Unit 4: Protestant Reformation and Age of Religious Wars
Who was the next monarch after Regent Queen Catherine?
Henry of Navarre, a politique
Why was the great schism so important?
The great schism was so important because it set the stage for future unrest and rebellion against the Catholic Church
What was the new dominant force that lead the Protestant Reformation?
The new dominant force that lead the Protestant Reformation was Calvinism rather than Lutheranism
What was Luther's primary grievance in the ninety-five theses?
The sale of indulgences and church offices
What did the reformation period establish?
This religious and political period established a rebellion against the views of the Catholic Church
Baroque and Protestant churches were very different in terms of art
true
What were the names of the documents Luther published that described the need for reform, the presence of unbiblical traditions, and sola fide?
"Address to the Christian Nobility Of the German Nation", "Babylonian Captivity of the Church", and "Freedom of a Christian"
What does the quote "Paris is worth a mass" by Philip II of Spain mean?
"Paris is worth a mass" - > in this quote, Philip II noted that even though he was originally a Protestant, Catholicism was the religion of the people, and the answer to stability during its religious wars
What did the quote "Paris was worth a mass" (by Philip II) mean?
"Paris was worth a mass" basically meant that the French monarchy recognized the fact that most of its people were of the Catholic faith
During the Thirty Years' War, what else happened in the Spanish Netherlands?
During this time, another fight had been going on in the Spanish Netherlands
What else happened during the time of the Edict of Chateaubriant (and the religion wars in France)?
During this time, power was shifted from France to Spain after the end of the Habsburg-Valois War
In 1534 when Protestants spread anti-Catholic propaganda in Paris the government responded with mass arrests of the offenders resulting in the _______________.
Edict of Fontainebleau (?)
when did the French Wars of Religion occur?
French Wars of Religion occured from 1562 to 1598
what did the French Wars of Religion (1562-1598) lead to?
French Wars of Religion occured from 1562 to 1598 - > this period led to a reformation within politics
What country's power weakened as France's power rose after the Thirty Years' War?
Spain's power weakened as France's power rose
Why were Spain's riches slowly declining?
Spain's riches were slowly declining due to importation, a high tax burden on manufacturers, and aristocracy obsessed with power, and Philip II's wars
Philip II married four times to:
Philip II married four times to: Maria of Portugal Mary I of England (joint sovereign until her death) Elizabeth of Valois Anna of Austria
What was Philip II a perfect example of?
Philip II of Spain was a perfect example of a ruler who understood that history and tradition play an integral part in politics
What were Philip II's titles?
Philip II's titles include, "King of Spain, King of Naples, King of Portugal and the Algarves, Philip I, King of Chile"
How did the Catholic Church respond to the Reformation?
The Catholic Church responded and ushered in its own reform movement, the Counter-Reformation
Which of the following was NOT an outcome of the Council of Trent?
The Catholic church reconciled itself with the Protestant church
How did Zwingli, or the "people's priest" preach his interpretation of the words of God?
he preached his interpretation of the words of God through sermons given to the townspeople
what did Baroque churches demonstrate?
they demonstrated the power of the absolute monarchies established during the 1600 to 1700 period
what happened to anyone who refused to welcome the Act of Succession (which stated the queen was a legitimate heir to the throne and that her heirs were legitimate as well)
they would be declared guilty of treason
Although germany lacked nationalism due to its fragmentation into over 300 autonomous regions, the individual people were collectively united under their disapproval of the papacy
true
Why war a lot of war fought on German land?
A lot of the war was fought on German land due to its central location and conflicts between the Catholic League and the Protestant Alliance
Baroque art was primarily used by the catholic church as the dominant style during the Counter-Reformation to embody the spirit of the reinvigorated church and by powerful absolute monarchs
true
Ignatius of Loyola desired to take certain ideas from humanism and create a reformed Catholicism that would indeed appeal to powerful people.
true
The Holy Roman Empire stretched across the continent, linking monarchs, the Catholic church, and all of its people under one single power
true
The sudden surge in unity frightened Sweden, the United Provinces, and France, forcing them into action
true
a quote from where reaffirmed the King's power over the Catholic church as the supreme head of the church?
Act of Supremacy quote (1534)
What happened after the death of Henry II?
