Unit 9

Reciprocity Norm

the idea that in some circumstances we willingly respond to helping those who have helped us in the past

Social interaction

the positive and negative aspect of relating with others

Norms

the rules that a group decides as appropriate or inappropriate

Self-disclosure

the sharing of a piece of personal information with another

Social Psychology

the study of how individuals think about, relate to, and influence each other

Fundamental Attribution Error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

just-world phenomenon

the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

chameleon effect

- Chartrand and Bargh, 1999) was identified in an experiment where one person working on a task with a partner served as an accomplice in the study. The accomplice would vary behaviors by touching an ear or wiggling a foot; that person's partner would unconsciously copy the actor's mannerisms, just as a chameleon changes to blend into the environment. - Interestingly, we tend to prefer people who mimic our behaviors. Maybe that is why our friends are often very similar to us.

Reducing Prejudice

- Contact theory is thought to help reduce and overcome prejudice. Contact theory states that if you bring hostile groups together and give them a common goal, called a superordinate goal, groups will work together to accomplish the goal. While working together, prejudice decreases. The Russians and Americans working together to build the space station is a historical example of a superordinate goal. While working together, the two groups noticed more similarities than differences and began to accept each other. Think about how this idea can be used to help all groups, from high school cliques to warring countries.

Superordinate goal

- Contact theory states that if you bring hostile groups together and give them a common goal

Realistic Conflict Theory

- Economic competition over limited resources, such as the availability of jobs, will increase prejudice and discrimination between the two groups - theory that explains how prejudice and discrimination increase when resources are limited - When limited resources or other circumstances leave people feeling frustrated, angry, or pressured, prejudice and related discrimination often occur. The need to find someone to blame increases. The theory that explains this phenomenon is the scapegoat theory.

What's the answer?

- Enemies sometimes become friends, especially when we approach situations with an open mind. Being a responsible member of society means to be responsible, not just for you, but for others around you. - Cooperation - Communication - Conciliation

Stanley Milgram

- Following orders - Electric shock to another person - 63% of people went to 450 Volts Conclusion: - authority makes us more likely to do things - normal good people can do terrible things - In later experiments, Milgram told the teachers that the learners had a heart condition with disobedience being the minority

social exchange theory

the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs

Cognitive Approach of Prejudice

- The cognitive approach suggests that it is a normal tendency to divide people into social groups. Dividing people into groups helps to simplify and organize our world into schemas. - The cognitive approach also supports social identity theory that includes social categorization, social identification, and social comparison. Social identity theory suggests that we tend to favor groups to which we belong in order to enhance our esteem and identity by looking down at others. - Sport rivalries illustrate social identity theory. By identifying with a particular club or team, we are likely to see positive traits among other supporters of our team and find faults with people who support other teams.

Behavioral Approach of Prejudice

- To explain prejudice, behavioral psychologists point to Bandura's social learning theory. Social learning or observational learning means that we learn prejudice by association, reinforcement, or modeling the behaviors of others. In this way, prejudice is perpetuated and reinforced.

Stereotypes

- broad overgeneralizations and widely held beliefs about the way a group of people think and act - Can be positive or negative - The most common stereotypes in our society are based on religion, ethnicity, gender, and occupational groups. Stereotypes are limiting, because these social characterizations are applied to all members of a particular social category. Jean Piaget would view stereotypes as strict schemas about various groups of people.

Obedience

- changing one's behavior at the command of an authority figure - Stanley Milgram Milgram found that obedience was higher when - the person giving the orders was perceived to be a legitimate authority figure such as a professor or police officer - the authority figure was supported by a prestigious institution (Milgram noted that compliance was lower when he dissociated his experiments from Yale.) - there were no role models for defiance (No other participants were seen disobeying the experimenter.) - the victim was depersonalized or at a distance

Groupthink

- desire for harmony overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives - Even though there is a better alternative, individuals go along with the group to maintain harmony. - For example, jury members have been thought to go along with the group—like peer pressure—to maintain balance and harmony.

Social Grouping

- in-group (favored) (us) - Outgroup (not favored) (them) - In society, many people form their social identities based on their associations with others. - Our identities are based on the assumption there is an ingroup which includes "us" and those we identify with, and an outgroup which includes everyone else. - The "us versus them" mentality can lead to stereotyping according to some superficial characteristic.

Social loafing

- is the tendency for people in a group to exert less when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal - Since you are not being individually measured, you have the tendency to slack off. - People may "socially loaf" because they feel less accountable for their lack of participation and worry less about what people will think.

