Urban Landscapes Midterm Exam

Global and World Cities (GaWC)

"Globalizing cities" are cities for which being global is a goal that their elites strive towards, while for others it is a status that is always in process and must be maintained and developed. The point is that globalization and urbanization are socio-spatial processes that never find an end state. Global cities refers to a specific way of hinking about urban globalness-one associated with global cities literature. this literature emerged in the 80s around term "world cities" before adopting "global cities" in 90s. Terms are used in combination/interchangeably. Literature is focused on understanding the ways in which cities are related to the organization of the contemporary global economy. Key argument is certain cities are global b/c they're located in an intense bundle of "command and control functions" which allow firms to maintain global operations. Global cities are representative of culture: NY, Paris (fashion week), Hollywood (movies), Rome (catholicism), Mecca, Medina, Silicon Valley Criticism: Developmentalism influence? How we define globalness? Beyond economy? Potential political/policy implications of this approach? View that all cities are global; all are assemblages of parts nearby and far away. There is nothing new about urban globalness. Look at Venice! or Spanish/Portuguese colonialism!

Urban development investment decision factors

-Circuits of capital investment (David Harvey) in response to overaccumulation crises. Capital is switched depending on market and other economic conditions-for example, from the primary circuit of industrial production to the secondary circuit of fixed capital assets (machinery and equipment, buildings) or to the tertiary circuit of education or technology research. -Supply of and demand for property, interest rates, rates of profit; "highest and best use" for land -Local sub-market conditions -Constant "restlessness" to the built environment -Local developers/financiers-->national-->global

Automobile/highway era

-Radial highway (1945-1970) North/south -Circumferential beltways (1970-now) rings!

European roots of American settlements

-Spanish, w/ Columbus. San Salvador (1492), Santo Domingo (1501), St. Augustine, Florida (1565). In 1573-Spanish Laws of the Indies established: Military posts aka presidios (San Diego, San Francisco); trade centers aka pueblos (San Jose, Los Angeles); religions functions aka missions (San Luis Obispo, San Juan Capistrano) -French established Quebec, Montreal, Detroit, St. Louis, New Orleans. Focused on developing around St. Lawrence River Valley (Canada), Great Lakes, and Mississippi valley. -English mostly on the East Coast of US. Established the Tidewater colonies of Virginia and Maryland, Jamestown (1607), Baltimore. Also Massachusetts colony and New England towns-Plymouth, Boston, New London, Providence. Middle colonies of Pennsylvania and New York, Philadelphia. Finally the southern colonies of Carolina and Georgia in Charleston SC, Savannah. Boston=unplanned, while Philadelphia organized city. -Dutch, along the Hudson River Valley, Fort Orange (Albany) and New Amsterdam in New York

Theories of urban origin

1. Agricultural surplus (most compelling theory): neolithic (agricultural) revolution. Allows for population growth, the ability to have more kids. 2. Hydrological factors: irrigation systems. The intensification of agriculture, division (specialization) of labor (increasing productivity), large-scale cooperation (political unification). 3. Population pressures: as population increases, there becomes a higher density, creating a city 4. Trading requirements: the need for central places for food storage and trading activities 5. Defense needs: walls, fortifications 6. Religions centers: shrines, temples, and places for religious ceremonies Ultimately these ALL influenced the origin of cities!

Evolution of the American urban system

1. Frontier urbanization (up to 1790) 2. Mercantile period (1790-1840) 3. Early industrial expansion (1840-1875) 4. Organization of industry (1875-1920) 5. Fordism and automobiles (1920-1945) 6. Regional decentralization (1945-1973) 7. Economic crisis and restructuring (1973-present)

Community

1. Involves groups of people who reside in a geographically distinct area (traditional) 2. Group of people engaged in social interaction, such as neighboring 3. Quality of relationships within the group, with members bound together by common characteristics such as culture, values, attitudes We can have community without propinquity! The internet!

