Unit 5 & 6

New Constitution causes Consternation

- 1791, National Assembly ratified new constitution, similar to US Constitution that was ratified 2 years before, except that instead of president, king held on to the executive power. It was constitutional monarchy rather than constitutional democracy. Those who wanted to abolish the monarchy felt cheated- those who wanted to retain the federal structure felt betrayed. - most of the royalty in Europe intermarried. Marie Antionette, wife of Louis XVI also sister of Emperor of Austria. Austrians and the Prussians invaded France to restore the monarchy, but French revolutionaries were able to hold them back. Led French leaders to call for meeting to draw up new constitution. Under new constitution, Convention became the new ruling body, quickly abolished monarchy and proclaimed France a republic. Led by radicals known as Jacobins, convention imprisoned royal family and in 1793, king was beheaded for treason.

South America- Vision of Grandeur

- 1808, Napoleon invaded Spain, appointed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, to the spanish throne. Spanish authorities in the colonies into a tizzy. Colonists decided to remain loyal to their Spanish king and not reorganize the French regime under Bonaparte. In Venezuela, ejected Bonaparte's governor and appointed their own leaders, Simon Bolivar. Tutored on the republican ideals of Rousseau during his travels to Europe, the US, Bolivar found himself in the midst of great opportunity to use what he learned. in 1811, Bolivar helped establish a national congress, declared independence from Spain. Royalists, supporters, of the Spanish crown, declared civil war. Bolivar proved to be a wily and effective military leader, during the next decade, he won freedom for the area called Gran Columbia (modern day Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela). Bolivar envisioned huge south American country spanning across the continent, similar to growing US in North America. Following decades, the individual nation states of northwestern South American formed their own governments. - Meanwhile, farther south in Argentina, conflict between French governor and those who still wanted to support Spanish crown created another opportunity for liberation. Jose de San Martin was American born Spaniard (creole) who served as officer in Spanish army. 1814, extensive military experience to use0 for the rebels, taking command of the Argentinian armies. San Martin joined up with Bernando O'Higgins of Chile and took the revolutionary movement not only through Argentina and Chile, also to Peru, joined forces with Bolivar. Spanish forces withered away. 1820s, huge chunk of South America successfully declared its independence from Spain.

The Congress of Vienna-

- 1815, congress decreed that balance of power should be maintained among the existing power of Europe, in order to avoid the rise of another Napoleon. France was death with fairly- its borders were cut back to their pre Napoleonic dimensions. Not published militarily or economically. Although it rearranged some of European boundaries and created new kingdoms in Poland and the Netherland, the Congress also reaffirmed absolute rule, reseating the monarchs of France, Spain, Holland, many Italian city states. Congress of Vienna ignored many of the ideals put forth by French revolutionaries and the rights established under France's short lived republic. Essentially tried to erase the whole French Rev and Napoleon from the European consciousness and restore the royal order.

Berlin Conference-

- 1884, Otto von Bismarck hosted the major European powers at conference in Berlin intended to resolve some differences over various European claims to lands in the African Congo. End of conference, delegates had set up rules for how future colonization rights and boundaries would be determined on that continent. Rule in hand, Europeans left the conference in haste. Each country wanted first to establish possession in various parts of France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Belgium. Only Ethiopa and Libertia remained independent of Europeans rule in 1914. - Europeans added substantial infrastructure to continent by building railroads, dams, roads, stripped Africa of its resources for profit and treated natives harshly. Every colonial power except Britain exercised direct rule over its colonies, Europeans were put in positions of authority and colonies were remade according to Europeans customs. British, having their hands full with huge colony in India, massive spheres of influence in China and elsewhere, permitted native populations to rule themselves more directly and more freely practice their traditional customs (similar to Roman Empire handled far flung territories) - Berlin conference 1884, encouraged colonialism solely based on bargaining for political and economic advantage, boundary lines that eventually separated colonial territories were based on European concerns, not on African history or culture. in some situations, tribal lands were cut in half between two colonies controlled by two European nations, other situations two rival tribes were unwillingly brought together under same colonial rule. Disruption of traditional tribal boundary lines worked to European's advantage because it was difficult for the native Africans to organize and opposition within each colony. Much more than thwart opposition- it disrupted the opposition within each colony, did much than thwart opposition- disrupted the culture. Add in European schools, Christian missionaries, Western business practices, traditional African culture, global colonial swirl, started breaking apart.

Other Political Developments- Russia Life with Czars-

- 19th century, russia consolidated power over its vast territories by giving absolute power to its Romanov scars. Vast majority of the citizens were serfs with no rights, living an almost slavelike existence. Alexander I and Nicholas I frequrenly used secret police to quash rebellions or hints of reform, despite, fact that an increasing number of Russians demanded change. - 1860s, long after Enlightenment had effect on most developents in West, Alexander II began some reforms. issued the Emancipation Edict, which essentially abolished serfdom. The serfs were given very small plots of land for which had to give huge payments to the gov to keep, so it was difficult for them to improve their lot. Some peasants headed to the cities to work in Russia's burgeoning industries, there too had reforms that softened some of the harsher working conditions in the West hadn't made their way eastward. In the fields, or in the factories, Russian peasants continued to live a meager existence epsiecally when compared to many of their western Europan counterparts. - during second half of 19th century, small but visible middle class started to grow, and the arts began to flourish. SECOND TO LAST PARAGRAPH

Contrast them American and French Rev

- American Revolution involved colonial uprising against imperial power. It was independence movement, French Rev involved citizens rising up against their own country's leadership and against their own political and economic system, that case was more of revolution. At end of American Revolution, imperial power of England was still intact, indeed the new US was in many ways designed in image of England itself. In contrast, end of French Rev, France was very different place. The king was beheaded and socio political structure changed. - the world revolution described American independence mov because US was first major colony to break away from European colonial power since dawn of Age of Exploration. - Ideas adopted in Declaration of Independence, US constitution, French Rev, inspired colonists, citizens, slaves across the globe.

Brazil Power to the Pedros

- Brazil was portuguese colony, when Portugal was invaded by Napoleon's armies in 1807, John VI, Portuguese king fled to Brazil, set up his royal court in exile. 1821, apoleon defeated and it was safe for John VI to return to Portugal, he left behind his son, Pedro, he was 23 years old. Charged him with running considered it home, declared brazilian independence and crowned himself emperor the next year. Brazil had a constitution. - 1831, Pedro abdicated power to his son, Pedro II, ruled the country through much of the 19th century. He reformed Brazilian society, turned it into a major exporter of coffee, his greatest single accomplishment was the abolition of slavery in 1888 (occurred under the direction of his daughter, Isabel, running the country while Pedro II was away). Action so incensed landowning class that they revolted against the monarchy and established a republic in 1899.