After the death of Henry II, his son, Francis II, who was just 15 years old (and sick) ruled for just one year until a power struggle erupted between the three most powerful French families, the Bourbons, the Guises, and the Montmorency-Chatillons
What happened after the Bartholomew's Day Massacre in 1572?
After the massacre of 1572, the War of the Three Henry's erupted ending with the coronation of another Bourbon monarch
What did Calvin stress?
Calvin stressed predestination or the doctrine that God as all knowing and all powerful has predetermined the eventual fate of the individual soul
What appealed to many people across Europe and added to the resistance against the Guise French monarchy?
Calvinism appealed to many people across Europe and added to the resistance against the Guise French monarchy
What became the reason for many aristocrats' political goals and desire for power?
Calvinism became the reason for many aristocrats' political goals and desire for power
What was the driving force of the reformation that splintered Catholic Europe and ushered in the age of religious wars?
Calvinism was the driving force of the reformation that splintered Catholic Europe and ushered in the age of religious wars
What happened under Philip II of Spain's rule?
Under his rule, Spain was able to conquer Portugal and gain access to empires in Africa, India, and the Americas
What ended the third war and granted religious freedom to the Huguenots within their territory in France with Queen Catherine in charge?
Finally, the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye in 1570, ended the third war and granted religious freedom to the Huguenots within their territory
What were the four phases of the Thirty Years' War?
Four phases of the Thirty Years' War Danish Swedish Swedish-French Bohemian Revolts
What are Huguenots?
French Protestants
Which country suffered the most as a result of the Thirty Years war?
Germany suffered the most as a result of the war, one-third of its population died during the battles
What did the catholic church teach in regards of getting into Heaven?
The catholic church taught the only way to reach salvation was to perform good deeds or to pay for your way into heaven through indulgences
What did the Edict of Chateaubriant do?
The edict laid out strict laws for the Protestants and would eventually lead to more prosecution and harsh treatment from their own government (the same government meant to protect them)
When did the first wave of Protestant persecution in France begin?
The first wave of protestant persecution began in France when the army of Emperor Charles V captured the French King, Francis I, in the Battle of Pavia in the early 16th century
What was Spain forced to do in regards to the Dutch?
Ultimately, spain was forced to cede some of its territory and acknowledge Dutch independence with the Pacification of Ghen
what happened within two years after the French Queen Catherine de'Medici became in charge in regards to the Protestant's rights?
Within 2 years, the queen produced the Edict of January and gave Protestants the right to publicly worship outside of towns
Who was Zwingli? What was his ideology?
Zwingli, leader of the Swiss Reformation, held an ideology similar to Martin Luther, but questions some key points, such as differences over the Eucharist
Who was Johann Tetzel?
a salesman of indulgences
How many lives were lost during the Thirty Years War?
around 8 million lives were lost over the duration of this war
how did Baroque art hope to create a sensory and dramatic experience for the viewer?
baroque art was emotional, penetrating and complex, often connecting with the viewers on a personal level
What killed the efforts at religious pluralism over the next few years after the French Queen produced the Edict of January (which gave Protestants the right to publicly worship outside of towns)
death and assassination killed the efforts at religious pluralism over the next few years
Mary Tudor attempted to convert the entire nation to Protestantism.
false
How did Philip II help sian gain some territory and wealth?
he did gain territory and wealth from pursuits in the New World importing more precious metal in Spain than the country had ever seen before
What did Zwingli object to?
he objected the employment of Swiss citizens and foreign armies and became a critic of the mercenary system
When did the Edict of Chateaubriant come into effect?
in 1551, the Edict of Chateaubriant came into effect
Which two powerful families developed sympathy for the Huguenots, which would ultimately lead to extreme tension?
the Bourbons and the Montmorency-Chatillons
What was the bible written and read in?
the bible was written and read in Latin, a language foreign to most of the population
How did the government respond to protestants spreading anti-Catholic propaganda in Paris in 1534?
the government responded with mass arrests of the offenders resulting in the Edict of Fontainebleau, which opened up the Huguenots, or French Protestants, to the Inquisition
What change allowed King Henry to divorce his marriage and marry Anne Boleyn?
the parliament in 1533 named the King the highest court of appeal for all English subjects. he was also publicly declared as he head of the Church of England in 1531
what percent of the nobility converted to Calvinism during the french wars of religion?
