Unit 6: The Enlightenment and French Revolution

Napoleon's Diary

"Paris, 1 January 1798: Paris has a short memory. If I remain longer doing nothing, I am lost. In this great Babylon one reputation quickly succeeds another. After I have been seen three times at the theater, I shall not be looked at again; I shall therefore not go very frequently. Paris, 29 January 1798: I will not remain here; there is nothing to be done. They will listen to nothing. I realized that if I stay my reputation will soon be gone. All things fade here, and my reputation is almost forgotten; this little Europe affords too slight a scope; I must go to the Orient; all great reputations have been won there. If the success of an expedition to England should prove doubtful, as I fear, the army of England will become the army of the East, and I shall go to Egypt. The Orient awaits a man! Milan, 17 June 1800: I have just reached Milan, somewhat fatigued. 96 Some Hungarian grenadiers and German prisoners passing by, who had already been prisoners in the campaigns of 1796 and 1797, recognized the First Consul. Many began to shout, with apparent enthusiasm: "Vive Bonaparte!" What a thing is imagination! Here are men who don't know me, who have never seen me, but who only knew of me, and they are moved by my presence, they would do anything for me! And this same incident arises in all centuries and in all countries! Such is fanaticism! Yes, imagination rules the world. The defect of our modern institutions is that they do not speak to the imagination. By that alone can man be governed; without it he is but a brute. 30 December 1802: My power proceeds from my reputation, and my reputation from the victories I have won. My power would fall if I were not to support it with more glory and more victories. Conquest has made me what I am; only conquest can maintain me. Friendship is only a word. I love nobody; not even my brothers. Perhaps Joseph a little; even then it's a matter of habit, it's because he is my elder. - Duroc? Ah, yes, I love him; but why? His character attracts me: he is cool, dry, severe; and Duroc never sheds tears. As for me, you don't suppose I care; I know perfectly well I have no real friends. As long as I remain what I am, I shall have as many as I need as far as the appearance goes. Let the women whimper, that's their business, but for me, give me no sentiment. A man must be firm, have a stout heart, or else leave on one side war and government. Saint Helena, 3 March 1817: In spite of all the libels, I have no fear whatsoever about my fame. Posterity will do me justice. The truth will be known; and the good I have done will be compared with the faults I have committed. I am not uneasy as to the result. Had I succeeded, I would have died with the reputation of the greatest man that ever existed. As it is, although I have failed, I shall be considered as an extraordinary man: my elevation was unparalleled, because unaccompanied by crime. I have fought fifty pitched battles, almost all of which I have won. I have framed and carried into effect a code of laws that will bear my name to the most distant posterity. I raised myself from nothing to be the most powerful monarch in the world. Europe was at my feet. I have always been of the opinion that the sovereignty lay in the people. In fact, the imperial government was a kind of republic. Called to the head of it by the voice of the nation, my maxim was, la carrière est ouverte aux talent [careers are open to talent] without distinction of birth or fortune, and this system of equality is the reason that your oligarchy hates me so much. Saint Helena, 28 August 1817: Jesus was hanged, like so many fanatics who posed as a prophet, a messiah; there were several every year. What is certain is that at that epoch opinion was setting towards a single God, and those who first preached the doctrine were well received: circumstances made for 97 it. It is just like in my case, sprung from the lower ranks of society I became an emperor, because circumstances, opinion, were with me."

The Declaration of the Rights of Man (August 1789)

"The representatives of the French people, organized as a National Assembly, believing that the ignorance, neglect, or contempt of the rights of man are the sole cause of public calamities and of the corruption of governments, have determined to set forth in a solemn declaration the natural, unalienable, and sacred rights of man...." - assures rights of people - nobles lose lots of privileges