Group Polarization

- means that a group's prevailing attitudes are enhanced through discussion within the group. - When you discuss your opinion within a group of people who share your opinion, your opinion gets stronger. - Group polarization can have a positive influence when a person discusses an issue within a group and the group's commitment to that cause increases. However, if the topic is a toxic one, group polarization may result in a renewed commitment by the group to a cause that negatively impacts the community.

Deindividuation

- means there is a loss of social awareness and self-constraint that occurs in group situations where people are both aroused and feel anonymous - When participating in a group increases your arousal, and you have the opportunity to remain anonymous, individuals may lose self-control. - This is an example of the diffusion of responsibility and may also contribute to the bystander effect.

Social facilitation

- occurs when individuals have a stronger performance in the presence of others. - The presence of others boosts performance. - Social facilitation occurs with simple or well-learned tasks, but not with tasks that are difficult or tasks that are not mastered yet.

Cognitive dissonance theory

- proposes that people act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) when two of our cognitions, or thoughts, are inconsistent by modifying an existing belief, or rejecting one of the contradictory ideas - Leon Festinger - change usually out attitudes to match our actions

Bystander effect

- the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present - the tendency for a person to be less likely to assist and give aid if other people are present

Just-World Phenomenon

- the tendency for people to want to believe that the world is "just" so strongly that when they witness an otherwise inexplicable injustice, they will rationalize it by searching for things that the victim might have done to deserve what they got - the idea that good is rewarded and bad is punished - can be used to justify prejudice and discrimination - Some people believe naively that those who suffer must be "bad" and those who are successful must be "good." This leads to attribution errors. In addition, prejudice and discrimination spread and stereotypes are reinforced.

Scapegoat theory

- the theory that attempts to offer an outlet for anger and discrimination by providing someone to blame - The scapegoat (person or members of an outgroup that serve as a target for blame) usually has the least amount of power and is typically not the person or group responsible for the frustration.

Attribution theory

- the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition - proposed by Fritz Heider - We attribute behaviors to - Situational factor—an external cause such as the action of others or a situation - Dispositional factor—an internal factor such as a predominant personality or character trait

Discrimination

- unjustifiable negative action and behavior toward a particular group or members of that group - involves action - When someone discriminates, he or she acts based on an existing prejudice.

Persuasion

- when others attempt to change our attitudes, beliefs, or opinions through explanation, pleading, or arguing - The process of persuasion includes four basic elements: source or communicator, audience or target, message, and channel. Persuasion often takes two forms as explained by the elaboration likelihood model

Compliance

- when people change their behavior because another person or group requests the change - Typically, during compliance, the person or group asking for the change in behavior does not have any real authority or power.

Groupthink

- when the desire for harmony within a group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives. - The group makes decisions based solely on the desire to keep peace without considering other factors. Even though there is a better alternative, you go along with the group to maintain harmony.

Social Exchange Theory

the theory that people base their relationships on what they will get in return while maximizing benefits and eliminating costs

Cognitive Component

the way a person thinks about a person, object, or situation

more likely to predict behavior

1. Outside influences are minimized. Perhaps your friend Michelle promised in ninth grade to never drink. In her junior year, Michelle's friends are all drinkers. Due to increased pressure and outside influences, Michelle begins to drink. 2. There is an awareness of the attitude. When we are consciously aware of our beliefs, our behavior is more likely to match our beliefs (Fazio, 1990). If something like a family member being an alcoholic made Michelle aware of her attitude towards drinking, Michelle may never have started. 3. The attitude is relevant to the behavior. If Michelle is the star soccer player on your high school team, she is less likely to drink because alcohol has a negative impact on her health and performance on the soccer field.

Social Cognition

the way in which we think of others

Social Influence

the way our behavior is affected by others

Conformity

Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.

Central route persuasion

triggers deep thinking by offering evidence and fact-based arguments for consideration

Altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others

Conciliation

Conciliation means resolving conflict between groups. People may overcome differences by sharing your culture and learning the culture of others.

Impression Formation

Forming initial evaluations and judgments concerning another person.

Aggression: Biochemical Influence

Hormones and other substances, such as alcohol and drugs, may stimulate the neural systems that control aggression. Research has shown that although humans are less sensitive than animals to hormonal changes, violent criminals tend to be young, muscular males with lower-than-average intelligence scores, higher-than-average testosterone levels, and low levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin (Dabbs & others, 2001a; Pendick, 1994). High testosterone correlates with irritability and heightened dominance and aggression (Dabbs & others, 2001b; Harris, 1999). Alcohol use has also shown to increase aggressive responses (Bushman, 1993).

