's election, the country fell apart; Southerners believed Republicans only existed to hate African slavery - Southerners feared Lincoln would prevent the expansion of the cotton economy, which made up a large portion of American exports in 1860 - False rumors were started that Lincoln planned to free the slaves, to which Lincoln said were misguided; his administration had no intention to interfere with slavery; would not offer assurances in public though

South Carolina Secedes

- With the election of Lincoln, SC's entire delegation resigned and left D.C., and then formed a convention to decide whether to secede - Charleston, Dec. 1860: SC decided to secede - This was met with conflicting opinions across SC

Fugitive Slave Act

- Within 2 months of the passage of the Compromise of 1850, squabbling between North/South resumed - The Fugitive Slave Act was the most controversial part of the compromise - it strengthened the hand of slave catchers and it sought to capture slaves who had escaped months/years earlier; some unscrupulous slave traders captured free slaves, claiming they were fugitive slaves - Abolitionists hated this act, and many northern abolitionists turned to violence Ex) Springfield, MA: abolitionist John Brown formed and armed band of African Americans, called the League of Gileadites, to attack slave traders

James Polk

- born near Charlotte, NC; oldest of 10 children; graduated top of class at University of North Carolina - moved to Tennessee; became successful planter/lawyer; entered politics, serving 14 years in Congress (4 as Speaker of the House) and 2 years of gov. - became youngest president; was humorless, and called "Young Hickory" on account of his admiration of Andrew Jackson; believed any action by federal government to promote economic growth would help some/hurt others; opposed tariffs, national bank, federally funded roads - greatest virtue was work ethic, working from dawn to dusk, rarely taking a vacation; would wear him out; he died three months after leaving office at age 53

Election of 1844

- both parties wanted to keep Texas annexation out of the political campaign - Whig Henry Clay and Democrat Martin Van Buren, leading candidates for their party's nomination, agreed that adding Texas to the Union would aggravate tensions between North and South - Tyler wanted to run as an independent; used slogan "Tyler and Texas;" realized he had little support and dropped out - Van Buren's southern supporters abandoned him because he opposed annexation of Texas; they nominated James Polk, former Speaker of the House and former gov. of Tennessee - Polk was an enthusiastic expansionist; loyal Democrat, who hated Whigs; became first "dark horse" (unexpected) candidate to receive party's nomination - Democratic party's platform called for annexation of Texas - Democrats offered winning strategy due to their support of southern/western expansionism; forced Clay to support annexation of Texas so long as was without dishonor, without war, with common consent of the Union, upon fair/just terms - Clay's shifting gave more anti-slavery votes to the new Liberty party, which gave the crucial state of New York to Polk - Had Clay gotten New York, he would have won by 7 electoral votes - Polk won plurality popular vote, which made him the first pres. since John Q. Adams to win the presidency w/out majority; definitely won the electoral majority

Women Pioneers

- cholera claimed many lives because of tainted water/contaminated food; grave every 80 yards - originally, responsibilities of women and men were like in the East; women cooked, washed, sewed, monitored children, while men drove the wagons, tended to the horses/cattle, and did heavy labor - distinctions soon dissolved, where women gathered buffalo dung for fuel, drove wagons, worked to dislodge wagons, construct makeshift bridges, pitching tents, or other unladylike activities - hard labor of the trail strained relationships; there were high rates of divorce in the West - some settlers turned back, while most carried on and established stable communities in California/Oregon - settling was also a struggle that claimed many lives