Carl Becker

"We are accustomed to think of the eighteenth century as essentially modern in its temper. Certainly, the Philosophes themselves made a great point of having renounced the superstition and hocus-pocus of medieval Christian thought, and we have usually been willing to take them at their word. Surely, we say, the eighteenth century was preeminently the age of reason, surely the Philosophes were a skeptical lot, atheists in effect if not by profession, addicted to science and the scientific method, always out to crush the infamous, valiant defenders of liberty, equality, fraternity, freedom of speech, and what you will. All very true. And yet I think the Philosophes were nearer the Middle Ages, less emancipated from the preconceptions of medieval Christian thought, than they quite realized or we have commonly supposed... But, if we examine the foundations of their faith, we find that at every turn the Philosophes betray their debt to medieval thought without being aware of it. They denounced Christian philosophy, but rather too much, after the manner of those who are but half emancipated from the "superstitions" they scorn. They had put off the fear of God, but maintained a respectful attitude toward the Deity. They ridiculed the idea that the universe had been created in six days, but still believed it to be a beautifully articulated machine designed by the Supreme Being according to a rational plan as an abiding place for mankind. The Garden of Eden was for them a myth, no doubt, but they looked enviously back to the golden age of Roman virtue, or across the waters to the unspoiled innocence of an Arcadian civilization that flourished in Pennsylvania. They renounced the authority of church and Bible, but exhibited a naïve faith in the authority of nature and reason. They scorned metaphysics, but were proud to be called philosophers. They dismantled heaven, somewhat prematurely it seems, since they retained their faith in the immortality of the soul. They courageously discussed atheism, but not before the servants. They defended toleration valiantly, but could with difficulty tolerate priests. They denied that miracles ever happened, but believed in the perfectibility of the human race. We feel that these Philosophers were at once too credulous and too skeptical. They were the victims of common sense. In spite of their rationalism and their humane sympathies, in spite of their aversion to hocus-pocus and enthusiasm and dim perspectives, in spite of their skepticism, their engaging cynicism, their brave youthful blasphemies and talk of hanging the last king in the entrails of the last priest - in spite of all 178 of it, there is more of the Christian philosophy in the writings of the Philosophes than has yet been dreamt of in our histories."

American Revolution

- 13 colonies claimed independence from England - had no professionally trained military against "big powerhouse of Europe" which is why they needed the French's help - Ben Franklin negotiated with Louis XVI, saying that if they backed the US, they can obtain the territory that they lost and win the rematch - France won war for America - British go behind France's back and give territory to America

Directory

- 1785-1799: five man group as the executive branch - 1795: passed a new constitution in 1795 that was much more conservative/ corrupt, did not help the poor - 1797: dictatorship

Franz Josef Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

- Classical music composers - symmetry and sophistication

What did Napoleon accomplish between 1799 and 1804?

- Creation of Centralized Power: Prefects (Intendants) - Reconciliation and Rewards: Return of Emigrés; Ability rewarded over Privilege: Legion of Honor (wanted to reward talented people) - Peace: brought back people who were kicked out and told them to just follow the rules; makes peace with the Pope - Religion (Concordat of 1801 brought Catholicism back to France): France was Catholic and they wanted their church back but under Napoleon's direction, meaning every decree had to go through Napoleon - Economy (Bank of France, Public Works, Price Controls): started from ground zero and remade the economy - Education (Secondary schools, Active support of research) - Law (Napoleonic Code): one legal code for all of France; foundation for state codes of Louisiana and Latin American countries; very proud of the code, huge accomplishment to him -> "My power is dependent on my glory..."

The Republic Virtue in Action

- Desmoulins said he thinks we have everything we want now; Robespierre executes him for not being committed, also kills Dalton - everyone questioned why he was killing everyone - Dalton and Marat are dead; Robespierre is left

King Frederick II (The Great)

- King of Prussia - military victories and reorganization of armies; success during the Seven Years' War - patronage of the arts and Enlightenment; loved poetry and music (father Frederick William did not like it); played flute and composed - father loved the army and brutalized his wife; wanted son to be a military officer; caught son and military officer trying to flee and oversaw his beheading while son watched - looked like the modern, rational, enlightened monarch to everyone else but was really... cynical; manipulated government so he looked good to the rest of the world; hated people - Machiavellian -> brilliant politician (absolutism) - freedom of speech and religion except when it limited his power