Who is responsible?

How others influence your willingness to help has intrigued social psychologists ever since the case of Kitty Genovese. This most famous case demonstrates what is known as the bystander effect. The report recorded that at least 38 people heard Kitty's cries for help as she was stabbed to death outside her apartment in New York City in 1964. Even so, no one came to Kitty's aid or called for help. According to the bystander effect, the larger number of people who witness an emergency situation, the less likely anyone is to intervene. This finding also provides evidence for the notion of the diffusion of responsibility. Psychologists theorize that individuals believe the "other people" will take care of it. If the bystander was alone and the only person witnessing this tragedy, this individual would have likely called for help. The larger the group of people who witness a problem, the less responsibility any one person feels. The assumption that someone else will help supersedes any sense of responsibility. Psychologists who research altruism note several circumstances that increase the likelihood of someone helping an individual in need: - The person is not in a hurry and notices the situation. - The person believes the victim needs help. - The person decides to be helpful and assumes responsibility.

Physical Attractiveness

In reality, how someone looks is very important. Research has demonstrated that attractive people are perceived as having all sorts of positive attributes including better personalities and greater job competence. What constitutes physical attractiveness can vary across cultures, but research has shown appearance is one of the main factors that influences our attraction to others. Physical attractiveness can only take a relationship so far. Other factors are more important if the relationship is to survive.

Prisoner's Dilemma

In the classic prisoner's dilemma, two individuals must decide whether to cooperate or betray each other in order to get a shorter sentence for themselves. If both cooperate, both serve a short sentence. If one betrays the other, that individual gets a shorter sentence while the other serves more time. But if both betray each other, the outcome for both is worse. In this case, the decision not to cooperate is a risky one

Normative Social Influence

Influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

Informational Social Influence

Influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality

The Psychology of Aggression

Many theories attempt to explain why aggression exists. Freud may have viewed aggression as a defense mechanism or as the consequence of an overdeveloped id. Skinner may have viewed aggression as a reinforced behavior. Human aggression is influenced by learning. Albert Bandura explained aggression using observational learning. Bandura's social learning theory explains that aggression is learned by watching aggressive models. In Bandura's Bobo doll experiment, he showed time and time again that when an adult models aggressive behavior (ex. hitting the Bobo doll), the child will copy the behavior. Another theory that attempts to explain aggression is the frustration-aggression principle. This theory states that when one becomes frustrated, they are more likely to become aggressive. For example, when your brother or sister annoys you or your computer crashes in the middle of a huge project, at some point you feel as if you cannot deal with it anymore. This may result in an aggressive response. Environmental conditions such as hot weather, unpleasant odors, and cigarette smoke can also lead to aggression. For instance, the summer months are correlated with a higher incidence of spousal abuse. Social roles can also lead to an increase in aggressive behavior. Think about young men and women on the front lines of a war. The role of a soldier increases their aggressive behavior. Phillip Zimbardo's prison experiment at Stanford University in 1972 demonstrated how students assigned to act as guards or prisoners adopted the expected role and behaviors of the characters they were playing. In this experiment, the students randomly assigned to the guard position adopted abusive attitudes, whereas those assigned to the prisoner role became discouraged and rebellious. After five days, the experiment was shut down due to the severity of the abusive behavior of the guards toward the prisoners. This controversial study highlighted the influence of social roles on ordinary people.

Proximity

Proximity is a powerful predictor to friendship and intimate relationships. Without proximity, it would be difficult to form these types of relationships. Study after study reveals people are more likely to have friendships with people who live in the same geographic location. This phenomenon, known as the mere exposure effect, helps explain why familiarity breeds fondness. Imagine your ideal companion; stunningly attractive, witty, brilliant, ambitious. You are attracted to this person, but your perfect companion lives in a cave in the middle of the Australian Outback. Among the almost seven billion people on the planet, chances are you will never cross paths with this person. The mere exposure effect says that we prefer the things and people we see often. From our own image in the mirror to the faces of those we see regularly, familiarity breeds fondness. Once proximity produces contact, human nature begins to take over. What attracts you to a person? Is it their intelligence, authentic nature, personality, or appearance? For the majority of people, appearance is the number one factor in physical attraction.