Enlightenment Revolutions in the Americas and Europe 1- The AMERICAN REVOLUTION

- Britain began colonizing the east coast of North America during the 17th century. By mid 18th century, British colonists in America felt threatened by France's colonial settlements on the continent. France and Britain were longtime rivals (Hundred's War) and carried this rivalry with them into fights in America. The French enlisted the Algonquin and Iroquis tribes to fight alongside them against the encroaching colonists but in 1763, England prevailed over the French in a war known in the colonies as the French and Indian War but known in Europe as the 7 years war. British victory changed the boundaries of the two empire's American possessions, pushing French territory to the north, while English territories westward into Ohio River Valley - the colonies were thrilled with the results of the war, the British felt colonists had not adequately shared the burden. Colonists resented this, their efforts made colonial expansion possible. Britain's George Grenville and later Charles Townshend passed very unpopular laws on behalf of the British crown. Laws including Revenue Act (1764), the Stamp Act (1765) and the Tea Act (1773), intended to raise additional funds for the British gov. Laws created great unrest among the colonists, felt the taxes were economically unfair, and politically unjust- they weren't represented when Parliament when the laws had been passed. This arose the rev cry- No taxation without representation. - After the colonists dumped tea in Boston Harbor to protest the Tea Act, relations between the crown and colonies deteriorated rapidly. April 19, 1775 British troops battled with rebellious colonists in Lexington and Concord, end of that bloody day, many died. The war of Independence died. - overwhelming majority of American colonists either were born in England, or were children of those born in England, therefore many colonists felt ambivalent if completely opposed to the movement for independence. . Those who sought independence were worried that Britain was too powerful to defeat. One student of Enlightenment, Thomas Paine, urged colonists to support the movement. In his widely distributed pamphlet, Common Sense, the monarchy as an encroachment on Americans' natural rights and appealed to the colonists to form better government. Americans signed the Declaration of Independence. Printing press, powerful tool of the Protestant Reformation became a powerful tool for American Revolution

Europeans imperialism In China

- China was relatively isolationist. traded frequently but didn't make exploration high priority. Expanded by conquering its neighbors, but never took this expansion beyond its own region of the globe. Up until 1830s, China allowed the EUropean powers to trade only in port city of Canton, established strict limitations on what could be bought and sold. European powers, particularly the British, gained industrial muscle, they came barging in this time with weapons and warships

Compare European Colonialism in Africa and Latin America

- Colonialism in Africa was similar to that in the Americas, boundary lines were determined by European agreements from abroad. Total disregard for the societies that existed beforehand. Colonialism in Africa was similar to colonialism in America because multiple countries held claims to the land. Except for the colonies controlled by British, African colonies were governed by direct rule, similar to European rule of colonies in the Americas. Meant they sent European officials to occupy all positions of authority. Native traditions were overcome, not tolerated, certainly not developed. This was in contrast to spheres of influence in China, in which Europeans were generally more interested in making money rather than changing the entire culture.

Focus on Consequences and Causes of American Rev

- Enlightenment had hugeeee impact because it helped inspire the revolution, and type the gov that was created after it succeeded. Also, mercantilist policies drove American colonists nuts, case in European colonies everywhere. Enlightenment and frustration over economic exploitation are common themes in the world's revolutionary cries against colonialism throughout the 1800s.

Effects of the Independence Movements- More Independence than Freedom

- Europe was effectively booted out of many parts of American continents during 50 year time span beginning in about 1780, some Latin American countries the independence from colonial power wasn't accompanied by widespread freedom among vast majority of citizens. As in the US, slavery existed for decades. peasants still worked on huge plantations owned by few landowners. Unlike in the US, middle class of merchants and small farmers didn't emerge, many of the Enlightenment ideas had influenced only the educated elite. - several reasons for this. Catholic Church remained very powerful in Latin America. Many of the priests advocated on behalf of the peasants and of the slaves, the church hierarchy as whole protected the status quo. Church was one of the largest landowners in Latin America - Economies of Latin America, while free from Europe politically were still dependent on Europe economically. Latin American countries still participated in European mercantilism, often to their own detriment. Specialized in few cash crops, exported almost exclusively to Europe, then bought the finished products. Most Latin American economies didn't diversify, nor did they broaden opportunities to larger class of people, so innovation and creativity rarely took root - Notable exceptions. Chile diversified its economy fairly successful, Brazil and Argentina instituted social reform and broadened their economies to include growing middle class. the hugely successful independence movements in Latin America didn' t result in noticeable changes for majority of the population for more than a century.

Lost of Independence Mov Latin America

- European colonies in Latin America was inspired by success of American Rev and ideas of the French Rev. There had been unsuccessful revolts and uprisings in the Latin American colonies for two or three centuries prior to these revolts. Early 19th century, the world order was different. Europe was in chaos because rise and fall of Napoleon, this distracted the European powers from their American holdings, a development that gave rebellious leaders an opportunity to assert themselves more than they previously could have.

Haiti- Slave Revolt leaves France all over the place

- First successful Latin America revolt took place in Haiti- French island colony in the Caribbean; French true to their mercantilist policies exported coffee, sugar, cocoa, indigo from Haiti to Europe. French colonists owned large plantations and hundreds of thousands of slaves, grew and harvested these crops under horrible conditions. By 1800, 90% of the population was enslaved and working on large plantations. - 1801, Napoleon was gaining momentum in Europe, Pierre Toussain L'Ouverture, former slave led violent but successful slave revolt. Enraged, Napoleon sent 20k troops to put down the revolt, Haitians were capable fighters. They also had another weapon- yellow fever that claimed many French lives. French did succeed in capturing Ouverture, imprisoning him in France, but couldn't turn back the revolutionary tide. Ouverture's lieutenant Jacques Dessalines, former slave proclaimed Haiti free republic 1804, and named himself governor general for life. Haiti became first independent in Latin America

Industrial and Imperialism

- IR, which began in mid 18th century, Britain and spread rapidly through the 19th century, inseparable from the Age of Imperialism, which reached its peak in the late 19th century, early 20th century. Industrial technology had two enormous consequences. First, countries with industrial tech by definition had advanced military weapons and capacity, were therefore easily able to conquer people who did not have this technology. Second, in order to succeed, factories needed to access to raw materials to make finished products and markets to sell those finished products. Colonies fit both of these roles quite well. - Bulk of the western hemisphere freed itself from European control, by early 19th century, industrial imperialists turned their eyes westward Africa and Asia where exploitation was easy and markets were huge.