Mercantilism and renaissance cities

1300-1600. With the development of long-distance trade, merchant towns created. Sea Navigation big contributor to this, along with the silk road. Can be seen in Northern Italy (Venice, Genoa, Florence). Also the Hanseatic League: Baltic ports and ports of Northern Germany bound together, became a trading organization. BERGEN! :) 1492, Columbus sailed the ocean blue-also beginning of significant European colonization

Nationalism, colonialism, trade and urban development

1500-1750 Lisbon, Amsterdam, London, Paris, etc relied on European powers and colonial empires across world and developed long-distance trade. This trade benefited major cities. Spain huge influence on West (South America), Portugal in Eastern South America, South Africa, England in India, North America, Africa, Dutch in East Indies and North America

Early capitalism and the industrial city

1750-1900 Industrial Revolution: development of the steam engine in 1769 created a dependence on coal. Cities like Birmingham, Manchester, Liverpool, Glasgow, typified industrialization. Located along rivers, lots of coal there. Shock Cities: surprising changes in economic, social, cultural life. Large population and employment growth, changes in way of life, symbol of changes from industrialization EX: Manchester, Detroit (from Ford), Silicon Valley (IT boom) Resulted in pollution, migration to urban centers, factory jobs, housing quality low (overcrowding), polarization of wealth, residential segregation increase (wealthy got out as city got dirtier), transportation (railroads! sailing vessels had only used wind)

Electric streetcar era

1890-1920, city grew around the lines of the streetcars, pushing out and expanding in almost a star shape

Fordism and automobiles

1920-1945 Fordism: mass production! Price of cars fell significantly. Mass consumption. Processes of construction became cheaper, same principles used in other spaces (housing) The Model T. Drew more people to the suburbs, city expanded. Creation of parkways. Decline in public transportation. Rise in automobiles from 50s on. By 1945, the city had expanded, filled in. Aligned with Hoyt sector model!

Recreational automobile era

1920-1945: more for fun

The "great inversion"

2010-2015, Central cities had greater population growth than suburbs! Renaissance of city living? Very recent slowing of large city growth; return to suburbs growing faster again :(

Subprime mortgage crisis

A financial crisis that began as a result of the lending practices made to subprime borrowers. Mortgage delinquencies, home foreclosures, and a decline in home prices added to the crisis. House prices dropped dramatically!

Census blocks

A statistical area bound by visible features, such as streets, roads, etc. A block is the smallest geographic unit for which the Census Bureau tabulates decennial census data. Give the least amount of information

Social distance

Affinity, level of interaction as opposed to spacially How much social "space" is there between differing racial or ethnic groups in society, refers to the amount of space that operates between individuals or groups as a result of differences in race, age, culture, ethnicity, etc. EX: college campus vs. families off campus EX: online dating communities or families far physically

Rural

All areas outside UAs and UCs, either with lower density or fewer people, etc.

Community cohesion

Amount and quality of social relations and interactions in a neighborhood. Attraction to and identification with the area. Based on factors such as personal attachment to area, friendships in area, participation in area organizations, use of area facilities (church, school, bar) With high frequency of moving, can their be deep levels of community cohesion?

Progressive reforms

Attempts to clean up the running of cities Urban professionalism and business approach-independent managers began! Progressive era and reform movement: women's right to vote prohibition (sus. political activity at bars) seen as cleaning up environment codified city management, expertise, not just friendship housing reforms: standards for public health land use regulations: no factories next to schools

Segregation

Based on societal groupings: -socioeconomic status -household size and type -lifestyle -ethnicity and race Caused by 1. Economics-Income levels 2. Preferences-congregation, integration, or separation 3. Institutionalized discrimination

Native American settlements

Before the founding of the US, major settlements throughout North America were established. Early North American Native Settlements: Cahokia tribes in present-day Illinois (1050-1350 CE) with an urban settlement. Ancestral Puebloans (Anasazi) in 4 corners area. Urban developments!

Critical approaches to urban studies

Being a critical urban geographer is about being part of the urbanized world that we study. It's about being partial, in the sense of acknowledging that academics will never have a complete understanding of how the world is or should be, and in the sense of being willing to take an intellectual and political stance. Being critical is about questioning taken-for-granted assumptions, both about cities and urban studies. It means highlighting and participating in attempts to change cities for the better. Focuses on subjects of social justice, inequality, and oppression in the city. Critical urban geographers maintain that urban society is fundamentally unequal and uneven, with resources, powers, identities and stigma clustered spatially across cities. Who controls the city? Who benefits from its organization?