Age of Absolutism

- Louis XIV - church was at height of power/ divine right - do what you're told - traditional ruling classes should run things (upper class vs. dirtballs) - art = wealth and power - images of authority

June 1791

- Louis disguised himself as bourgeois to escape to Austria; got caught - was forced to go back to Paris and lost all of his influence

The Republic kills the Royal Family

- Louis was executed in January 1783 - after the vote to kill the king, the people who didn't vote (Brissot and his associates) were exposed and eventually executed; not committed to the cause; called them enemies of the people - use of the guillotine!

18 Brumaire

- Siéyès' plan - coup in which Napoleon and Sieyes overthrew the French Directory - Napoleon went into the directory and claimed there was a Jacobin revolt planned against them; members of the directory put him and Sieyes in complete power - became first consul of France

Death of Socrates

- also by Jacques-Louis David - "don't worry, I'm dying..." - controlled emotions!

Thermidorean Reaction (July, 1794)

- assembly wants Robespierre arrested - the fall of Rose and the radical Jacobins - Robespierre has a tremendous presence, and most of the people like him - wanted to kill himself but missed and blasted his jaw; later executed - Jacobins were overthrown (Did they get out of hand? Do they really embody enlightenment philosophes?)

Realism/ Enlightenment

- back to ancient Greeks/ classical references (Monticello, Washington DC) - rise of the middle class (rational portraits) - understood natural physical/ scientific laws, now time to understand social laws (everything we do follows laws) - teaching moral lessons (Hogarth paintings, Richardson novels) - lack of emotion: harmony/order/balance (music of Haydn and Mozart) - wanted universe to be rational; restrained; intellectual - think for ourselves

Seven Years' War (1756-1763)

- between France/Austria and Great Britain/Prussia - fighting over who will be King of Poland; ended when Peter III took Russian throne and called off the war - fought globally - France weren't involved but joined anyway; had to fight global and created a massive debt -> couldn't borrow money so it needed to redo tax structure - the French lose all of Canada and overseas holdings; gain even more debt

Sans Culotte: The Urban Poor

- common people of the lower classes in late 18th-century France, a great many of whom became radical and militant partisans of the French Revolution in response to their poor quality of life under the Ancien Régime - blue collar - wore a pin that indicated they were a part of the revolution

Louis XV

- embodies Rococo art values (NOT ENLIGHTENED) - nobles had free reign and even joined them - wasn't good with government - didn't wanna make policies - didn't care - caused the revolution - terrible ruler - didn't listen to Louis XIV, who was the most successful ruler in French history (high taxes and lots of wars) - liked war and led France into the War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War - dragged France into debt; didn't have enough money to sustain their lifestyle but continued anyway

Kant

- enlightenment is man leaving his maturity - think for yourself/ don't let church control your mind

The Tennis Court Oath (June 20, 1789)

- famous oath made on a tennis court by members of the Third Estate in France - vow not to disband until a constitution was written to restructure government so 3rd estate has a say - says "we aren't going anywhere unless the king allows us to meet and write up a constitution" - wanted to mimic the US - Louis drove them out

The Bastille (July 14, 1789)

- fortress with guns that was charged - arm ourselves and protect our interests as the 3rd estate - people heard that the king was going to send in troops - thought the Bourgeoise was representing their own interests

Brissot's Preemptive Strike War (April 1792)

- generally moderate - Brissot was an opportunist and was in favor of getting more power for himself; head of "Girondins" (a region in France) - Brissot wanted to take advantage of Louis trying to escape the country and outvote the radicals to set himself up as a prime minister - talks them into declaring war - as France is getting beat, Jacobins made their move

March of the Women (October 1789)

- group of men - marched from Paris to Versailles to criticize King for not living in Paris - King Louis XVI moves family back to Paris, which is the worst thing he could do!