European Imperialism in India

- Indian subcontinent had been long destination for European traders eager to get India's many luxurious; such as tea, sugar, silk, salt. Early 18th century, Mughal Empire was in decline after wars and religious conflict after wars and religious conflict between Muslims and Hindus. lacking strong central gov, India was vulnerable to influence from external powers. - 1750s, rivalry between France and England reached fever pitch. During the 7 years war, the two coutnries battled each other in three theaters- north America, europe, india. england won across the board. the british east india company- join stock company operated like multinational corporation with exclusive rights over British trade with India, then led in India by Robert Clive, raised en effective army that rid the subcontinent of French. During next two decades, clive successfully conquered the Begnal region (bangladesh), quite feat given that the East India Company was corporation. It wasn't British troops who conquered region, corporate troops. - over next hundred years, the company took advantage of the weakening Mughals and set up administrative regions throughout the empire. In 1789, large island of ceylon fell to the British. Early 1800s, the Punjab region in northern India came under British control and Brits launched excursions into Pakistan and Afghan

Compare them IR in Europe and Japan

- Industrialization of Europe and Japan followed very similar paths, Japan's was on fast forward. Managed to accomplish few decades what had taken Europe more than a century, large part because it didn't have to invent everything itself= needed to implement advances of Western indsutrialization. Pattern was remarkably similar. Private coroporations rose up, indsutrialists like the Mitsubishi family became wealthy, factories were built, urbanizaton increased dramatically, reform was instituted. Japan learned from the Europeans quite well.

Mexico

- Latin America, revolutionary fervor rose in Mexico after French Revolution, after Napoleon invaded Spain and Portugal. In 1810, Miguel Hidalgo, Creole priest who sympathized with those who had been abused under Spanish colonialism, led a revolt against Spanish rule. Unlike South America, Spanish armies resisted effectively, put down the revolt at Calderon Bridge, where Hidalgo was executed. - Hidalgo's efforts were not in vain, they put the revolution in motion. Jose Morelos picked up where Hidalgo left off and led revolutionaries to further successes against the loyalists. Similar to what later happened in Brazil, landowning class turned against him when he made clear his intentions to redistribute land to the poor. In 1815, he was executed - It wasn't until 1821, after landowning class bought into the idea of separation from Spain, independence was finally achieved. Treaty of Cordoba, Spain was forced to reorganize that its 300 years old domination of Latin America was coming to and end. Mexico was granted its independence and Central America soon followed.

Contrast them European Imperialism in China and India

- Many European countries traded with India, British ultimately won out and established exclusive control. In China, British dominated trade early on, succeeded more and more countries piled on. - In india, british established true colony- running the government, directing huge internal projects. in China, Europeans and Japanese established spheres of influence, focusing on the economic benefits of trade with no overall gov responsibilites. Therefore, when independence movements began in India, the efforts were directed against Britain the foreign occupier. In contrast, when people wanted to change the gov in China, targeted Manchu Dyn

The World is out China is Crumbling

- Opium wars had huge impact on the global perception of China, the world knew that China was one of the most advanced civilizations. Clear cut British defeat of China with relatively few troops, world realized that China was easy target. Chinese themselves knew that their gov was weak, so they too, started to rebel against it. Internal rebellion started at beginning of 19th century, with the White Lotus Rebellions led by Buddhists who were frustrated over taxes and gov corruptions. It continued through middle of the century with the Taiping Rebellion. Taipings led by a religious zealot claiming to be the brother of Jesus, recruited an army nearly a million strong and almost succeeded in bringing down the Manchu gov. The rebels failed, message was clear. China was crumbling from within and unable to stop foreign aggression from outside. - the 1860s, the Manchu Dynasty, tried to get its act together became known as the Self strengthening Mov, did not good. in 1876, Korea realized China was weak and declared its independence. Later, in the Sino French War 1883, the chinese lost control of Vietnam to the French, who established a colony there called French Indochina. If that wasn't enough, decade later the Chinese were defeated in the Sino Japanese War, when rising imperial power of japan wanted in on the action. Treaty of Shimonoeski 1895, China was forced to hand over control of Taiwan and grant the Japanese trading rights similar to chose it had granted the Europeans. Japan also defeated the Koreans and took control of the entire peninsula. - meanwhile the European powers were rushing to establish greater presence in China. establishing spheres of influence, France, Germany, Russia, Britain carved up huge slices of China for themselves. Spheres were not quite colonies. Instead, they were areas in which the Europeans powers invested heavily, built military bases and set up business, transportation, communication operations. Manchu Dynasty was still governmental authority within the spheres. - 1900, US had its own trading designs on Asia, was worried that china would become another India or Africa that US would be shut out of trade if the Manchu gov fell and the Europeans took over the gov. US barred the immigration of all Chinese laborers in the Chinese Exclusion Act 1882. Through its Open Door Policy, the US pledged its support of the sovereignty of the Chinese government and announced equal trading privileges among imperial powers (basically Europe and the US)

Reign of Teror- Hard fought constitution gets tossed aside-

- Prussia and Austria regrouped and enlisted support of Great Britain and Spain, Convention started to worry that foreign threats and internal chaos would lead to its demise, so it threw out the constitution and created the Committee of Public Safety, an all powerful enforcer of the revolution and murderer of anyone suspected of anti revolutionary tendencies. Led by Maximilien Robespierre and the Jacobins, the Committee of Public Safety certainly wasn't a committee of personal safety, since it was responsible for the beheading of tens of thousands of French citizens. Even though Committee was successful at controlling anarchy, building strong national military to defend France against increasing number of invading countries, after 2 years, French had enough of Robespierre's which hunt, put his head on guillotine. France quickly reorganized itself again, wrote new constitution in 1795, established new five man gov called Directory

Capitalism and Enlightenment Combine-

- Second half of 19th century, after abuses and social consequences of the IR became clear, series of reforms occurred. British Parliament passed laws such as Factory Act of 1883, limited hours of each workday, restricted children from working in factories, required factory owners to make working conditions safer and cleaner. Meanwhile, labor unions were formed. Unions were vehicles through which thousands of employed bargained for better working conditions or threatened to strike, thereby shutting down the factory. In addition, increasing number of factory owners realized that healthy, happy, reasonably well paid workforce meant productive and loyal one. - all these developments combined, slowly and sporadically to improve not only the conditions in the factories and cities, but standard of living on an individual family level. the middle class became substantially larger. Public education became more widely accessible. Social mobility- ability of person to work his way up from one social class to the next- became more commonplace. in 1807, the slave trade was abolished which means the no new slaves were transported from Africa, though the ownership of existing slaves continued. In 1833, British outlawed slavery, three decades later, it was outlaws in the US. As men earned more money, women left the factories and returned to their traditional roles in the home, limited their social, political, professional, intellectual influence, even as democratic reforms greatly increased most men's power, through right to vote. In response, women began organizing to increase their collective influence. - Despite improvements in overall standards of living in industrialized nations, by 1900, extreme hardships persisted. Europeans dreamed of starting over somewhere else, or escaping cruelties at home. from 1800-1900, nearly 50 million Europeans migrated to North and South America. Millions fled from famine in Ireland, or anti semitism in russia, or poverty and joblessness in general.