the wars witnessed the conversion of 40 to 50% of the nobility towards Calvinism as they were hoping to assert more power in France
Although the treaty called for peace in Europe, smaller bouts of revolt and unrest will ultimately change the political and geographical landscape of Europe forever
true
As a politique, or one who puts the needs of her nation above all else, the Queen (Elizabeth I) sought to maintain peace and stability through religious toleration
true
Each reform movement had its own way of connecting to God and its own interpretation of what faith meant
true
For roughly 30 years, this war continued, a mess of complicated alliances, political greed, and religious hegemony
true
Great Schism was a monumental event that set the stage for future unrest and rebellion against the Catholic Church
true
In summary, France experienced bloodshed, political corruption, and deceiving queens before it understood what France was all along, a Catholic country
true
In summary, Spanish politics were fueled by a desire to calm the masses, namely the lay piety, while at the same time, promote and maintain absolute rule
true
It was felt that the church abused its power and economic status for its own gain, not for God
true
Most of the French wars and events were not completely about religion but instead about power struggles between families after a weakened monarchy
true
Overall, england proved its dominance over the previously leading power, spain, but both continued to expand in wealth, power, and land
true
Philip II loved books and pictures and he reigned during Spain's golden age of literature
true
Philip II was a perfect example of a ruler who understood that history and tradition play an integral role in politics.
true
Religious animosity and discontent has already started several years before the French Wars
true
Since the church rejected papal authority and focused on the importance of the Bible and salvation by faith alone, they were constructed to remind the faithful of their direct connection to God
true
Spain held control of the provinces in the low countries until the Dutch began a campaign of revolts under William I of Orange, and eventually, the French forces, under a new alliance system
true
Spain, france, and scotland desperately tried to get elizabeth I to convert catholicism
true
The sentiments expressed by early lay reformers and members of clerical positions, exacerbated the desire to reform or change the Catholic church
true
The virgin queen's reign of 45 years protected England from religious discrimination, death and pilleage from foreign invasions, and loss of land
true
What title did Zwingli take?
"people's priest"
who was John Hus?
John Hus was a christian reformer
who are two noteworthy Baroque artists?
-Caravaggio (an Italian painter of the Baroque and Renaissance period) -Peter Raul Rubens (one of the most famous Flemish painters of the Catholic Church and courts of the 17th century)
what are six characteristics of Baroque Art?
-Dramatic contrast between light and dark -Images are simple and dramatic -Images seen physically and psychologically real -Dramatic use of color -Tries to draw the viewer into a sensory experience -Lots of movement and grandiose themes
What are traits of Mannerist Art?
-Included images and characteristics of a personal taste and style -Tried to create an over-exaggerated and imaginative world during the High Renaissance period -Had elements of the bizarre or of elongated limbs, placing emphasis on certain features of their subject
Did King Henry agree with the Protestant views?
Although the King's affair and split with the Church is seen as an integral part of the Protestant Reformation, King Henry did not agree with their views
What was the name of King Henry's mistress?
Anne Boleyn
to whom was art and music very important to?
Art and music were important to the illiterate and faithful people
At the time of the Thirty Year's War, how many different independent identities did Germany have?
At this time, Germany was separated, with 360 independent entities
What day is known as Bartholomew's Day Massacre?
August 22nd, 1572
when were Baroque Churches constructed?
Baroque Churches were constructed in the spirit of the Renaissance signaling the triumph of the Catholic Church during the Protestant Reformation period
what were considered "vehicles" to transport the teachings and dogma of the Catholic Church?
Baroque art, music, and architecture were vehicles to transport the teachings and dogma of the Catholic Church
What happened as a result of Spain being united after the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella?
Because spain was united after the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella, they were able to embark on a series of campaigns designed to spread Catholicism and acquire resources, mostly gold
What was the benefits system?
Benefits system = the system and the use of indulgences created a spirit of unrest and change within the lay piety
What belief of Luther's did Calvin agree with?
Calvin followed the beliefs of Martin Luther that justification was by faith rather than by deeds
Who was Gaspard Coligny?
Coligny was a French nobleman and a leader of the Huguenot movement
Divine right:
Divine Right: The divine right of kings, divine right, or God's mandate is a political and religious doctrine of royal and political legitimacy. It asserts that a monarch is subject to no earthly authority, deriving the right to rule directly from the will of God.