City makers

CAPITALISM Landowners -Landed estates (passed down) -Industrial land owners (farmers) (transition from agriculture to urban parcels of land, to make a profit? On edge?) -Financial ownership (property firms, businesses to buy and sell) Speculators -Serendipitous (individual owners) -Active (small or medium-scale) -Structural (larger investors w/ influence) (diverse, international/global) Developers -Single most important group -Organize development process Builders -Around 80,000 home builders in US -Increasing market share for larger builders (Fordist, mass development, suburbs) (Toll Brothers, Pulte Homes) (can be specialized) Consumers Realtors, financiers, exchange professionals Government agencies and local businesses

Marketing the image of the city

Cities market themselves through branding, slogans ( I amsterdam), city rankings (magazines, online), speculative economic development strategies (aggressive, ambitious EX: sport, business), boosterism (booster club, like urban growth machine), place marketing, imagineering EX: Keep Portland Weird, I <3 NY,

Smart growth and smart cities

Cities which emphasize green and modern technologies, social equity, etc.

Neoliberal cities

Cities which stress so-called free trade, cuts in govt. spending on social programs, privatized public services, and reduced regulation of private companies

American Manufacturing Belt

Cities within the Northeast and Midwest, rectangle spanning from St. Louis to Boston. Developed primarily by manufacturing as an industry, drew jobs, businesses. In 1900, 24 out of the top 30 cities by population were in the Manufacturing Belt. Characteristic of the organization of industry

Urban

City: A concentration of people with a distinctive way of life in terms of employment patterns and lifestyle Standard characteristics: Large population size, high population density, social heterogeneity (mix of groups/people/cultures in terms of age, gender, race, religion), higher order economic functions (global as opposed to local economy; central place theory says that certain economic functions require high populations; lots of interactions/transactions, big city facilitates face to face interaction) Urban-rural continuum: blurred line between the two EX: urban lifestyle (commute) in rural landscape?

Urban social movements

Civil rights, housing, neighborhoods, transportation, environment, black power and black politics in 60s. Defined city culturally and spatially. Began to unite against things like freeways.

Public-private partnerships

Coalitions of private-sector business and/or business leaders and public-sector officials and agencies, with others such as unions and chambers of commerce, that seek to promote economic growth and the prosperity of their urban area. Business improvement districts (BIDS) Tax increment financing (TIFS)

Economies of scale

Cost advantages for companies from large-scale production; equivalent to increasing returns to scale in which an increase in inputs (raw materials, labor, etc) by x percent results in an increase in output of more than x percent. An effect of early industrialization.

City incorporation

Defining feature of Laissez-faire and economic liberalism period (1790-1840) Confers limited liability and therefore the opportunity for debt financing through issuing bonds to pay for new urban infrastructure and services to support further urban growth.

Urban Clusters (UC)

Densely-developed places with more than 1,000 people per square mile at the core and 2,500-50,000 total population More UC's around UA's

Urbanized Areas (UA)

Densely-developed places with more than 1,000 people/square mile at the core and over 50,000 total population. Generally water-oriented, more prevalent on US coasts (precipitation, food production), less urbanization in central US

Privatization

Diverse set of policies designed to introduce private ownership and/or private market allocation mechanisms to goods and services previously allocated and owned by the public sector. Involves the scale of government assets (such as key industries) to private owners and the contracting out of services formerly provided by government to private companies in an effort to increase government efficiency and save public money. Saw to outsource urban services and create private communities.