The Family

- biggest social changes associated with industrialization were to the family. Both women and children became part of the workforce, albeit at lower wages, more dangerous conditions than their male counterparts. Workers were often dependent on companies for food, personal items, housing- in factory run boardinghouses. These restrictions on young women and men. able to live away from home, manage their own incomes and pursue independent leisure activities- theaters, dance halls, recitals, dining out in restaurants- all which developed to support new urban working class

Nationalist Movements and Other Devs - Unification- Italy and Germany

- consequences of Napoleonic era that intensified nationalism, or feelings of connection to one's home, region, language, culture. France, Spain, Portugal, Britain, Russia had already unified, build enormous empires. Italian and German city states, were still very feudal, were constantly at center of warfare among the European powers. Second half of 19th century, as the nationalist sentiments that were still lingering decades after Napoleon's defeat, drive to unify Italy and Germany resurfaced. Italy and Germany resurfaced. Italy, and germany unified and eventually altered the balance of European power.

Height of Napoleon's Empire

- directory was not so great at implementing strong domestic policy, 5 man combo was good at building up the military. One of its star military leaders was Napoleon Bonaparte, general by 24. After military successes on behalf of the Directory, Napoleon returned to France and used his reputation and immense popularity to overthrow the Directory 1799. Legitimized his actions by putting them before popular vote, once affirmed, declared himself the First Consul under the new constitution (that makes 4 constitutions since Revolution began). - Napoleon initiated many reforms in agriculture, infrastructure, public education. Normalized relations with the church and restored degree of tolerance and stability. Napoleonic Codes (1804) recognized equality of French citizens (meaning men) and institutionalized some of the Enlightenment ideas, served as the original inspiration for many of the revolutionaries. Code was so extremely paternalistic, part of ancient Roman law. Rights of women and children were severely limited under the code- the code was huge step forward in recognition of some basic rights and in the establishment of rules of law. Code has significantly modified to reflect more modern sensibilities, still in effect, served as model for many other national codes, especially in Europe - Napoleon's biggest impact was external, not internal. Spread France's glory throughout Europe and the Americas, Napoleon only fended off foreign aggressors, also made France an aggressor itself. Napoleon's troops conquered Austria, Prussia, Spain, Portugal, many kingdoms in Italy. dissolved the Holy Roman Empire, on its last legs anyway, reorganized it into a confederacy of German states. 1804, crowned himself emperor, the new Charlemagne. By 1810, empire was at its peak, didn't stay there for long, France lacked resources to control far flung empire, conflicts including an attempted blockade of powerful Britain cost it dearly. Nationalistic uprisings such as unrest in Italy and fierce guerilla warfare in Spain and Portugal, undermined Napoleon's power. - 1812, Napoleon's greed got better of him. Attacked vast lands of Russia, baited into going all the way to Moscow, Russians then set aflame, preventing Napoleon from adequately housing his troops there. Winter set in, no place to go, troops had to trudge back to France, were attacked all along the way. Short on supplies, retreat turned into a disaster. The army was decimated and the once-great emperor was forced into exile. - Leaders of countries that had overthrown Napoleon met in Vienna to decide how to restore order in Europe. Principal members against Napoleon were Prince von Metternich of Austria, Alexander I of Russia, Duke of wellington of Britain. Disagreements among them prevented much progress. Napoleon returned from exile and attempted to regain power. His enemies rallied, at Waterloo in 1813, allies united against their common threat.Defeating Napoleon, they sent him to permanent exile on the island of St Helena, he later died. The allies eventually came to an agreement, in a meeting known as the Congress of Vienna, over what to do with France and its inflated territories.

Japanese Imperialism-

- during 17th century- 18th century, japan was succeeded in keeping European influences away from its shores. Consequently built highly ethnocentric, self involved society that didn't even allow its own citizens to travel abroad. 19th century and the IR, europeans and the US became so powerful and so crazed for markets that Japan found it hard to keep westerners at bay. 1853, Commodore Mathew Perry from the US arrived in Japan on steamboat, something Japanese had never seen before, essentially shocked Japanese, quickly realized that their isolation had resulted in their inability to compete economically and military with indsutrialized world. - For time, West won concession from japan through various treaties such as Treatu of Kanagawa 1854. Treaties grossly favored the US and other countries. China, nationalists grew resentful but unlike the Chinese, Japanese were organized Through leadership of the samurai, revolted against the shogun who had ratifed these treaties, restored Emperor Meiji to power.

Agricultural Revolution Pt 2

- early civilizations came about because of an Agricultural Revolution that resulted in food surpluses. Freed some of the population from farming and those people then went about the business of building the civilization. In 18th century, agricultural output increased dramatically once again. Allowed much as half of the population to leave the farms and head toward the cities, where jobs in the new industrial economy were becoming available. - Agricultural techniques had been slowly improving throughout history. So many dev happened so quickly, in the 18th century, period was considered in revolution. Agricultural output increased for whole host of reasons. Potatoes, corns, other high yield crops were introduced to Europe from the colonies in the New World. Farmers began using more advanced farming methods and tech increased their crop yields. Process known as enclosure- public lands that were shared during the Middle Ages were enclosed by fences, allowed for private farming and private gain. - Efficiency and productivity of the farms, introduction of new techs. New machines for plowing, seeding, reaping, along with the development of chemical fertilizers, allowed farmers to greatly increase the amount of land, they could farm, while decreasing the number of people needed to do it. Urbanization was natural outgrowth of increased efficiencies in farming and agriculture. in short, cities grew. 1800, there were only about 20 cities in Europe with population of more than 100k. By 1900, 150 cities had similar populations, largest, London had population of more than 6 million - cities developed in areas where resources such as coal, iron, water, railroads were available for manufacturing. More factories that developed in favorable locations, larger cities grew. In 1800, along with London, Chinese cities of Beijing and Canton ranked in the top three, but just 100 years later, largest cities were in Europe or the US.

the salve trade finally ends-

- enlightenment principles took root in Europe, larger numbers of people grew outraged at the idea of slavery. Between 1807, 1820, most European nations abolished slave trade, although slavery itself was not abolished until few decades later. No new slaves were legally imported from Africa, those already in Europe or the new World continued to be enslaved until emancipation in the mid 19th century. Formers slaved returned to Africa. Groups of formers American slaves, emigrated to Libera where they established an independent nation.