Middle Class

- have money (thanks to Mercantilism) - literacy - can travel (Young men make the Grand Tour - support the scientific revolution now, they question absolutism want power in the government that they fiscally support! it's only rational/ reasonable for them to have a say... -> Feisty Bourgeoise likes British Parliament and (with middle class) sparks revolution!

Levee en Masse

- law that obligated all French men between certain ages to enlist in the army - creation under the Jacobins - nation at arms - huge draft - everyone must defend France

Babeuf

- led the Conspiracy of Equals demanding a more radical form of democracy - was beheaded and considered to be the last Jacobin

The Constitution of 1791

- middle class and Bourgeois values! (i.e. property and economics, the church (civil constitution of the clergy), the king's role) - crack down on Roman church and replace it - exclusion of framers of Constitution from running for office in new government - thought revolution was over

Wright (Experiment)

- middle class family pumping air out of bird cage to understand pressure; first science experiment - women are outside and still seen as weaker and less intellectual than men

The King is attacked (August 10th, 1792)

- mob attacks the Royal Residence - Louis and his family escape to the Legislative Assembly for protection, but that was planned as a trap - mob is answerable to Marat and Danton - government collapses

The September Massacres

- mobs went crazy -> lots of violence; invading prisons of Paris and killing everybody - radical leaders of the Jacobins put them up to this - Brissot didn't do anything about it

The Legislative Assembly as prescribed in the 1791 Constitution

- mostly the countryside radicals - right of the speaker = people who thought things were fine (Lafayette) - left of the speaker = radicals, Jacobins, leaders of the Jacobin factions (all middle class, Danton who got along with everyone and shared the same values as the working class, Marat who was bitter and published a newspaper that aimed his philosophy at the urban poor (middle class figured he understood them), and Robespierre aka "the incorruptible")

What did the Jacobins accomplish?

- no new Republican Constitution - no military victory - no French unity (except in cities, otherwise peasants, nobles (emigrés), and clergy were still unequal) - yes to a new national awareness! (Marseillaise) - yes to awareness of the lower class (first government to care about the dirtballs) - new execution method (guillotine)

Mirabeau

- noble and leader of the early stages of the French Revolution - involved in numerous scandals before the start of the Revolution in 1789 that left reputation in ruins

Rococo Art

- noble art (did not buy into Enlightenment) - decorative qualities of Baroque - "soft, pink, precious, brainless, frivolous" - polite and pastel - revolves around sex because they had nothing else to do with their lives; no science - idealization of "peasant life" (shepherd and milkmaid/ simple and innocent life) - morality does not really exist

Napoleonic Images

- paint me as that which inspires the French people - embody my reputation and what's in people's hearts

Benjamin West

- painted the death of general Wolfe at the end of the war - rational, graceful death with no blood - very balanced painting

Catherine II (the Great)

- queen of Russia and enlightened absolutist - suppressed the serfs and gave power to the aristocracy - westernized in literature, philosophy, and art - could not afford to alienate Russian nobility - questioned serfdom, torture, and capital punishment, also advocated principle of everyone equal in eyes of law, but this produced little change - successful at expanding Russia's land area by defeating the Turks

Jacobin Goals and Methods

- republic established - titles abolished in the name of equality - 1791 Constitution was no good - wars fought for the NATION (nationalism!) - Committee of Public Safety: the Terror (find the enemies within; anyone who is a threat can be tried multiple times) - Popular Courts to deal with "threats": Émigrés - calendar changed (harvest month; hot month; fruitful month; cold month; ten day long weeks) - festival to honor the goddess of reason planned

White Terror (1795)

- royalist rebellion in Paris - hunting down and assassinating all revolutionaries (associated with the Reign of Terror; followers of Robespierre and Marat, and members of Jacobin clubs) by emigres after the final defeat of Napoleon