Pathfinder: John Fremont

- despite the dangers of overland crossing, some found it to be an irresistible attraction; most famous enthusiastic was John Fremont; during 1840s, he was the most famous explorer - raised in the South, Fremont loved the outdoors; after going to College of Charleston, he was commissioned as 2nd Lt. in U.S. Topographical Corps (org. dedicated to exploring/mapping wester territories); Fremont excelled at surveying, mapmaking, woodcraft, well-versed in botany, geology, ornithology, and zoology - married Jessie Benton, daughter of Missouri senator, Thomas Benton; after overcoming anger at his daughter, he became supporter of Fremont's explorations - 1842: set out with 24 soldiers to map out eastern portion of Oregon trail; collected animal and plant samples and drew maps - with help from his wife, he published articles in newspapers about his adventures, which earned him the name "the Pathfinder" - Fremont's success led to a 2nd expedition, where they would map out the Oregon Trail from the South Pass, a gap in the Rocky Mountains in Wyoming, then down Snake River to the Columbia River and into Oregon; eventually would go south through Sierra Nevada to Sutter's Fort, near Sacramento, CA - his group was the first to cross the Sierra Nevada during the winter, and his maps led to massive migrations like Mormons going from Illinois to Salt Lake City, Utah - 1845: Fremont led his own expedition from St. Louis to cover the west side of Sierra Nevada and headed southward through the Central Valley of Mexican-controlled CA; Fremont told Mexican officials that he was there for scientific reasons and his men were civilians - 1846: Fremont was in Monterey when he received news from President James Polk, who told him that they needed him to cause an uprising among the Americans there as U.S. was planning to take over Mexican-controlled CA - Mexican officials were suspicious and told Fremont to leave, but he resigned from the army to act as a private citizen, so he would be allowed back in; he and his men stirred up unrest, and American settlers took Sonoma and by the time the Mexican-American War was declared, CA was under the control of the U.S.

Oregon

- dispute between Great Britain and U.S. over Oregon Country boundary heated up as expansionists insisted that Polk take the whole region instead of splitting it with Britain; Polk was willing to go to war - British were not willing to fight over it - June 1846: James Buchanan, sec. of state, signed Buchanan-Pakenham Treaty - Buchanan-Pakenham Treaty: extended border between U.S. and British Canada westward to the Pacific coast along 49th parallel

Overland Trails

- early 1800s: Far Northwest included: Nebraska, Washington, and Oregon Territories - Oregon Territory: included Oregon, Idaho, Washington, parts of Montana and Wyoming, and Canadian Province of British Columbia; Convention of 1818 established this territory as jointly owned by Britain and U.S.; drawn there for fur trade - 1820s/30s: fur trade created breed of "mountain men," who embraced a rough-hewn, solitary existence in the wild - Jedidiah Smith left Utah in 1826, crossed the Mojave Desert, and made it to southern California; first white settler to enter California from the East

Panic of 1857

- economic downturn caused by economy growing too fast; too many railroads/factories were being built, while European demand for cotton/wheat was declining - financial panic triggered by collapse of Ohio Life Insurance and Trust Company (1857); if prestigious institution failed, the economy could collapse - upon hearing about the institution's failing, customers rushed banks to withdraw their money, which forced banks to call upon loans, which closed businesses - tens of thousands lost jobs, and banks foreclosed on homes, farms, businesses; almost every bank closed in New York City - Buchanan refused to intervene - Southern planters suffered the least and took great delight in the North's suffering

Slaves in the War

- expanding war forced the issue of emancipation - as Union forces moved into the South, fugitive slaves arrived in Union camps, where they were designated as contrabands (they buried dead, dug trenches, built fortifications, tended livestock, some were set free) - Lincoln gradually pushed toward ending slavery - April 1862: signed act abolishing slavery in D.C. - June 1862: signed bill excluding slavery in western territories - still insisted war was about restoring the Union - March 1862: Lincoln urged representatives of border states (Maryland, Missouri, Kentucky, Delaware) to gradually emancipate slaves - Second Confiscation Act: contrabands would be freed and any slave that arrived to Union camps would be forever free - July 1862: Lincoln confided in his cabinet that it was necessary to free all slaves to end the war; Sec. of State William Seward agreed but advised to wait until after a Union victory

Lecompton Constitution

- fighting between the two governments in Kansas continued - Pro-slavery legislature scheduled a constitutional convention, to which the governor vetoed; when the veto was overturned, the governor resigned in protest and was replaced by Robert Walker - With Buchanan's approval, Walker promised to the free-state Kansans (majority) that the new constitution would be submitted with a fair vote - Pro-slavery constitutional convention @ Lecompton drafted a constitution in which Kansas would enter as a slave state and exclude free blacks - opponents of slavery boycotted the referendum, enabling it to be approved - Buchanan urged Congress to approve the Lecompton Constitution, which led to an outcry from the North - Stephen Douglas, most prominent midwestern Democrat, sided with anti-slavery Republicans because Buchanan's action would deny the citizens of Kansas to have their voices heard in a fair election - A new acting governor scheduled another referendum for the pro-slavery Lecompton constitution, in which it was rejected in April and Aug. of 1858; Kansas would enter as a free state