Rustbelt cities

Economic crisis (1973-83) and restructuing (1983-present) have seen the decline of Rustbelt cities, including Detroit, Baltimore, Cleveland, St. Louis, Pittsburgh. Extraordinary population decline from 1950 to today (lost over half of population in Detroit). Factors which contributed to this: -International car competitors (Japan, Germany): dominance of US cars started to erode. Multiplier effects in both progress and decline -Change of economic focus-manufacturing industries in decline. Also in competition with other countries (EX: steel produced cheaper in other countries, fewer tariffs) -Cities could have invested in self more, minimal car changes from the 50s -Oil of the 70's, pressure to develop fuel efficient cars (cost of gas skyrocketed). Other countries' car development was more efficient/better. US INDUSTRIES WEREN'T COMPETITIVE

Metropolitan fragmentation

Economic, social, material fabric of cities separated as a result of increased distancing Created special districts for political reasons

Urban regimes and political power structures

Elitist model: handful of people (business elites) make nearly all important decisions Corporatist model: elevates government itself to the role of a key (or the) key player Pluralist model: power is dispersed, business elites one among several or many power clusters and constituencies (labor, consumers, landlords, etc) Hyperpluralist model: short-lived, ad hoc coalitions

Frontier urbanization

European colonization of North America-developed cities, towns, first larger urban developments established by foreign powers.

Vance's Mercantile model

Explored the importance of external influences and long-distance trade on urban system development. Based on exogenic forces. Phase 1: Exploration; voyages of exploration to North America by entrepreneurs from Europe in search of economic opportunities. Phase 2: Harvesting natural resources: Colonists establish settlements in order to exploit natl. resources such as codfish off Newfoundland, timber and beaver pelts from New England Phase 3: Emergence of agricultural production and coastal gateway cities: Colonists' permanent settlements and farms become associated with development of urban system geared to exporting agricultural staples like grain, salted meat, indigo, tobacco, cotton to Europe and importing manufactured goods/luxury items from Europe. Gateway cities along the coast become focus of emergent system. Phase 4: Establishment of inland gateway cities: Settlement moves inland due to continued demand for agricultural exports and increased colonization. Requires development of long-distance routes and inland gateway cities that serve as depots of staple collection at strategic locations long routes. Stage corresponds to frontier urbanization, with entrepots and inland gateway cities functioning as wholesale collection centers for ag. products intended for export to Europe. Phase 5: Domestic market and urban system infilling: Domestic market can sustain growth of domestic manufacturing. Established populations and good accessibility of gateway ports, entrepots and inland gateways attract economic activity. Colonists begin to spread out along long-distance routes which support market towns. Long-distance trade rather than these local markets establish spatial pattern of cities, like NY, Boston, Chicago, that come to function as the leading centers of urban system

Feudalism and medieval towns

First the Dark ages, from 500-1000, not a ton happened in Europe. Middle East, China, really developed cities during this time. As trade became bigger part of economies, cities developed leading to... Feudalism and Medieval Town (1000-1300): Characterized by walls (defense), local trade, crafts, guilds, cathedrals and monasteries

Post-fordism

Flexibility in production systems. No more life-time employment, leaner operations, differing patterns of production. -Knowledge/creative/finance industries in the downtown -Selectively revitalized inner city districts -Global clusters of new economic activity -New industrial districts based around flexible products and prosses -Urban reserves of nonunion and contingent labor -Weak ties between central city and suburbs -Edge cities and suburban downtowns with back offices -Mixed industrial and residential suburbs -Transit-oriented urban development -Regional collaboration to achieve economies of scope

Hoyt's sector model

Formulated by Homer Hoyt. Takes account of differences in accessibility, and therefore in land values along transport lines radiating outward from the city center. Hoyt developed his model from an analysis of housing rental data for 142 N. American cities in the 1930s. He demonstrated that residential land uses grow outward from the CBD within wedge-shaped areas along radial transport routes. His model assumes that rentals grade downward in all directions from the most valuable sectors. Suggests that class differences in residential areas are arranged in wedges (sectors) based on transportation routes.

Suburban incorporation**

From 1920-1945: included exclusionary and competitive The petitioning for articles of incorporation by suburban communities to protect their reputation, status and independence-often a preemptive strategy to avoid annexation of their community by a central city. As the pace of suburbanization quickened from the 1920s in the US, middle-income suburbanites sought to escape not only proximity to central city slums but also central city tax burdens and to establish a distinctive setting for governance and politics in which middle-income values and preferences might flourish.