Joseph II

- son of Marie Antoinette and a enlightened despot who ruled over the Austrian Empire - controlled the Catholic Church closely, granted religious toleration and civic rights to Protestants and Jews, and abolished serfdom - wanted freedom of religion; church says no - wanted to tax nobles; they say no - wanted education for all; nobles say no - best intentions but FAILED

Neo-Classic Art and Classical Music

- style of art and architecture that emerged in the later 18th century (Enlightenment) - for the Bourgeoisie - revival of interest in classical cultures (ancient Greece and Rome) - highlighted the middle class (were now portraits of them!) - taught moral lessons - very symmetrical, balanced, lacking emotion (no more drums and trumpets/ very rational)

Estates General of 1789

- summoned by King Louis XVI to propose solutions to his government's financial problems - 100 representatives for first estate, 100 representatives for second estate, 800 representatives for third estate (only Bourgeoisie) - filled up the indoor tennis court and would not vote for the taxes until the grievances were looked at - 3rd estate wanted to be treated as equals and wanted to meet as one group (Bourgeoisie only wanted to be admitted as nobles because they were well off business men; thought they should have a say) - met in separate groups - instead of all voting separately, they voted in their groups so there was always a 2:1 majority in favor of not taxing the nobles - led to the French Revolution - Robespierre = deputy for 3rd estate

Who pays in France?

- the best land (10%) is owned by the church/clergy - church does not pay taxes but gets tax money (basically lives off of the government) - second 20% of land is owned by the nobles, whether they live on it or not; are not taxed - only third estate pays taxes/ comes from peasants (always followed laws so did not spark revolution; work butts off but will never win/ do not overthrow

Baron Holbach

- unhappiness comes from ignorance of Nature - the wrongful authority of others naturally controls one's ideas

Napoleon

- very misunderstood - born to noble parents with connections on an Italian island of Corsica - parents sent him to military school in France, so doesn't speak French well; bullied - overwhelming sense of confidence; thought the laws did not apply to him - wanted to bring order and come into power - strived to show the world what an individual with determination could do - Jacobin and went to prison for it - very decisive and was able to win skirmishes with power - could rise to top by being good military commander (very good general who was a radical) - set up directory which is the government; still a group of Jacobins who try to overthrow the directory - France needed a lot of commanders to control revolts, so they gave napoleon a chance to put down the royalist riot; destroyed them and got attention of people - Young Napoleon charged to the enemy and leads a full army to absolutely smash the Austrians - all of his men would do anything for him and France (nationalism!) - had great memory and could remember specific people - marries a woman who was in the prison at the same time he was, Josephine (in serious love) - drive was to be accepted; Napoleon was better but his background would never allow him to be accepted by the better people; nobles treated him like dirt; wanted to be accepted by the upper classes based on his ability, but he was just a Corsican; tried to out accomplish them but didn't get any credit - EVERYTHING was based on reputation

Why does Napoleon decide to pronounce himself as Emperor?

- was done with war because he had already beaten everyone - decided he wanted to be emperor because everyone can be a king - crowned himself - elevated himself and was a self made man - needed children, so he married Marie Louise (Austrian Emperor's daughter) - became Napoleon II, but still was never accepted by the noble men

What aspects of life are ruled by social laws?

1. Etiquette 2. Art/ Architecture 3. Music 4. Sports 5. Religion: Deism is most rational! 6. Economics: Adan Smith and Laissez-faire; follows laws like supply and demand; government should not play a role 7. Government: everyone has natural rights, and the government must defend these; Montesquieu = separation of powers (seen best with British) and one branch must make, enforce, or interpret laws; Rosseau = government must reflect the general will of the people

What wars did Louis XVI get France into?

1. War of the Polish Succession 2. War of the Austrian Succession 3. Seven Years War 4. American Revolution No Gains, More Debt!!

Enlightened Despotism

Absolute ruler who was inspired by Enlightenment ideas to rule justly and respect the rights; used his or her power to bring about political and social change

Who was now in charge?