European Justification

- even as progressives argued for end to the slave trade and better working conditions in the factories, huge number of Europeans- not just industrialists- either supported or acquiesced in colonization of foreign lands. Most Europeans were very ethnocentric and viewed other cultures as barbarian and uncivilized. Ironically, this ethnocentrism may have driven some of social advancements within European society itself. - Two ideas contributed to this mindset of Social Darwinism- applied to Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection to sociology. They claimed that dominant races or classes of people rose to the top through a process of survival of the fittest. Meant that because Britain was the most powerful, it was the most fit and therefore British were superior to other races. - Second, many Europeans believed that they were not only superior, had moral obligation dominate other people teach other people how to be more civilized- how to be more like Europeans. Rudyard Kipling summed it up his poem White Man's Burden. As European nations swallowed up the rest of the world in an effort to advance their economies, military strategic positioning, egos, Kipling characterized these endeavors as a "burden" in which it was the duty of Europeans to conquer each half devil and half child so that they could be converted Christianity and civilized in the European fashion.

Search of natural resources-

- factories of the IR created useful products, required natural resources. Europe share of coal and iron, used to provide power and make equipment for the factories, raw materials such as cotton and rubber had been imported because didn't grow in the climates of Western Europe - Industrial nations amassed incredible wealth by colonizing regions with natural resources, taking those resources without compensating the natives peoples. Resources were sent back to Europe, made finished into products. The industrial nations sent finished products back to the colonies, where the colonists had to purchase them because the colonial powers wouldn't let the colonies trade with anyone else. In short colonial powers became rich at expense of the colonies. more colonies a nation had, richer it became - europe colonized nations on every other continent in the world. Europe became clearinghouse for raw materials from around the globe while the rest of the world increasingly became exposed to Europe and European ideas. The need for raw materials transformed the landscape of conquered dregions. Limited raw materials depleted faster than at any time. IR created pollution, began to impact on the environment by gobbling natural resources.

The Estates General-

- french society was divided into 3 estates First Estate was the clergy-some were high ranking and wealthy, others were parish priests and quite poor. The Second Estate was noble families. The Third Estate was peasant farmers, and small but influential middle class, or burgeoisie, including merchants. Overwhelming majority of the population were members of the Third Estate, had very little political power. - When Louis XIV summoned Estates General, he was in essence summoning representatives form each of these three estates. The representatives nobles of Second Estates came to meeting of the Estates General hoping to gain favors from King in form of political power and greater freedoms in form of new constitution. Representatives of 3rd Estate (majority of population) always suspicious of nobility, wanted greater freedoms similar to what they saw the former British colonies had in the Americas. Far as suggesting to the king that Estates General meet as a unified body- all Estates under one rood. Top court in Paris, the parlement ruled in favor of nobility and ordered estates meet privately. - Frustrated strong possibility of being shut out of new constitution by other two estates, Third Estate did something drastic June 17, 1789- declared themselves National Assembly. King got nervious, forced other two estates to join them in effort to write new constitution. Too late. Peasants throughout the land were growing restless and were concerned king wasn't going to follow through on major reforms they wanted. Stormed the Bastille, huge prison in paris on July 14, 1789. Anarchy swept through the countryside, soon peasants attacked nobility and feudal institutions. - By August, National Assembly adopted Declaration of Rights of Man, doc recognizing natural rights and based on ideas of Enlightenment, American Declaration of Indepedence, and writings of Jean Jacques Rousseau. Declaration was copied and distributed across Europe, furthering ideas of freedom, equality, rule of law. Assembly also abolished feudal system and altered monopoly of Catholic Church, declaring freedom from worship. The king and his family were taken to Paris, the Third Estate revolutionaries ensured they wouldn't interfere with of the National Assembly. French Rev established nation state, not the king or the people (as in US), as source of all sovereignty or political authority. France became first modern nation state in 1789.

Sepoy Mutiny-

- help administer the regions under its control, East India Company relied on Sepoys Indians who worked for the Brits, mainly as soldiers. By mid 1800s, Sepoys were becoming increasingly alarmed with company's insatiable appetite for eating up larger and larger chunks of the subcontinent. The company wasn't very good about respecting the local customs of the Sepoys, respected neither Muslim nor Hindu religious customs. When in 1857, Sepoys learned that their bullet cartridges, were greased, with pork and beef fat, thus violating both Muslims and Hindu dietary laws, the Sepoys rebelled. Fighting continued for nearly two years, but rebelled. The fighting continued for nearly two years, but rebellion failed miserably. - consequences were huge. 1858, british parliament stepped in, too control of india away from east india company, made all of india a crown colony. last of mughal rulers, Bahadur Shah II, sent into exile, thereby ending the Mughal Empire for good. Nearly 300 million Indians were suddenly British subjects thats many people as currently living in the United States. 1877, Queen Victoria was recognized as Empress of India.

French Revolution-

- in 1776, war moved to the middle colonies and finally to the South, the Americans endured defeat after defeat. 1777, French committed ships, soldiers, weapons, money to the cause. France and England, bickering for centuries, so the French leapt at the opportunity to punish England. 1781, French and American troops and ships cornered the core of British army, under the command of General George Cornwallis. He surrendered, the war was over. Within a decade, Constitution and Bills of Rights were written, ratified, put into effect. - after reign of Louis XIV, Bourbon kings to reside in lavish Versailles palace, lifestyle was quite expensive. Costly, France's war debts. War of Spanish succession, the Seven Years' War, American Revolution, France seemed to be involved in every major war both Europe and abroad. Droughts damaging in French harvests and the nobility scoffing at spending restrictions. Louis XIV needed to raise taxes, but needed to get everybody on board for. 1789 called a meeting of Estates- General, hadn't met in 175 years. Bourbon monarchs, ruled under divine right no other input was generally necessary. However, King's poor financial situation made it necessary to call on this group.