Gateway cities, entrepots, hinterlands

Gateway city: city which leads to larger other area EX: St. Louis, Missouri, gateway/connection to West, Mississippi and Missouri rivers EX: Chicago, railroad connections Entrepots: Intermediary centers of trade and transshipment. Break of bulk spot, commodities redistributed. EX: New York, Boston, Charleston Hinterlands: Regions from which goods/products are collected and distributed. Wide market areas

Globalization

Global economic systems become integrated. Transnational corporations develop. Economic linkages, cultural/political exchanges, transportation/communication, transnational social movements, computers/internet, global agreements (UN, WTO, EU), specialization of countries (theory of competitive advantage), more free trade, world-wide operations. Increasing geographical scale! Companies more concerned about overall global presence than success in one or two nations.

Greek and Roman cities

Greek "polis" (independent city-state): compact region dominated by walled village or city. EX: Athens, Sparta from abt 800 BCE, organic design. EX: Miletus from abt 450 BCE, as a newer town, grid pattern. Typical features: Acropolis (for defense, on higher ground), agora (marketplace), city wall, gymnasium. PLANNED CITIES Greek settlement oriented towards the sea, sea-trade important! Roman Empire (abt 300 BCE to 400 CE): order, design, central forum, grid street pattern, walls, rigid social hierarchy, not independent Concentrated in Italy, Southern Spain, as far North as Scotland and East as Istanbul. GREATER INLAND DEVELOPMENT than Greeks. Major Roman Roads in Italy-straighter roads with cities along the way. Many are still here! Persistent Urban Development; long-term effect on urban growth and dvelopment EX: Ponte di Tiberio, Rimini, Italy (bridge built by Romans, 2000 years old!) Ties into Silk Road... Also aqueducts, developed irrigation

Block groups

Groups of census blocks that contain between 300 and 3,000 people Give a medium amount, more information

Urban governance

How cities are overall governed by formal govt and other institutions. Not the same as urban government Power exists outside as well as inside formal institutions of government Power in... -Government -Private sector -Civil Society Models: grassroots, government, private organizations

Interstate Highway System

Ike backed the interstate highway act of 1956, a $27 billion plan to build forty-two thousand miles of sleek, fast motorways.

Specialized land uses in the city

In the industrial city, specialized districts started to emerge at this time including CBD's, department store and shopping districts, office districts, warehouse zones, govt. buildings and public spaces, and distinctive residential zones.

Urbanization-industrialization process

Industrialization-->improved tools, machinery; improved farming techniques; colonization of prime land-->increased agricultural productivity-->migration of surplus rural labor; increased food supply--> URBANIZATION! Cyclical Demographic transitions: changes in birth/death rates. Initially high rates of birth and death. As industrialization, death rate decreases (increased food supply, helping infants survive and overall sanitation improvement). Total population increases! Then eventually death rates level off, and next birth rates lower because kids survive, don't need a ton of workers. Finally even rates! Economies of scale: things get cheaper to produce as produce more...factories and increased scale of production reduce cost

Urban entrepreneurialism

Investment-friendly strategies used by urban authorities to entice companies and entrepreneurs to their jurisdictions. Putting city in better position, involves investing in and selling city. Creates a strong labor pool. in 1980's, cities were in more competition, had to distinguish themselves. Done to improve cities' competitiveness. Includes things like... -Downtown and inner-city revitalization in city cennter -Infrastructure investment (airports) -Attracting advanced service employment (Amazon HQ2) -Entertainment, museums, cultural venues -Sports stadiums and arenas, mega-events -Waterfront development -Sustainability initiatives -Attracting "creative class" (artists which add value, developed by Richard Florida): include science architects, media, business, law. Has been shown that where there's a higher percentage, city's do better. Criticism of this and city boosterism: displacement of lower economic communities

Vance's urban realms model

Key element of the realms model is the emergence of large, self-sufficient suburban sectors, each focused on a downtown independent of the traditional down-town and central city. Popularly known to students as the pepperoni pizza model, this conceptualization may represent the culmination of the impact of the automobile on urban form.

Bid-rent curve

Land area closest to center of city has highest value, accessibility correlated with land value; higher land value, higher usage. Lead to concentric zone model.