Pres. Buchanan

- fine character and physique; impressive political career on commitment to states' rights and aggressive promotion of territorial expansion - believed that saving Union depended upon ignoring abolitionists and making concessions to the South; charged by Republicans for lacking a backbone to stand up to southern slaveowners - most experienced president of 19th century, but limited ability as a leader and had lots of bad luck 1) sharp downturn of economy 2) SCOTUS decision in Dred Scot case 3) troubles in Kansas

Shiloh

- following the events of Grant's victories in Kentucky/Tennessee, Confederate forces withdrew to Corinth, Mississippi, to meet General Albert Johnston; goal was to hold the Memphis/Charleston Railroad that connected the Mississippi Valley to the Atlantic Coast - Johnston took advantage of Grant's mistake of exposing his troops on a plateau without digging trenches; that morning, Johnston's troops attacked the Union troops near Shiloh, a Methodist church; the Union troops scattered - Johnston rode into battle at one point and was fatally shot and died - Confused fighting with heavy losses; Pierre Beauregard, the new Confederate general, pinned the Union troops against the river and claimed an early victory - the next morning, with new troops, Grant pushed back the Confederates until they had to withdraw from Corinth; the Union troops were too battered to pursue - Shiloh (Hebrew for "Place of Peace") costliest battle in which Americans were engaged up to that point - Shiloh like so many other battles had missed opportunities; the advancing troops let the defeated retreat to fight another day - Henry Halleck started rumor that Grant was drinking during the battle, which led people to call for his removal; Lincoln disagreed, but removed Grant from field commander with Halleck in his place; once Union thrust in the Mississippi Valley stopped, Lincoln realized Halleck was a paper-pusher

State of Texas

- just before Polk took office, Tyler asked Congress to annex Texas on a joint resolution, which only required a simple majority in each house instead of 2/3 Senate vote to ratify the treaty - resolution narrowly passed, most Whigs opposed it; Texas admitted as 28th state and 15th slave state in Dec. 1845 - Texas population continued to exponentially grow

Kentucky and Tennessee

- little happened east of the Appalachians before 1862, but stuff went down on the west side - 1862: General Ulysses S. Grant thrust against the Confederate army defending Kentucky/Tennessee - To stay sober, Grant looked to his chief of staff, a teetotaler, John Rawlins; while sober, Grant had only one military rival, Robert Lee - Grant and his men managed to capture Fort Henry, on the east bank of the Tennessee River (Feb. 1862). and Fort Donelson, near the Cumberland River (Feb. 1862); a couple of days later, they captured Nashville - these major victories secured Kentucky as a Union state and gave the Union access to the Kentucky and Cumberland Rivers - Grant was widely celebrated and was given the nickname "Unconditional Surrender" Grant - these celebrations were dampened by the passing Lincoln's son from typhoid fever

Becoming Warriors

- many soldiers felt they had a manly duty to defend their country, but that patriotism fluctuated as the war went on - Ex) Charles Biddlecom, a farmer from New York, who volunteered for the Union Army; as the war dragged on, Biddlecom had had enough; however, at the end of the war, he celebrated that freedom had triumphed

Catholic Missions

- missions served as churches, villages, fortresses, homes, etc.; became agricultural enterprises, producing crops, livestock, clothes, and household goods for profit and to supply neighboring presidios; labor mainly done by Indians - days began with ringing of bell to come and pray, then work began an hour later and continued until an hour before sunset; Indian men worked in fields, while women handled domestic chores; during harvest, everyone was expected to help in the fields - Indians received food, clothing, religious instruction, and housing instead of wages - Rebellious Indians were whipped/imprisoned - Indians died at an alarming rate; the population of Indians on the California coast decreased by the tens of thousands - With Mexican independence in 1821, missions fell into disuse, and so, when American settlers started moving west, they only found a small, scattered population of Mexicans, ruled by a few dominant caballeros or rancheros ("gentlemen"); these men owned the largest ranches in the province - John Sutter settled in California and founded a colony of Europeans in what would become Sacramento, at the junction of the Sacramento and American Rivers; he hired Indians/Europeans to build 18 ft tall walls to protect settlers - Sutter's fort was completed in 1843 at the end of California Trail, which forked southward from Oregon Trail, and through the Sierra Nevada - Sutter wanted to create a wilderness empire; he traded furs and made Indians craft wool blankets/hats, cultivate fields of corn/wheat, and raise livestock - Sutter did pay Indians, but he whipped, jailed, and executed any who disobeyed him - American migrants learned Spanish, often embraced Catholicism, won Mexican citizenship, found Spanish/Native American spouses, participated in local politics