Unifications of Iltay- Italians give foreign occupiers the Boot

- in mid 19th century, Italy was tangle of foreign controlled small kingdoms. Austria, controlled Venetia, Lombardy, Tuscany in north. France controlled Rome and Papal states in mid section. Divided kingdom of Sardinia (an island in the Meditarranean) controlled by Italians. - 1849, king of Sardinia, Victor Emmanuel II, named Count Camillo Cavour his prime minister and nationalism in Italy took off. Emmanuel and Cavour believed strongly in Italian unification. Through series of wars in which Cavour sided with European powers that could help him boot out Austria from Italy, managed to remove Austrian influence from all parts of Italy (except Venetia) but 1859. Meanwhile, Guiseppe Garibaldi, another Italian nationalist raised volunteer army and in 1860 his army overthrew the kingdom whose citizens pledged allegiance to Sardinia. 1861, large chunk of present day Italy was unified, declared itself unified kingdom under Victor Emmanuel. - following decade, Italians, managed to gain control of Venetia after siding with Prussia in its war against Austria (previously controlled Venetia), finally won control of Rome in 1870, when the French withdrew. Even though Italy was essentially unified, the boundaries of Europe were still very shaky. Some Italians thought that southern provinces of Austria and France were far more Italian than not and that those provinces were rightly part of Italy. Italy had time unifiying culturally because for centuries it had developed more regionally. Now unified, Italy was more able to assert itself, on world state, development that would impact Europe.

Neocolonialism

- independent countries in Latin America were largely controlled by outside economic and political interests found themselves in condition known as neocolonilism. Independence movements in 19th century, many Latin American nations saw significant increases in trade. The riches accumulated in these countries largely stayed within the confines of the wealthy, landowning class, inspiring working class movements to challeneges these economic challenges. - one such mov occuredin Mexico. Mexican Revolution began as rejection of 30 year dictatorship of Porfirio Diaz, seen as pawn for landowners. Defeated in an election by revolutionary aristrocrat Francisco Madero. Madero, eventually overthrown in 1913, following a two year presidency once he too was rejected by revolutionary masses. The Mexican Revolution culminated in 1917, creation of Mexico's current constitution.

Factory System- efficiency, new products, big money

- ir permitted creation of thousands of new products from clothing to toys to weapon. products were produced efficiently and inexpensively in factories. Under Eli Whitney's system of interchangeable parts, machine and their parts were produced uniformly they could be easily replaced when something broke down. henry Ford's use of the assembly line meant that each factory worker added only one part to finished product, one after another after another. Incredibly important developments in manufacturing. Although made factory sys wildly profitable, they came with social costs. Man wasn't merely working with machines- he was becoming one. Individuality had no place in system where consistency of function was held in such high esteem. - factories were manned by thousands of workers, system was efficient and inexpensive because those workers were way overworked, extremely underpaid, regularly put in harm's way without any accompanying insurance or protection. Early years of IR, 16 hour workdays were not uncommon. Children as young as 6 worked every day next to machines. Women logged long hours at factories, while having to fulfill their traditional roles are caretakers for their families. - this was huge change from rural life, where as the farms exposed people to fresh air and sunshine, factories exposed workers to air pollution and hazardous machinery. Farms provided seasonal adjustements to the work pattern, while factories spit out the same products day after day. Despair of hopelessness of daily lives of factory workers were captured by many novelists and social commentators of the time.

Contrast them Ethnocentrism in Europe and Elsewhere

- many cultures were ethnocentric. Chinese believed their kingdom to be the Middle Kingdom, literally the center of the world, themselves ethnically superior to other races. similar in Japan, and in most major civilizations. Europeans were hardly unique in their self important attitudes. Ability to act on those attitudes, dangerously unique. Armed with most tech advanced miliatries and strong economic motives, Europeans were quite capable subjugating people whom they considered to be inferior ,barbaric, dispensable. Their success at doing so often reinforced the ethnocentric attitudes leading to further colonialism and subjugation.

Meiji Restoration- Shogun and westerns our, emperor in

- meiji restoration in an era of Japanese westernization, which Japan emerged as world power. 1870s, Japan was building railways and steamships. 1876, samurai warrior class as an insitutution had been abolished, universail military service, among all males was established. - relative isolation of Japanese during Tolugawa Shogunate and deliberate attempt to westernize while strengthening Japanese imperial traditions during Meiji led to period of increased cultural creativity with rituals aimed at developing national identity. Much of this new identitiy was centered on military pageantry that celebrated Japanese victories over China and Russia in early 20th century - 1890s Japanese industrial and military power really started to roll. Now powerful enough to susbtantially reduce European US influence. Maintained trade but on equal footing with western powers. Japan went through an incredibly quick IR. 1895, Japan defeated China in war for control of Korea, Taiwan. japan was now imperial power itself.

Compare Sci Rev and Industrial Rev

- one was about process of discovering, learning, evaluating, understanding the natural world. Other was about applying understanding to practical ends. In both ends, knowledge spread and improvements were made across cultures and across time. Patents protected individual inventions, one scientist or inventor could build on the ideas of colleagues who were tackling the same issues, thereby leading to constant improvement and reliability. Same collaborative effort is used. Universities and research organizations share information among colleagues across the globe.

Egypt- new waterway makes splash

- ottomans ruled egypt from 1517-1882, throughout the 19th century, ottoman rule was extremelu weak. Local rulers, called beys, far more influence over devs in Egypt than the rulers in Istabnbul. When Napoleon tried to conquer Egypt during his tireless attempt to expand France into mega empire at the turn of the 19th century, Muhammad Ali defeated French and Ottomans and gained control of Egypt in 1805. Egypt technically remained part of the Ottoman Empire but as viceroy. ALi wielded almost exclusive control. During next 30 yeras, began the industrialization of Egypt and directed expansion of agriculture toward cotton production, then exported to the textile factories of Britain for susbstancial profit. - Ali's westernization attempts were temporarily halted by his grandson, Abbas I, were revinigorated under subsequent rules, worked with the French to begin construction of the Suez Canal. Canal when completed in 1869, connected Med Sea to the Indian Ocean, eliminating need to go around Cape of Good Hope. Britain had huge colony in India, canal became more important to British than to anyone else as Egypt's finances went into tailspin because of excessive gov spending, Egypt started selling stock in its canal to raise money, stock that the British gov eagerly gobbled up. 1882, Britain not only controlled the Suez Canal but maneuvered its way into Egypt to such degree that it declared to a British protectorate, essentially a colony except that Egyptians remained in political power. - pushed out of Egypt, France focused on other parts of North Africa, like Nigeria. Italians, once had unified as a country, became interested in North Africa. Race for control of Africa was on.