Municipal socialism=collective consumption

Local government intervention to impose health and sanitary standards and provide key services (water, sewer, etc) A form of urban governance that emerged with incipient industrialization and rapid urbanization in the late 1800s in the United States and Europe that was characterized by local government intervention in the marketplace in order to impose standards and to ensure the provision of key services and basic amenities. From 1840-1875

Urban studies

Looks at wide scale from neighborhoods, cities, regions, national system cities, to world system cities. Looks at things like urbanization as a process, systems of cities, internal spatial structure of cities, the role of transportation in urban development, and decentralization of population and employment.

Deindustrialization

Markets become saturated, negative spiral/cycle. Leads to widespread job loss, shrinking tax base/yield, deteriorating infrastructure and quality of life. contributed to move to sunbelt cities

Early urban culture hearths

Mesopotamia-Tigris and Euphrates River: present-day Iraq. Cities: Ur, Eridu, from about 3500 BCE. Organic city design (narrow, winding streets, irregular size/shapes, unplanned cities). Egypt Nile River Valley: Thebes, Memphis from about 3300 BCE. Also organic design! Indus River Valley (Pakistan): Harappa, Mohenjo-daro (about 2500 BCE). Gridiron, more planned China Huang He Valley: Northern China, along the yellow river. An-yang about 1800 BCE. Planned! Terra Cotta soldiers Andes region (Peru) and Mesoamerica (Mexico): Caral-Supe from 3,000 BCE, Incans! Southern Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, and Honduras. Teotihuacan, Mayapan (from 200 BCE) planned

Cumulative causation

Multiplier effect: growth begets growth. New or expanded industry (manufacturing) leads to multiplier effect and the possibility of inventions and innovations, leads to inventions and innovations and local market growth, completing the cycle of expanding that industry. Seen throughout the organization of industry Multiplier effects: jobs connected with one another, each singular job has 5 that rely on it. Key propulsive industries have links to other companies, all products/supplies which then lead to other companies which benefit. EX: Pittsburgh, steel, more jobs created

Residential mosaic

Patterns of residential segregation, diversity, heterogeneity of cities, displays different social groups. Mosaic suggests permanence, but in actuality very fluid. Residential Kaleidoscope more accurate description. The complex pattern of different residential areas within a city reflecting variations in socio-economic status that are mainly attributable to income.

Social interaction

Primary relationships-family, friends Secondary relationships-larger grouping -expressive interaction-intrinsic satisfaction (sports hobbies, social clubs) -instrumental interaction-achieving common goal (business associations, political parties)

Urban renewal

Program in which cities identify blighted inner-city neighborhoods, acquire the properties from private members, relocate the residents and businesses, clear the site, build new roads and utilities, and turn the land over to private developers. Impose freeways, eminent domain! (right of cities to take over land) About 600,000 homes destroyed, about 250,000 created, shrinking housing hurting low-income. Failure!

Urban freeways

Put through central cities. Suburbia exploding, cities centers' struggling; eminent domain (city's ability to take land and develop) Throughout 50s and 60s, grand ideas for imposing freeways. Didn't all pan out in Denver. Neighborhoods coalesed, pushed back in "Freeway Revolt".

New regionalism

Regions as a priority, working together regionally!

Suburbs

Residential areas surrounding a city. Shops and businesses moved to suburbia as well as people. Idealization of the American Dream: own house and car, better schools, lower crime rates/taxes. White flight! Minorities in the cities. Suburbs had drive-throughs, tons of parking, easy to get around. Why have they grown so rapidly during 20th century? 1. populatrity and proliferation of automobiles/highways 2. Desire for home ownership, especially low-density, single-family units on large lots 3. FHA/VA and other long-term, low-interest loan programs; "redlining" of lower income, high minority neighborhoods in central cities. 4. Desired to live in politically separate jurisdictions (lower tax rates, suburban school districts, school desegregation and "white flight"

Machine politics

Rise of more organized political parties, machine bosses, corruption and patronage Growth and control of saloons, gambling, prostitution A form of paternalistic urban governance that emerged with incipient industrialization and rapid urbanization in the late 1800s in the US that was characterized by charismatic leaders controlling hierarchical political organizations that drew on working class support. Common in cities of change-new population relied on these bosses with tons of power From 1840-1875 *Think Portland, OR

Post-2000 trends in metropolitan growth

Significant population growth in following MSAs: -Dallas-Ft. Worth -Houston -Pheonix -Atlanta -Miami Significant population decline in following MSAs: -Pittsburgh -Youngstown, Ohio -Cleveland -Flint, MI -Charleston, WV Evolving megapolitan form, with two or more MSAs growing together, with low density sprawl in between. EX: DC and Baltimore More and more percentage of population in suburbs. Sparse cities and dense suburbs.