Why was Luther charged with heresy?
Due to the church's need to establish power and dominance over the insubordinate people, Pope Leo X charged Luther with heresy
Why were many different artists attempting to appeal to the viewer on a personal level and trying to remind them of the power of God?
Due to the increasing focus on humanism and religious reformation, many different artists attempted to appeal to the viewer on a personal level, hoping to remind them of the power of God
What happened to Spain during the 1500s?
During the 1500s, Spain went through a major change during the age of religious wars, as it reaffirmed that "Paris was worth a mass" (quote by Philip II)
What happened during the 16th century in regards of King Henry VII and Pope Julius II?
During the 16th century, a disintegration between King Henry VIII and Pope Julius II caused England to diffuse from the Roman Catholic church, which changed the religion of England forever
During the Reformation, what new things were emerging (especially within the Catholic Church?)
During the Reformation, new styles of art architecture and music were emerging especially within the Catholic Church
What happened during the mid 16th century in regards to Philip II?
During the mid 16th century, Philip II, son of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, ruled over an empire that stretched across continents
During the wars, France did not have enough men and supplies but they did have __________
During the wars, France did not have enough men and supplies, but did have assistance from other countries
how was the church doing during this period?
During this period the church had many rumors of corruption
Who is a widely known Mannerist artist?
El Greco
How did Elizabeth I (daughter of Anne Boleyn) reinstate religious toleration?
Elizabeth I reinstated religious toleration by removing all anti-protestant laws with the act of supremacy in 1559 and act of uniformity
Who was Mary Tudor's half sister who ruled during the Golden Age of England?
Elizabeth I, daughter of Anne Boleyn, ruled and ushered in the Golden Age of England
Which country was growing exponentially in power during the 16th and 17th centuries?
England
Which two countries erupted into the Thirty Years' War?
England and Spain (two strongest countries)
What were the two strongest countries in Europe at the time?
England and spain were the two strongest countries in Europe with different religious beliefs and policies that guided their politics
What did John Calvin advance on?
He advanced the movement that Martin Luther had sparked
Which of the following best describes Luther's beliefs?
He believed that faith, not good works, would save sinners
What part of the teachings of church did Luther boldly contradict?
He boldly contradicted the teachings of the church that good deeds should be done from a willingness to help others, not to guarantee salvation
how did John Calvin change people's views?
He changed the views and culture of many people trough scholastic and humanist tradition
What was one country Philip II of Spain could conquer? What was one he couldn't?
He conquered Portugal and couldn't conquer the Netherlands
What religion did Henry of Navarre (the King after Regent Queen Catherine) convert to?
He converted to Catholicism
how did Luther further prove his opposition to the papacy?
He further proved his opposition through supporting John Hus, a reformer executed for heresy
Which of the following best describes the "Act of Supremacy"?
Henry VIII making himself the religious authority in England
What was Catherine de'Medici's goal while being Queen?
Her goal was to preserve the monarchy by forming a union between the Protestants and Catholics
When was Luther finally excommunicated and banned?
In 1520, he was finally excommunicated and banned although he continued to voice his concern and opinion
What happened in Feb 1533 in regards to the King and the parliament?
In feb 1533, parliament named the King the highest court of appeal for all English subjects - > this change allowed him to annul his marriage and get married to his new wife Anne Boleyn, although some residents did not fully recognize her as the rightful Queen
What happened in January of 1531 in regards to King Henry VII and the Church of England?
In january 1531, the convocation, a legislative assembly that represents English clergy, publicly declared King Henry VIII as head of the Church of England as far as the laws of Christ allow
What happened in response of France having assistance from other countries?
In response, the Catholic Church and Spain began to plot against France. Before Spain could act though, France declared war on them
Why did officials in Spain celebrate the news of the Bartholomew's Day Massacre (Aug 22nd, 1572)?
In spain, the officials celebrated the news because France was now locked into a bloody internal war and posed no threat to Spain
What happened in the four stages of the Thirty Years' War?
In these phases, Protestant forces from the Dutch, Swedish, and french continually had conflicts with Spanish forces in modern day Germany, including Bohemia
What did the lay piety take not of over time?
Increasingly, the lay piety noted the acts of corruption and abuses of power from the papacy and the clergy
What were indulgences?