Tech Innovations-

- prior to industrial revolution, most Europeans worked on farms, at home ,in small shops. After Britain imported huge amounts of cotton from its American colonies, most of the cotton was woven into cloth in homes or small shops as part of an inefficient, highly labor intensive arrangement known as domestic system. Middle men would drop off wool or cotton at homes where women would make cloth, then be picked up again by middle man who would steel the cloth to buyers. - However, a series of tech advancements in 18th century, changed all this. 1733, John Kay invented flying shuttle, sped up weaving process. in 1764, John Hargreaves invented Spinning jenny- capable of spinning vast amounts of threat. When waterpower was added to these processes, notably by Richard Arkwright and Edward Cartright in 18th century, fabric weaving was taken out of the homes and was centralized at sites where waterpower was abundant. in 1793, when Eli Whitney invent cotton gin, allowing massive amounts of cotton to be quickly processed in the Americas and exported to Europe, textile industry was taken out of the homes and into mills entirely. - Although industrialization hit the textile industry, spread beyond into other industries. One most significant developments was steam engine- took the work of several people to perfect. In early 1700s, Thomas Newcomer developed inefficient engine but in 1769, James Watt improved it. Steam engine was revolutionary because steam could be used to generate power, not only for industry but also for transportation. in 1807, Robert Fulton built first steamship, in the 1820s, George Stephenson built the first steam powered locomotive Imperial power Britain, steamships, locomotives would go long way toward empire building and global trade. Britain had vast amounts of coal, because steam engine was powered by coal, Britain industrialized very quickly. - during next 100 years, enormous developments changed how people communicated, traveled, went about their daily lives. At same time, were huge advances in medicine and science. Pasteurization and vaccinations were developed. X-rays came too. Charles Darwin developed concept of evolution by means of natural selection.

Unification of Germany- All About Otto

- provinces that comprised Germany and the Austrian Empire (Hapsburgs)hadn't been truly united since decline of Charlemagne's Holy Roman Empire in Middle Ages. Since Peace of Westpahalia (1648) asserted authority of regional govs, two areas in the region of the former Holy Roman Empire, politically dominated it- Prussia, and Austria. Prussia under enlightened monarch Frederick the Great, his successors, achieved economic preeminence by embracing the IR, strongly supported education created talented work force. - Many in Prussia wanted to consolidate German territories into powerful empire to rival the great powers of Europe, particularly Britain, France, increasingly Russia. 1861, new king of Prussia, William I, appointed Otto Von Bismarck prime minister with aim of building the military, consolidating region under its authority. Achieve this consolidation, Bismarck had to defeat Austria, did in only 7 weeks, after he won assurances from the other European powers, would not step in on Austria's behalf. Through more war and annexation, Bismarck secure most of the other German principalities, except for heavily Catholic regions in the south. Carfty Bismarck formed an alliance with Catholic German states against aggression from France, then in 1870, provoke France to declare war on Prussia, starting the Franco Prussian War, which once won, conoslidated the German Catholic regions under Prussian control. in 1871, the victorious Bismarck crowned King William I as emperor of the new German Empire, which was also known as the Second Reich (second empire after Holy Roman Empire, known as the First Reich). - after unification Germany, quickly industrialized and became strong economic and political power. Otto was not popular with eveyrone, esepcially socialists. in 1888, Germany crowned new emperor, William II, wanted to run the country himself. in 1890, he forced Bismarck to resign as prime minister and reestablished authority as emperor. WIth the IR, Germany now running at full throttle, built huge navy, pursued colonial ambitions in Africa and Asia, oversaw the rise of Germany into the most powerful nations in the world

Full Blown British Colonialism- England on the Indus

- second half of the 19th century, India became model of British imperliasm. Raw materials flowed to Britain; finished products flowed back to India. Upper castes were taught English and were expected to adopt English attitudes. Christianity spread. Railraods and canals were built. Urbanization, Europe increased dramatically. All this came at expense of Indian culture and institutions. Upper castes were Anglicized, gained education and worldy sophisctication to being to influence events. Increasingly, they dreamed freeing India from British rule. - in 1885, group of well educated Indians formed Indian National COngress to being path toward indepdendence. Take impact of two world wars before would get it. Meantime, Indians that lived in the cities continuted to adapt to British customs while trying to hold on to their traditions.

Inventions during this period

- telegraph- invented in 1837 Samuel Morse, allowed people to communicate across great distances. - telephone- invented in 1876, Alexander Graham Bell. - lightbulb- invented in 1879, Thomas Edison, now factories can run all night - internal combustion engine- invented in 1885, Gottlieb Daimler, in car - radio- invented 1890s, Guglielmo Marconi based on designs of Thomas Edison

Slave trade ends oppression does not

- terrible irony that as the slave trade ended in the 19th century. Europeans turned their attention to the continent of Africa itself. within 50 years Africans were subjugated again, this time in their own homeland.

Industrial Revolution

- the IR began in Britain helped propel country to its undisputed ranking as most powerful in the 19th century. Britain wasn't only country that industrialized. Rev spread through much of Europe, especially Belgium, France, Germany, and Japan and ultimately to the country that would eclipse Britain as most industrialized- the US> Since most of the dev occurred in Britain, the social consequences that occurred in Britain are representatives of those that occurred elsewhere. This section will focus heavily on the rev in Britain.

Major Negative effects of free market capitalism on factories and cities led to

1. free-market capitalism is good, but reform it to minimize the bad effects (US) 2. free market capitalism is bad, so get rid of it and replace it with something else (RUSSIA)

Opium Wars European Drug Pushers Force their Right to Deal

1773, british traders introduced opium to the chinese 1838, drug habit among Chinese had grown so widespread and destructive that the Manchu Emperor released an imperial edict forbuidding the further sale or use of opium. Consistent with this edict, chinese seized British opium in Canton in 1839. - British would have none of it. 1839 and 1842, two coutnries fought a war over opium trade. First Opium War. Overwhelmed by British military might China was forced to sign the Treaty of Nanjing, first view of what came to be known as the unequal treaties, which Britain was given considerable rights to expand trade with China - 1843, Britain declared Hong Kong its own corwn poessession, significant dev that went beyond trading rights because it actually established British colony in the region. 1844, Manchu Dyn was forced to permit Christian missionaries back into the country. - When Cha resisted British attempts to expand the opium trade even further, two countries fought a second Opium War for 4 years beginning in 1856. The Chinese defeat was humiliating. Resulted in the opening of all China to European trade. Still, other than in the Hong Kong, European imperialism in China was quite different from what it was in India and what it would be Africa. In China, Britain fought more for trading concessions than for the establishment of colonies.