War in the West

- most intense fighting was along Kansas-Missouri border, where the disputes had developed between pro-slavery and anti-slavery settlers in the 1850s - most prominent pro-Confederate leader: William Quantrill - Quantrill and his followers fought under a black flag (would kill any who surrendered) - 1863: they destroyed Lawrence, Kansas, and Quantrill ordered his men to kill every male and burn every house; their opponents, the Jayhawkers, retaliated by torturing/hanging pro-Confederate prisoners, burning houses, and destroying livestock - many Indian nations sided with one side or the other; several Indian tribes owned slaves and supported the South - Stand Watie, Oklahoma Cherokee leader, chose the Confederacy in 1861 and raised a troop called the Cherokee Mounted Rifles - Oklahoma's proximity to Texas led Choctaws and Chickasaws to side with the Confederacy; Cherokees, Creeks, and Seminoles were more divided in loyalties

Western Frontier

- most western pioneers from the Upper South/Midwest - caused by population explosion/desire for land/wealth - To get to Californian gold, some people traveled by sea, around the tip of South America, while most traveled over land - most people who journeyed on these overland trails traveled in family groups - trips were perilous, with majority of people passing away due to disease, violence, or hunger

Why They Fought

- most who fought were volunteers - reasons they fought: duty, honor, patriotism, duties as men, high and noble passion

Polk's goals

- pledged to serve only 1 term and was in a hurry - Goals: 1) reduce tariffs on imports 2) reestablish Independent Treasury 3) settle Oregon boundary dispute with Britain 4) acquire California from Mexico - wanted lower tariffs to allow more foreign goods to enter marketplace and lower consumer prices; Congress agreed with Walker Tariff of 1846 (named after Robert Walker, sec. of Treasury) - Polk persuaded Congress to restore Independent Treasury Act; established Independent Treasury offices to receive federal gov't funds; system intended to replace 2nd B.U.S.; meant to offset chaotic growth of unregulated state banks, whose reckless lending practices helped cause economic depression - Independent Treasury entrusted federal government with management of government funds and required all disbursements be made in gold/silver, or paper money backed by gold/silver - Polk vetoed two Whig-passed bills for federally funded infrastructure - Polk's efforts to reverse Whig economic policies satisfied slave-holding South but angered Northerners, who wanted high tariffs to protect their industries from British competition, and westerners, who wanted federally financed roads/harbors

Final Efforts at Compromise

- president-elect Lincoln assumed the southern states were bluffing, and Congress desperately sought out a compromise - Dec. 1860: John Crittenden offered a series of resolutions that would guarantee the existence of slavery where it was and for it to be expanded West as long as it was south of the Missouri Compromise line; Lincoln opposed any plan that would expand slavery and the Senate defeated the Crittenden Compromise - Feb. 1861: 21 states sent delegates to a peace conference in D.C., where former Pres. John Tyler presided; a proposal was brought forward that was pretty much the same as the Crittenden Compromise; it got very little support; only proposal to generate interest was the one protecting slavery where it was already existent - Republicans were prepared to go that far, but no further - It would have become the 13th Amendment had it passed the states; the 13th Amendment would soon be the opposite, getting rid of slavery

Sam Houston

- rowdy, larger than life - born in Virginia to Scots-Irish immigrants; after his dad died, his mother and siblings moved to eastern Tennessee - 2 years later: ran away from home to live among the Cherokees; earned the name "the Raven" - Houston served under Jackson during War of 1812; after that, he returned to Tennessee and became federal Indian agent, attorney, congressman, commanding general of Tennessee militia, and governor in 1827 - Houston adored Jackson; became like surrogate son; some thought he would become president; he was very similar to Jackson in the way he oddball ruffian - tragedy struck when his aristocratic wife, Eliza Allen left him on the night of their wedding and returned to her father's plantation in Nashville; some said he sustained an injury to the groin that made him impotent, some say that he dishonored her, some say she confessed she only married him to please her family - Houston thought suicide was the only option, but an eagle swooped near him and he realized that a great destiny waited for him in the west - 1829: boarded a steamboat and headed West, where he soon joined the Cherokee; adopted their dress, language, and customs; changed his name; married a Cherokee woman - Houston proved adept at helping other tribes negotiate amongst themselves and with the government; grew addicted to alcohol, earning him the name "Big Drunk" - Dec. 1832: moved to Texas at the request of Jackson and sent a report to the president saying the Texas was ripe for revolt from Mexico