Befriending, loving, etc some people but not others

Proximity, Physical attractiveness, similarity

Similarity

Opposites may attract in the world of physics and chemistry, but in human intimacy, similar attitudes, backgrounds, and values foster attraction. Couples and friends are more likely to share common attitudes, beliefs, and interests, as well as religion, education, political points of view, intelligence, and even economic status. The more alike people are, the more their attraction endures

Sternberg's Triangular Theory of Love

Robert Sternberg also has his own theory on love. Sternberg's Triangular Theory of Love states love has three components: intimacy, passion, and commitment. When all three components of love are present in a relationship, then complete love or consummate love exists. If passion and commitment exist without intimacy, Sternberg states that the love is short-lived and only described as fatuous.

Cooperate or Compete?

Several notable studies have evaluated the willingness of individuals to choose others over themselves. What would you do in each case?

Philip Zimbardo

Stanford Prison Experiment

door-in-the-face phenomenon

tendency for people who won't agree to a large task, but then agree when a smaller request is made

Prosocial Behavior

the behavior seen as socially desirable in which an individual acts with a selfless concern for the welfare of others

Cooperation

The Robbers Cave study by researchers Muzafer and Carolyn Sherif focused on two competing Boy Scout groups. The study demonstrated that when given superordinate goals that benefit both groups, differences among competing groups vanish. Accomplishing the shared goal requires cooperation.

Channel

The channel is the medium through which the message is being sent. The most powerful medium is television.

Elaboration Likelihood Model

The elaboration likelihood model describes two forms of persuasion. Peripheral route persuasion attempts to trigger an emotion-based response. For example, endorsements by celebrities, other notable figures, or attractive people may have this effect. This form of persuasion does not require deep thinking, but may produce a fast response. Central route persuasion triggers deep thinking by offering evidence and fact-based arguments for consideration. An advertisement on the dangers of texting while driving using statistics may impact the attitudes of those who are analytical by nature and interested in the issue. It may be less effective if individuals are less analytical or see the issue as irrelevant.

The Media and Aggression

The impact of television violence on aggression is significant. There is a high correlation between watching violence on television and those committing violent acts. Psychologists are currently looking into the correlation between violent video games and violent behavior.

Message

The message is the information transmitted by the source to the audience. The message should be clear and well organized. Two-sided arguments tend to be more effective than one-sided arguments. The less informed or more frightened, the more a person will be influenced by an emotional message.

Source or Communicator

The source or communicator is the individual or group who delivers the persuasive message. Communicators are most influential when they have credibility, trustworthiness, power, and expertise. Attractiveness and similarity are also important to the target audience.

Audience or Target

The target or audience is the person who is receiving the persuasive message. Age and gender of the audience play a role in persuasion. Some studies show women are more likely to be persuaded than men. Researchers have found young adults are more likely to change their attitudes than older individuals.

Expressing and Inhibiting Anger

There are various methods we can learn to control anger or effectively channel anger toward a productive task. One method, simply taking deep breaths when feeling angry, can help diffuse situations that would otherwise lead to aggression.

Out-group homogeneity bias

the belief that members of other groups are more similar to each other than members of one's own group

Social Exchange

These factors do not entirely clarify what motivates altruistic behavior. Some social psychologists suggest that social exchange theory, the theory that people base their relationships on what they will get in return while maximizing benefits and eliminating costs, explains altruistic behavior. This cost-benefit analysis is part of human nature and doesn't indicate selfishness or that a person is a "bad" person. People are constantly pondering how to maximize rewards and minimize costs. For instance, if you are debating whether to donate blood, you may calculate the time it will take and the level of anxiety you will experience. On the other hand, you may think about how much the action will benefit someone else and the social approval you will receive. After analyzing both the costs and benefits, you may decide to give blood as the benefits outweigh the costs. Social psychologists also point to the reciprocity norm, the idea that in some circumstances we willingly respond to helping those who have helped us in the past. We feel compelled to give gifts or favors to those who have given us special treatment.

Aggression: Genetic and Neural Influences

Twin studies reveal that if one identical twin has a "violent temper," the other twin is likely to exhibit the same behavior. The same is not true for fraternal twins. This indicates a possible genetic component. In addition, evolutionary psychologists would argue that because males must typically compete more for females with whom to reproduce, aggression may be an evolutionary adaptation. Neuroscientists have not identified a "violence center" in the brain. The brain does, however, have neural systems that facilitate aggression and areas that inhibit aggression. These systems are located in the frontal lobe region. As noted in the case of Phineas Gage, damage to the frontal lobe region may increase aggression. In addition, studies indicate that when electrodes stimulate the amygdala in the limbic system in otherwise mild-mannered individuals, they become aggressive. Stimulate the amygdala of a cat and it will attack without fear.