Indulgences, a main source of revenue for the church, were fees imposed by priests to relieve people of their own or their dead relatives' sins
What did irreconcilable differences lead to?
Irreconcilable differences led to the development of a variety of religious views across multiple countries ranging from Germany, Switzerland, England, and France
Who was John Calvin?
John Calvin was a French theologian, pastor, and scholar during the Protestant Reformation during the early 16th century
What was the epitome of the age of religious wars?
The Thirty Years' War was the epitome of the age of religious wars (it was a long and sad war that focused on political gain rather than religious conflict
Who was John Hus?
John Hus - leader of the early Christian reform movement. He paved the way for future reformers, including Martin Luther. He died at the stake
why did King Henry believe him and Catherine of Aragon's marriage was cursed?
King henry believed that his and catherine's marriage was cursed by God due to her many miscarriages and stillbirths
What were Luther's beliefs founded on?
Luther's beliefs were founded on his rejection of the righteousness of God with justification by faith alone, or sola fide
what is another art movement worth noting at the tail end of the High Renaissance period?
Mannerism
how was mannerism an extension of the effort to transport the teachings and dogma of the Catholic Church?
Mannerism was an extension of this effort through its exaggeration and emphasis to pull the viewer in
What ended the wars?
The Treaty of Westphalia finally ended the wars, establishing Protestantism and religious independence across Europe
who was the leader of Protestant reformation?
Martin Luther was the leader of Protestant reformation
Who was Martin Luther? What was he known for?
Martin Luther, a german member of the order of hermits of st. augustine, was a well-known critic of the practices of the Catholic Church
Who inherited the throne of England in 1552 and attempted to convert the entire nation to Catholicism?
Mary Tudor (or Bloody Mary) inherited the throne in 1553 and attempted to convert the entire nation to Catholicism
Why was Mary Tudor called "Bloody Mary"?
Mary Tudor became later known as Bloody mary for her cruel acts and punishments against the Protestants
What happened as a result of the Medieval church being weak + on the verge to collapse?
Medieval Church was weak + on the verge to collapse (esp in aftermath of Black Death) - > increase in individuality prompted by Renaissance + decrease in loyalty to church and state
How could members of the clergy "purchase" their position in the church?
Members of clergy could "purchase" their position in the church through the benefits system
Who was Miguel Cervantes?
Miguel Cervantes was an honored Spanish writers. He was widely considered the greatest Spanish writer, especially for his contributions to the Spanish language.
what is Montaverdi best known for?
Monteverdi is best known for his contributions to opera and for ushering in a new modern secular spirit
Thirty Years' War
Much of the war was fought on German soil Occurred during the Age of Religious Wars Wars began when Ferdinand II ascended to the Protestant Bohemian throne Four phases of war
What happened on Bartholomew's Day Massacre (Aug 22nd, 1572)
On Bartholomew's Day Massacre, roughly 3,000 Protestants were slaughtered on one of their holiest days
Who was known as the forefront of the rebellion against the papacy?
Once luther's ideas became distributed, he became the forefront of the rebellion against the papacy
Who was one of the masterminds behind the Bartholomew's Day Massacre (Aug 22nd, 1572)
One of the masterminds behind this massacre was Catherine de' Medici
what happened over the next few years after the Guises from Eastern France gained power over Francis II?
Over the next few years, about two-fifths of the aristocracy converted as Huguenots
What was Philip II of Spain known as?
Phillip II of Spain was known as a strong Catholic supporter who ruled the Hapsburg lands of both Bohemia, Austria, and Hungary, as well as Castile
What happened during the Thirty Years' War in summary?
Political power fluctuated, religious beliefs changed, egos were crushed and many lives were lost in the Thirty Years' War
What were the six articles of 1539 often referred to by the Protestants?
Protestants referred to those six articles as the whip with six stings
Who built the English military at great heights hoping to conquer and repel all incoming attacks?
Queen Elizabeth I
Who was debatably the strongest leader England has ever had?
Queen Elizabeth I (daughter of Anne Boleyn and half sister of Mary Tudor or Bloody Mary)
When did the reformation occur?
Reformation occurred during the 16th century
Although the Regent Queen Catherine strived to keep both sides content and equal, her son became influenced by who?
Regent Queen Catherine strived to keep both sides content and equal, but her son, Charles became influenced by Gaspard Coligny
What was the bible only reserved for?