Danton! - liberty, equality, and fraternity

La Marsellaise

France's national anthem

Jacques-Louis David

French Revolutionist and famous painter from the period - Oath: a picture of sons who were going out to war to defend Rome and do their duty - shows controlled emotion! (do not let emotion dominate reason); even sadness is in order; simple - teaches moral lesson of civic duty - "sets the pattern" -> simplicity, bare backdrop

Fragonard

Happy Accidents of the Swing - priest innocently pushing woman on swing, but man who sleeps with her is hiding under bushes and looking between her legs that she spreads apart as she is pushed forward

Napoleon Crossing the Alps

Jacques-Louis David

Napoleon in His Study

Jacques-Louis David

Death of Marat

Jacques-Louis David - Jacobins were winning - Danton resigned because they were so successful - if your a member of national assembly, you are immune to prosecution (Danton was not in the assembly any more) - Marat was killed in his bathtub by a peasant - Robespierre is leading Committee of Public Safety - use terror to defend the nation!

Louis XVI

King of France - just wanted to be loved so doesn't say no to anyone - not very forceful/ inability to lead - married to Marie Antoinette - told to restructure taxes, but backs off - despite debt, decide to get into the American Revolutionary War - 1789: summoned the Estates-General, but did not grant the reforms that were demanded and revolution followed - executed

Who were the models of the middle class?

Newton and Locke - looking for natural laws - also Descartes and Kant; Jefferson (every man is endowed by their creator certain unalienable rights)

Gilbert Stuart

United States painter best known for his portraits of George Washington - studied under Benjamin West

Edward Gibbon

author of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire - one of the first modern histories that attempted to explain the past as a guide to the future

The Beautiful Servant (Pointless Resistance)

basically rape culture - eventually crashes and middle class swoops in

Mary Wollstonecraft

denied male supremacy and advocated equal education for women - "... Truth must be common to all... but the education and situation of woman at present shuts her out from such investigations."

How did the government feel about this new movement?

did not like the criticism because a "rational" government was a democracy and not an absolute monarchy -> philosophes had to watch their mouths or were put in jail

Necker

financial expert of Louis XVI - advised Louis to reduce court spending, tax the first and second estates, and abolish tariffs on internal trade in order to avoid bankruptcy

On the French flag, red, white, and blue represent...

liberty, equality, and fraternity

Diplomatic Revolution

major reversal of diplomatic alliances between the war of Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War - Great Britain no longer with Austria and now with Prussia - France with Austria and Russia to check Prussian power

Madame de Pompadour

mistress of Louis XV who made policies

William Hogarth

painted many commentary black and white paintings that taught moral lessons

Boucher

painter of people getting it on - not a lot of classical references - not fat anymore; naked women

The Great Fear

peasants riot in the countryside - rumor began to circulate that nobles were hiring people to burn down Bourgeoisie houses to intimidate them; peasants (who thought they were being represented but really the Bourgeoisie wanted to get in on the noble benefits) got mad and burned the nobles' estates - concluded that the people were just hearing about their own arsons and kept burning down more buildings in defense - got through to Louis who eventually said they could write up a constitution and be a unit; nobles are scared

Although embraced by some people in the traditional ruling classes, "Enlightened" ideas were more popular with the...

rising Bourgeoisie

philosophes

social scientists trying to find natural laws - Rousseau: laws of music and government - Montesquieu: rules of most rational government (France is strong because Louis XIV said yes to creativity) - Diderot: put book together with all social laws (aka the Encyclopedia) - Voltaire: believed that freedom of speech was the best weapon against bad government; spoke out against corruption of the French government and Catholic church

Despotism

the exercise of absolute power, especially in a cruel and oppressive way

Ancien Regime

the way government is structured 1st Estate = ½% (.005) of population (clergy) 2nd Estate = 4/5% (.008) of population (nobles) 3rd Estate = Bourgeoisie = 9%; Urban Poor = 1 ¼%; Peasants = The rest (basically dirtballs)

The Jacobins were...

threats to every government

Why does Napoleon drag France into so many wars?

wanted to rationalize France and prove its ability