Unit 5 & 6 Psychology Test

Night terrors

A sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during Stage 4 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered.

Sleep apnea

A sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings

Addiction

Compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences

Hallucinations

False sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus

Hallucinogens

Psychedelic drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory need.

Identify and briefly describe the three major sleep disorders experienced by adults.

Sleep apnea: stops breathing during sleep Narcolepsy: falls asleep suddenly Insomnia: can't fall asleep

Circadian Rhythm

The biological clock;regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle

Extrinsic Motivation

a desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment.

Manifest content

according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream

Respondent Behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus; Skinner's term for behavior learned through classical conditioning.

Operant Behavior

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

Habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation

Mirror Neurons

frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy

Associative learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning)

Latent Learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

Prosocial Behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior

Extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced

Psychoactive drug

A chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods

Physical dependence

A physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued.

LSD

A powerful hallucinogenic drug also known as acid.

Methamphetamine

A powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels.

Psychological dependence

A psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions

Dream

A sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind. Dreams are notable for hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, incongruities, and for the dreamer's delusional acceptance of content and later difficulty remembering it

Narcolepsy

A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.

Hypnosis

A social interaction in which one person suggests to another that certain feelings, perceptions, thought, or behaviors will spontaneously occur.

Dissociation

A split in consciousness which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others.

Posthypnotic suggestion

A suggestion made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors.

Latent Content

According to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream

Near death experience

An altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death often similar to drug-induced hallucinations

Explain two differences between classical and operant conditioning.

Classical conditioning involves involuntary responses but operant conditioning involves voluntary responses. In classical conditioning, the learner associates two events ( a conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus ). In operant conditioning, the learner associates a behavior with a consequence.

Barbiturates

Drugs that depress the activity of the Central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment

Stimulants

Drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions

Depressants

Drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

Amphetamines

Drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes

PT. 1: Briefly explain how the concepts below could be used to help a child stop throwing temper tantrums. - Extinction (operant conditioning) - Positive reinforcement - Modeling

Extinction (Operant): The child might be throwing a temper tantrum because that behavior is being reinforced. Extinction could be used to stop the temper tantrum by removing the reinforcement. Without the reinforcement, eventually the behavior should decrease. Positive Reinforcement: A positive reinforcement: A positive reinforcement could be used to encourage a behavior other than temper tantrums. The child could be given the positive reinforcement after a "prosocial" behavior, such as sharing a toy with a friend instead of throwing a tantrum. Modeling: The child might lean to avoid temper tantrums through modeling or observational learning. A parent or other adult could show positive behaviors when disappointed, and the child might imitate this behavior.

Identify two states of consciousness that are psychologicaly induced and two that occur spontaneously.

For any two psychologically induced staes: sensory deprivation, hypnosis, or meditation For any two spontaneously occuring states: daydreaming, drowsiness, or dreaming

Name and compare two hallucinogens.

LSD creates vivid hallucinations and strong emotions Marijuana creates mild hallucinations, enhanced sensory experiences, and impaired judgement.

Explain how Bandura's Bobo Doll experiment illustrates each of the following: - Modeling - Mirror Neurons

Modeling can be described as the behavior of the child as he or she imitates the adult. Mirror neurons on the child's brain presumably would fire the same way when watching the adult or when imitating the adults behavior.

Pt. 2: Briefly explain how the concepts below could be used to help a child stop throwing temper tantrums. - Negative reinforcement - Shaping - Extinction (classical conditioning)

Negative reinforcement: Negative reinforcement occurs when a stimulus is removed, and this removal reinforces a behavior. In this situation, a parent or adult could sit the child on a "time out" seat as soon as the temper tantrum begins. The child could leave the time out set as soon as she /he stops crying. The removal of the aversion stimulus of the time out seat could reinforce not crying, and help to stop temper tantrums. Shaping: a parent or other adult could gradually shape the child's negative behavior toward desired behaviors be rewarding successive approximations. For example, a child could first be rewarded for crying more quietly during a tantrum, then for stopping yelling, then for avoiding the tantrum completely. Extinction (Classical): In the context of classical conditioning, a behavior becomes extinct because a neutral stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus. For example, a child might have been classically conditioned to throw a tantrum whenever the child's brother is present because the brother always pinches the could. The tantrum could be made extinct by convincing the brother to stop the pinching. The conditioned stimulus is presented to the child without the unconditioned stimulus. After repeated pairings, the conditioned response of the tantrum should become extinct.