The bible was reserved only for clerical powers
While ruling as a monarch of Spain, what did Philip II use to justify his actions?
Ruling as an absolute monarch, Philip II used divine right to justify many of his actions and attempted to maintain and spread his empire under Catholicism only
During this period, what had erupted within the lay piety?
Sense of spiritual loss had erupted within the lay piety. Europe witnessed rise in the social power of the lay piety
Why did the French Regent Queen Catherine fear the relationship between Gaspard Coligny and her son, Charles?
She feared this relationship because she realized that it put France in direct conflict with powerful Spain, as Spain was an ally and Catholic
What did the lay piety become more involved in?
Since the ecclesiastical powers did not allow for participation in church dogma, the lay piety were more involved in the secular aspects of society and had a weak spiritual connection
Spain was apart of what empire?
Spain was part of the Holy Roman Empire
What did the Act of Succession do?
The Act of Succession was passed which asked all English peoples to take an oath to recognize Anne Boleyn was the King's lawfully wedded wife and their children as legitimate heirs to the throne
when did the Baroque Period begin?
The Baroque Period began early in the 1600s roughly around the age of religious wars
how do the Renaissance and Baroque art style differ?
The Renaissance style has a more varied and expressive tone whereas the Baroque has a much more holy and emotional tone
when did the French rise to power begin?
The French rise to power began with Ferdinand II's Peace of Prague, the document which forced individual Germanic states to follow the Holy Roman Empire
Who gained power over the weak Francis II (who was 15 and weak, only in charge of throne for one year after death of Henry II, who was his dad) ?
The Guises from Eastern France gained power over the weak Francis II
Which Catholic order played a major role in the Catholic Reformation?
The Jesuits
What act solidified his claim to the throne and his split from the Roman Catholic Church thus creating the Church of England?
The King's former friends Thomas More and John Fisher refused to take the oath so King Henry had them executed as an example to others
What did the King do as a result of greatly disliking the Protestant views?
The king so greatly disliked the Protestant views that he struck directly at them in the Six Articles of 1539
What edict did Henry of Navarre issue?
The next monarch, Henry of Navarre, a politique, converted to Catholicism but issued the Edict of Nantes, declaring limited freedoms to the Huguenots
Which of the following motivated Henry VIII to break away from the Catholic Church?
The papacy did not allow him to divorce
Who did the papacy have a strong desire to rid of?
The papacy had strong desire to rid the empire of all dissenters
What did the political battles of the french "thrust" the protestants into?
The political battles thrust the protestants into a vicious struggle for survival against a longstanding and seemingly corrupt system of religion
When did the second wave of protestant persecution in France come?
The second wave came ten years after in 1534 when Protestants spread anti-Catholic propaganda in Paris
When did the Thirty Years' war begin?
The wars all began when Ferdinand II, a devout Catholic and soon to be Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, ascended to the Protestant Bohemian throne in 1618 (the first of the four phases in the age of religious wars)
when did the chaos with the wealthy families and Francis II end? Who became in charge?
There was chaos until the death of Francis II, when Catherine de'Medici became regent queen for her young son Charles IX
What did Philip's marriages make "difficult" to happen?
These alliances made it difficult for any kind of intellectual, or political change, but it also allowed peace within the country and abroad
Who were indulgences originally given to?
These bought redemptions were originally given to soldiers who couldn't repent fully before going into battle, and it continued as a practice from the RCC
how did all of the art styles attempt to remain faithful of God's grace and sacrifice?
They all attempted to remain the faithful of God's grace and sacrifice through the use of intense and emotional imagery
why did the controversy between King Henry VII and Pope Julius II happen?
This controversy was due to King Henry's wish to divorce his marriage to Catherine of Aragon when she failed to produce a male heir. the church wouldn't let him.
What did the event of the Bartholomew's Day Massacre do?
This single event turned a few political struggles into an international fight
What were the name of the peace treaties signed to end the Thirty Years War?
Treaty of Westphalia
how can mannerism be distinguished?
its overly dramatic use of elongated limbs, themes of mythology, and clashing colors
What was established for a bit under Philip II's reign over Spain?
peace
What title did Zwingli take?
peope's priest
what were protestant churches like?
protestant churches were more traditional with less ornate decoration