Census tracts

Small, relatively permanent statistical subdivisions of a county that contain between 1,000 and 8,000 people. Give the broadest, most information EX: a neighborhood

Territoriality

Tendency for population groups to attempt to establish some from of control, dominance, or exclusivity within a localized area

Federal government urban programs**

The New Deal federal govt. intervention

City annexations**

The addition of unincorporated land into a municipality, especially during the nineteenth century in the US. Pioneer suburbanites gained better services from being annexed by the municipality; the municipality achieved important economies of scale and prevented the loss of their middle income groups from the tax rolls and political life. From 1875-1920

Urban systems

The complete, interdependent set of towns and cities of different sizes that exists within a particular territory, such as a region or country. These created linkages for trade and business. Closer places generally have greater interaction. As the transit improves, there are more interactions between systems. "Complementary cities" develop to fill a gap the other is missing.

Special districts

The development of special districts-single-purpose jurisdiction, such as a special sanitary district, established as an additional layer of govt. for a specific purpose. Not subject to statutory limitations on financial or legal powers that apply to municipalities. Also have potential advantage of being customized to correspond closely to specific functional areas. EX: Illinois' 4th congressional district to isolate Latinx community; Ohio 9th district to reduce representation Occurred throughout 1945-73.

Multiplier effects

The extra industries, companies, incomes and employment in various sectors of the economy generated by new economic activity in one sector of the economy can be said to result from that activity's multiplier effects.

Urban geography

The field that seeks to explain the spatial aspects of towns and cities and the socioeconomic similarities and contrasts that exist between and within them. Study of the growth, function, location and spatial structure of cities, including the interrelationships among its people and activities.

Burgess' concentric zone model

The idealized model of city structure devised by Ernest Burgess based on Chicago in the 1920's in which socioeconomic status increases in a series of concentric zones moving outward from the CBD. Chicago School of sociologists of the 1920s. Designed to have some generality w/in N. American cities and describe urban structure in 1920s and 30s. Model assumes that accessibility and land values decline with equal regularity in all directions form a common central point. Burgess suggested a sequence of five zones from center to periphery: CBD, Zone of Transition, Zone of Working Class Homes, Zone of Better Residence, and Commuter Suburbs Criticism: implies natural segregation of land uses; "zone of better residences"=classist; describes Chicago in the 1920's, may not hold up for other cities in different times; labels of areas, zones, problematic

Reapportionment and gerrymandering

The practice in redistricting of manipulating the boundaries of electoral subdivisions to gain political advantage for a particular party or candidate. Common in 1945-73

Urbanization

The process of becoming urban, or more urban. It refers to the clustering of population in increasingly large, dense, and diverse cities over time. It also suggests the increasing globalization of cities' and urban prosscess' influence. Both of these processes indicate the relationship between the (re)organization of space and changes in the character of societies and economies. It has three specific connotations: -Highlights the demographic process in which cities gain residents, a wider variety of residents, a wider variety of residents, and an increasing density of population -It speaks to the increasing globalization of urban economic, political and cultural influence -It helps us consider the ways in which space is organized and reorganized in tandem with changes in the organization of society and the economy

Sunbelt cities

The rapidly expanding cities of the south and west in 1945-73. By 1980, 17 out of top 30 most populous cities in Sunbelt EX: LA, Houston, Phoenix Why so much growth here? 1. New economy industries more "footloose"; not tied to specific mineral resources; shift in manufacturing industries; growth of services and information sectors (technology) 2. Highways, trucks, and air transport eclipsed rail as main modes of transport 3. Defense industries and military bases 4. Lower labor costs/less unionization (decreased manufacturing jobs) 5. Climatic, recreation, tourism amenities 6. Retirement centers 7. Growth of boomburbs and "sprinkler cities"--> development of suburbs

Agglomeration economies

The savings to an individual enterprise derived from locational association with a cluster of other similar economic activities, such as other factories or retail stores. Businesses share the cost of production by their close location to one another, have a common labor pool. Become known for certain things. When companies are close together physically, an infrastructure is developed, certain complementary businesses are created, there becomes a concentration of industries tied together. EX: Stockyards-->high quality knives. Specializations, spin-offs, expertise. An effect of early industrialization.