Life on the Trail

- settlers traveled across rugged trails, mountains, and plains - Indians rarely attacked wagons on the Oregon Trail; some served as guides, advisers, or traders; however, as number of settlers increased during the 1850s, disputes did break out over land and water - pioneers faced broiling summers, thunderstorms, snowy, cold winters - wagons broke down, oxen died, and diseases like cholera killed off several

John Tyler

- slave-owning Virginian, who was the youngest president to date, but had plenty of political experience (governor, senator, congressman, etc.); man of stubborn independence and considerable charm - originally was a Democrat, who supported Jeffersonian commitment to states' rights, strict construction of Constitution, opposition to national banks; joined Whigs after Jackson condemned SC's attempt to nullify federal laws, Tyler believed SC had the right to secede from the Union; never really embraced the Whigs; Tyler opposed high tariffs, a national bank, and internal improvements - 1841: special session of Congress where Clay introduced series of resolutions calling for repeal of Independent Treasury Act, creation of another Bank of the U.S., revive distribution program where money made from land sales is given to the states, and urged tariffs be raised on imported goods - Clay, driven by desire to be pres., lost his ability to compromise; Tyler repealed the Independent Treasury Act and signed higher tariff bill, refused to create another Bank of the U.S. - Clay called Tyler a traitor to his party; Clay convinced the entirety of Tyler's cabinet to resign, except for Daniel Webster, Sec. of state; was the start of 3 year war between Clay and Tyler - Tyler replaced cabinet members with anti-Jacksonian Democrats, who had become Whigs; Whigs expelled Tyler from the party, which now made him a pres. without a party; Tyler was shunned by both Democrats/Whigs - political turmoil coincided with economic depression, but Tyler didn't let tension with Britain or the sputtering economy to stop him from adding more land to the U.S.

Douglas v. Lincoln

- slavery in Kansas fractured the Democratic party, and one of the few remaining Democrats with North and South support, Stephen Douglas, had to face reelection before he would be able to try to keep the party together - Republicans chose Abraham Lincoln to run against Douglas - Lincoln: born in 1809, the son of a farmer/carpenter; from a really poor family; his family moved to Indiana when he was young, and then moved to Illinois after his mother passed away; worked as a farmer, rail-splitter, and survey, until becoming a lawyer and marrying Mary Todd, a woman from a wealthy family - 1834: Lincoln was elected to Illinois legislature and served four terms as a Whig; supported Clay's leadership and American system; did not support the expansion of slavery into new states, but thought that the South was entitled to keep its monstrous system - 1846: Lincoln was elected to Congress and pledged to serve one term, but was dragged back in with the Kansas-Nebraska Act - 1856: Lincoln joined the Republicans and after two years was chosen to run against Douglas; Lincoln challenged Douglas to seven debates across Illinois (Lincoln-Douglas debates) to boost his profile - Lincoln and Douglas differed vastly; Lincoln gave an air of simplicity, sincerity, and common sense and was unassuming in manner and attire; Douglas flaunted his wealthy/powerful stature - basic dispute between the two was that Douglas was indifferent to slavery and more focused on popular sovereignty, while Lincoln hated slavery and believed that the country had to exist as either fully slave or fully free - Despite hating slavery, Lincoln didn't support racial equality; he just thought that there shouldn't be slavery; whites would remain in superiority - Lincoln won the popular vote, but Douglas was elected due to being chosen by the Illinois legislature; still made Lincoln a national figure - 1858: Republicans won so many seats, they took control of the House

Free-Soil Movement

- some Americans who did not endorse abolition but worried about slavery supported banning the expansion of slavery - formed the Free-Soil party, which focused on stopping the spread of slavery - the party attracted northern Democrats, anti-slavery Whigs, and members of the abolitionist Liberty party - 1848: party nominated Martin Van Buren - Free-Soilers managed to split the Democratic vote, so that Taylor won New York, and split the Whig vote enough that Cass won Ohio - Van Buren severely lost; Taylor was now pres.