Comparison of Independent Movements

AMERICAN COLONIES (1764-1787) = causes- unfair taxation war debt lack of representation = key events- boston tea party, continental congress, declaration of independence, constitution and bill of rights = major players- George III, Thomas Paine, Thomas Jefferson, George Washington = impacts- independence federal democracy spreads- France, Haiti, Mexico FRANCE (1789-1799) = causes- unfair taxation, war debt, social inequalities, lack of representation = key events- tennis court oath, national assembly, declaration of rights of man, storming Bastille, reign of terror, 5 man directory = major players- louis XVI, three estates, jacobin party, robespierre = impacts- rise of Napoleon congress of Vienna constitutional monarchy HAITI (1799-1804) = causes- french enlightenment social and racial inequalities, slave revolt = key events- civil war, slave revolt, invasion of Napoleon = major players- boukman, gens de couleur, toussain L'ouverture, napoleon bonaparte = impacts- independence, destruction of economy, antislavery movements LATIN AMERICA (1810-1820S) = causes- social inequalities, removal of peninsulares, napoleon's invasion of Spain = key events- peasant revolts, creole revolts, gran colombia = major players- Miguel Hidalgo, Simon Bolivar, Jose de San Martin, Emperor Pedro I = impacts- independence, continued inequalities, federal democracy (Mexico_, creole republics, constitutional monarchy (Brazil).

New economic and social philosophies-

Industrialization created new social classes. New aristocrats were those who became rich from industrial success. Middle class formed, made up of managers, accountants, ministers, lawyers, doctors, other skilled professionals. Finally at the bottom of the pyramid was working class- made up of factory workers in the cities and peasant farmers in the countryside. - rise of the industrial class had its origins in the concept of private ownership. Adam Smith wrote Wealth of Nations (1776) economic prosperity and fairness is best achieved through private ownership. Individuals should own means of production and sell their products and services in free and open market. where the demand for their goods and services would determine their prices and availibility. Free market system (known as capitalism), smith argued would best meet the needs and desired of individuals and nations as whole. When gov removes entirely from regulation, process called laisser faire capitalism. - Smith wrote his book in response to Western European mercantilist practices that dominated during the Age of Exploration. New World monarchies- which were not only corrupt, but highly inefficient, closely managed their economies. In 19th century, European countries continued to develop their mercantilist philosophies especially those using colonies as way of obtaining raw materials without having to important them from other countries and way of increasing exports. European countries permitted, encouraged the dev of private investment and capitalism- hence rise of factory workers and rise of major investment firms like the British East India Company. - While Adam Smith believed that free market capitalism would lead to better opportunities for everyone, Karl Marx, German economist and philosopher who spent a good part of his adult life living poverty, pointed out that the factory workers had genuine opportunities but were being exploited as consequence of capitalism. Abuses weren't merely the result of the way in which capitalism was practiced, but an inherent flaw in the system. In the Communist Manifesto 1848, Marx and Friedrich Engels wrote working class would eventually revolt and take control of the means of production. All the instruments of power- the gov, the courts, the police, the church were on the side of the rich against the workers. Once the class struggle was resolved by the massive uprising of the exploited, Marx predicted that the instruments of power wouldn't even be needed. Impact of Marxism was enormous, served as foundation of socialism and communism - marx and engles were not just theorizing, but observing and the discontent to support their. In england, early 1800s, early groups of workers known as Luddites destroyed equipment in factories in the middle of the night to protest working conditions and pitiful wages. Gov sided with business owners, executing some of the workers while also enacting harsh laws against andy further action. - Great number of people with influence (middle class and aristocracy) began to realize how inhumane the factory system had become and started to do something about it. Reformers believed that capitalism was positive development, but laws were needed to keep its abuses in check. They believed that the government needed to act on behalf of the workers as well as factory owners. Mid 19th century, major split through among intellectuals and policymakers. - Britain and the US were the impact of the Enlightenment was strong democracy developing, middle class was growing, reforms to the free market system took root, lessening the negative impact of capitalism on workers. In other countries such as Russia, where absolute rule was strong and peasant class extremely oppressed, reform was almost non existent. Marxist ideas grew popular among small group of urban intellectuals- eventually including Vladimir Lenin- believed they could lead worker revolution and tyranny of the czars - Marxism impacted social thought and intermixed with capitalist thought to create economic systems that were partly socialist (gov owned some of the means of production) and partly capitalist (which individuals owned some of the mens of production). Most Europe, including Britain after WWII< mixed socialist and capitalist ideas.

South Africa- Gold rings

Prior to discovery of gold and diamonds in South Africa in 1860s, and 1880s, South Africa was valuable to Europeans only for shipping and military resasons. Dutch arrived first and settled Cape Town as stopping point for ships onthe way from Europe to India. IN 1795, British seized Cape twon, south african dutch known as boers or afrikanera trekked northeast into the interior of south africa, settling in region known as the transvaal. Boers later discovered dimaonds and gold in the Transvaal, British quickly followed fighting series of wars, for the rights to the resources. after years of bloody battles known as the Boer War 1899-1902, british reigned supreme, all of south africa was annexed as part of ever expanding british empire. Throughout this entire process, Afircans were not allowed claims to the gold and diamonds were made to work in the mines as their natural resources were sent abroad.

European Imperialism in Africa-

Unlike India and China, to a certain degree Japan, Africa held little interest for most Europeans prior to the IR. North of the Sahara in Egpyt and along the Med, Europeans had historical interest and impact. Vast interior of the continent remained unknown to the outside world. During Age of Exploration, coastal regions of Africa becam eimportant to Europeans for limited trade, also for strategic postioning, stopping off points for merchants ships en route to India or China. Africa became the center of the slave trade.

Boxer Rebellion- Knocked out the first round

by 20th century, nationalism among Chinese peasants and local leadership was festering. Anti- Manchu, anti European, anti Christian, society of righteous and harmonious fists, boxers, came to be known organized in response to the Manchu government's defeats, and concessions to the Western powers and Japan. Infuriated the Boxer's goal was to drive the Europeans and Japanese out of China. Adopting guerilla warfare tactics, Boxers slaughtered Christian missionaries and seized control of foreign embassies.They were not successful in achieving their aims. Instead, uprising resulted in dispatch of foreign reinforcements who quickly and decisively put down the rebellion. Manchu gov, having made great concession to the Europeans and Japanese, was then even further humiliated. Result of the rebellion, China was forced to sign the Boxer of Protocol, demanded that China not only pay the Europeans and the Japanese the costs associated with the rebellion but also formally apologize for it as well. - on last legs, the Manchu dynasty coulnd't prevent the forces of reform from overtaking it from both within and without and as consequence, Chinese culture itself started to crumble. In 1901, foot binding was abolished. In 1905, 2000 yar old Chinese examination system was eliminated. By 1911, gov was toppled and imperial rule came to an end. Under leadership of Sun yat-sen a republic was established in China.