NREM sleep

Non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep.

Opiates

Opium and its derivatives that depress neural activity temporarily lessening pain and anxiety

Consciousness

Our awareness of ourselves and our environment

Sleep

Periodic, natural loss of consciousness--as distinct from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation

REM sleep

Rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep because the muscles are relaxed but other body systems are active.

Insomnia

Recurring problems in falling or staying asleep

Sleep serves many functions for us. Briefly explain how sleep can provide protection and promote physical growth.

Sleep kept our ancestors safe from nighttime dangers Sleep promotes the release of pituitary growth hormone.

Tolerance

The diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect.

Withdrawal

The discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug.

Carter's goldfish has been classically conditioned to swim to the top of the fish tank every time the light is turned on. This happened because Carter always turns the light in the room on just before feeding the fish. Identify what each of the following would be in this example. - conditioned response (CR) - conditioned stimulus (CS) - unconditioned stimulus (US)

The goldfish swimming to the top of the tank when the light is turned on is the Conditioned Response because the fish has learned to behave this way. The light is the conditioned stimulus because the goldfish has learned to respond to this stimulus. The food is the Unconditioned stimulus because this stimulus will naturally cause the fish to swim to the top of the tank.

Delta waves

The large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep

Mom is frustrated because 3-year-old Maya as started to spit frequently. She has decided to temporarily put away one of Maya's toys everytime she spits. Mom is going to continue this until Maya has stopped spitting. - Explain whether Mom's plan uses reinforcement or punishment - Explain whether Mom's plan is a positive or negative form of reinforcement of punishment.

The plan uses punishment because it is designed to reduce the frequency of spitting This is negative punishment because the toys are being taken away from Maya.

Alpha waves

The relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

REM rebound

The tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation

Law of Effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

Operant Chamber

a chamber also known as a Skinner box, containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer, with attached devices to record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking. Used in operant conditioning research.

Intrinsic Motivation

a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake.

Cognitive Map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

Higher Order Conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second conditioned stimulus

Learning

a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience

Conditioned Reinforcer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as secondary reinforcer.

Insight

a sudden realization of a problem's solution; contrasts with strategy based solutions

Ecstasy

a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition

Biofeedback

a system of electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension.

Classical Conditioning

a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus (US) begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus

Operant Conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.

Punishment

an event that decreases the behavior that it follows.

Primary Reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.

Shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

In which stage if sleep are you likely to experience hypnagogic sensations of falling? a. Alpha sleep b. NREM-1 c. NREM -2 d. NREM-3 e. REM

b. NREM-1

What are bursts of rapid, rhythmic brain - wave activity that occur during NREM-2 sleep? a. Hallucinations b. Circadian Rhythms c. Alpha Waves d. Sleep Spindles e. Delta Waves

d. Sleep Spindles

Deep sleep occurs in which stage? a. Hypnagogic b. REM c. Alpha d. NREM-1 e. Delta

e. Delta

Unconditioned Stimulus

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response

Conditioned Stimulus

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response

Discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned Response

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)

Unconditioned Response

in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth

Fixed-Ratio Schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after a specified number of responses.

Variable-Ratio Schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

Variable-Interval Schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

Fixed-Interval Schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.

Reinforcer

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.

Positive Reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

Negative Reinforcement

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note, this is not the same thing as punishment.)

Observational Learning

learning by observing others

Partial Reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

Continuous Reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

Learned Helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events.

Acquisition

the initial stage in classical conditioning; the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response.

THC

the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects including mild hallucinations.

Modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

Spontaneous Recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.

Generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.

Behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2)