Perryville

- summer 1862: General Braxton Bragg's army used railroads to meet up with General Edmund Smith's army to invade the North by taking control of Kentucky - Confederates met the Union troops, led by General Don Buell, in Perryville (Oct. 1862); Confederates were outnumbered but still attacked, until Bragg learned of Union reinforcements; Bragg withdrew forces south toward Tennessee

Fredericksburg

- war was growing in scope and destruction - Lincoln appoints Ambrose Burnside to be commander of the army - Burnside decided to try and take Richmond again, positioning troops near the town of Frederick, Virginia; Lee moved his army to defend the town - Lee had his men establish heavily fortified positions along ridges and behind stone walls at the base of Marye's Heights; enabled Confederate troops to defend against Union troops - the attack was more a slaughter as cannons and guns picked off Union troops as they tried to approach across an open field; tens of thousands of Union troops were killed, leading Burnside to withdraw his shattered army - the end of 1862 with little results from the western and eastern stabs at the South, Northern morale plummeted; many Democrats called for a negotiated peace and Republicans grew critical of Lincoln's leadership - Both Burnside and Lincoln came under fire from their shortcomings

Mexico and the Spanish West

- whites were as prejudiced against the Mexicans as they were against Indians, and Africans; all they wanted was the Mexicans' lands - Spanish efforts to colonize the northernmost parts of Mexico were less successful in Arizona and New Mexico - Yuma/Apaches in Arizona and Comanches/Apaches in Texas thwarted Spanish efforts to establish Catholic missions - 1807: Napoleon took over Spain, which led Miguel Costilla to take advantage of the uncertain situation of Spain's control of Mexico; he led a rebellion with Indians and Mexicans, but it was poorly organized and failed - second rebellion in 1820 was stronger, and forced the last Spanish officials to withdraw from the country (1821) - Mexico was now independent, but it struggled to build a stable government/effective economy - U.S. took advantage of that and pioneers invaded areas that are modern-day Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, California, and portions of Colorado, Oklahoma, Kansas, and Wyoming - Fur traders streamed into New Mexico/Arizona, establishing fur trade along Santa Fe Trail to St. Louis; thousands tried making the trip, but it was dangerous, people were killed and wagons, horses, cattle, were destroyed/stolen by Indians

In Search of Compromise

- with southerners threatening secession, congressional leaders turned to Clay for a compromise - Dec. 1849: Clay strode into the meeting of the new Congress and asked to be relieved of all committee responsibilities to focus on a solution; without one, he argued, there would be civil war - Southerners prepared to oppose Taylor's proposal to add California as a free state to keep the balance between slave and free states - Jan. 1850: With the help of MA senator Daniel Webster, Clay presented his plan for compromise, which included 8 resolutions: 1) admit California as a free state 2) let residents of New Mexico/Utah to decide whether to be free/slave states 3) deny Texas its claim to majority of New Mexico 4) compensate Taxes by having government pay pre-annexation debts 5) retain slavery in D.C. but abolish the sale of slaves there 6) adopt a more effective federal law to recapture fugitive slaves 7) deny Congress the authority to interfere with the interstate slave trade - collectively called the Omnibus Bill, which became the substance for the Compromise of 1850

President Buchanan Balks

- with the secession of SC, U.S. needed a decisive president, but Buchanan blamed it all on northern abolitionists; said although secession was illegal, he lacked the constitutional authority to force states to rejoin the Union - Southerners seized the opportunity to take over federal forts in seceded states - Buchanan's Sec. of State, Lewis Cass, who had served as Sec. of War under Jackson, advised Buchanan to follow Jackson's example; send in federal troops into the seceded states to show the Union would be maintained at all costs; Buchanan rejected the advice, to which Cass resigned - Fort Sumter, located in Charleston Harbor, was controlled by Major Robert Anderson, a Unionist, who would not surrender the fort; Buchanan sent the Star of the West, an unarmed ship, to resupply the fort - Confederate cannons drove off the ship, which was an act of war, but Buchanan ignored it, hoping for a compromise to arise

Uncle Tom's Cabin

- written by Harriet Stowe during the 1850s - During 1830s/40s, Harriet helped runaway slaves cross the Ohio River from Kentucky - She, like other abolitionists, despised the Fugitive Slave Act - After moving to Maine in the spring of 1850, she begin the book - story features the gentle and generous Uncle Tom, who is sold into slavery in the South; a villainous white planter Simon Legree, who tortures Tom before ordering his death; angelic Eva, a white girl who dies after befriending Tom; beautiful/desperate Eliza, who escapes slave catchers by carrying her baby across the Ohio River to freedom - story reveals brutality of slavery - Southerners didn't like her book or her