The Science of Kindness

Unfortunately, when we turn on the evening news, we seldom see a focus on acts of courage and kindness. Despite the lack of focus by the media, many people do act in a socially acceptable manner with selfless concern for others everyday. This behavior is called prosocial behavior. Have you heard the phrase "pay it forward"? Paying it forward means to respond to an act of kindness with kind action toward another person. By doing this, a single act of kindness may result in a ripple effect and hundreds of additional acts of kindness. Imagine you are in the drive-through at your favorite fast food restaurant. You drive up to the window and the employee reports, "You don't have to pay; the car before you paid for your meal." What would you do? Would you thank the cashier and drive away with no further action or would you pay the cost of the meal for the person behind you? If you chose the latter, you have just paid it forward. Psychologists call this altruism.

Affective Component

the emotional response toward a person, object, or situatio

Group Polarization

the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group

Social Trap

When faced with a social trap, individuals must choose between what is good for "me right now" and what is likely good for everyone in the long run. Here's the catch: once you choose, the other option becomes unavailable. Consider the case of environmental preservation. Individuals use and exploit natural resources for immediate gain, but these same resources cannot be replaced for later use by society as a whole. In this way, decisions made by individuals negatively affect us all. So what factors influence these decisions? The types and schedule of reinforcements play a role. Manipulating these reinforcements through policy may effectively encourage individuals to choose what is best for the long run.

Communication

When real life matters become intense and you cannot talk to the person with whom you are angry, get a third person involved (a mediator, therapist, parent, friend).

Solomon Asch and Social Influence

Why do we conform? How are we pressured to conform? Solomon Asch conducted a famous study in 1951 to answer these questions. He conducted a test in which male college students were told they would be participants in a visual perception study. The students were asked to identify a particular line. The correct answer was clear and when asked when they were alone, students correctly answered 99% of the time. However, when the students were questioned in groups, about one third of the students incorrectly answered to go along with peers—who were in on the experiment and answering incorrectly on purpose. Asch noted situational and individual characteristics that influence conformity. He noted that as the number of confederates, students who were in on the experiment and answered incorrectly on purpose, increased, so did conformity. The optimal level of confederates for maximum conformity was four. However, conformity decreased significantly if one confederate answered correctly.

Reciprocity of Liking

Zach and Sam are waiting in line at the cinema, eating popcorn and talking about an upcoming birthday party for one of their friends. Along comes their pal John who joins in the conversation. "Hey Zach, I saw a post online from that new girl, Violet. She thinks you're really hot." Suddenly, Zach has an inspired interest in this fascinating news. Zach replies, "Wow, she thinks I'm hot?" Reciprocity is the idea that you like someone who likes you. By showing people that you like them, they in turn feel good about themselves and return the encouraging response.

self-fulfilling prophecy

a belief that leads to its own fulfillment

Mood Linkage

a phenomenon in which one's moods can spread to others

social-responsibility norm

an expectation that people will help those need it

Prejudice

an undeserved, usually negative, attitude toward a group of people

Aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy

attitude

are beliefs and feelings that predispose us to act a certain way in response to events, people, and objects

Peripheral route persuasion

attempts to trigger an emotion-based response

Companionate love

deep and caring affection people have for one another

Altruism

devotion and unselfish regard for the welfare of others; selflessness

reciprocity norm

expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them

Social Roles

expectations on how one should behave in a certain social position

halo effect

first impression following you

Superordinate goals

goals that can only be achieved by cooperation between groups

The bystander effect

is the tendency for a person to be less likely to assist and give aid if other people are present

Behavioral Component

is the way an individual acts toward the person, object, or situation

Covert Antisocial Behavior

negative beliefs or attitudes

Diffusion of responsibility

occurs when a person fails to act because of the presence of others who share in the responsibility to assist

Diffusion of responsibility

occurs when a person fails to act because of the presence of others who share in the responsibility to assist.

Social inhibition

occurs when individuals fear the disapproval of others. As a result, an individual might avoid a situation altogether.

Overt Antisocial Behavior

physical, verbal, or aggressive acts

Primacy Effect

relying on first impressions and allowing them to persist over time, even if contradictory information about that person is later revealed

Mere exposure effect

repeated exposure to a stimulus increases an individual's likelihood of liking it

Passionate love

romantic love