Geography

The study of spatial variation on the earth's surface Geographers study the characteristics of space, location, and place in the broader context of how people interact with both physical and human environments The "why" of "where"

Central place theory

Theory that explains the size and spacing of urban settlements that provide goods and services to their surrounding hinterlands. Many Hamlets, fewer Villages, fewer towns, fewest cities; hexagonal physical pattern. Regular distribution based on size. Interlocking trade areas. Cities have the largest trade areas, towns smaller, villages even smaller. Cities have the most options, less as get smaller. Depends on... Range: maximum distance that consumers will travel to obtain a particular product or service Threshold: minimum market population size required to keep a particular product or service on offer Low-order centers have a small range and threshold, where as high-order centers have a large range and threshold.

Central Business District (CBD)

This central nucleus of commercial land uses has a concentration of office, govt, retail and cultural activities. As the most accessible part of a monocentric urban area, land values and building densities are high. Focal point for transportation w/in the city. Electric streetcar dominance-easiest way to go

New international division of labor

Transfer of some types of jobs, especially those requiring low-paid less skilled workers, from more developed to less developed countries. One piece of the process of economic restructuring. Facilitated by increased communication technology, mainly by low cost of production abroad.

Walking/horsecar era

Up to 1890, this transport determined a tighter street, different urban form.

Metropolitan Statistical Areas

Urban Areas and surrounding counties

Micropolitan Statistical Areas

Urban clusters and surrounding counties

Land use zoning and exclusionary zoning**

Used throughout the 1920s, 30s, 40s The public regulation of land and building use to control the character of a place. Exclusionary zoning invented in San Francisco to discriminate against the Chinese and refined in NY in 1916 to discriminate against undesirable factories that were soon deployed by suburban communities to exclude undesirable social groups and unwanted land uses. By carefully framing their land use zoning ordinances, suburban jurisdictions can restrict certian types of activity and people from moving into a locality.

Harris-Ullman multiple nuclei model

Very different-identified suburban bubbles and multiple centers, CBDs. Zones value not always in relation to distance from CBD. INFLUENCE OF CARS. Industrial areas moved to outside of cities. Characterized by decentralization and nodes of different economic and residential areas.

Urbanism as a way of life

Wirth: nature of social life changes due to increasing population size, density, and social heterogeneity -Increased dependency on formal institutions -Decreased dependency on traditional community structures -Social contacts become more impersonal (can't say hi to everyone who walks by) Bowling alone: society as less cohesive

Congregation

can be seen at neighborhood scale, city scale, international scale

Debt financing

funds raised through various forms of borrowing that must be repaid. Used during Laissez-faire and economic liberalism period (1790-1840) for cities

Primate cities

larger than other cities in the area and representing a national culture EX: Istanbul in Turkey, Dublin in Ireland, Buenos Aires in Argentina

Urban "growth machine"

partnerships between public and private sector, implement development of cities, largely through attracting inward investment. a web of local economic and political interest groups that hold in common a commitment to sustained growth and development local political leaders at center. includes local buraeucracy, national politicians, federal bureaucracy, organized labor, utility and transportation companies, investors (speculators, developers), newspapers, professional sports, the arts, downtown business interests (banks, retailers), self-employed professionals, local universities

New federalism

system in which the national government restores greater authority back to the states. Privatization, deregulation, cutting taxes. Govt. withdrawal. Includes outsourcing urban services, creation of private communities, public-private partnerships Seen throughout 80s to present.

Rank-size rule

the country's nth-largest settlement is 1/n the population of the largest settlement EX: New York has the most people, LA has half of that, Chicago a third of NY's population.

Fiscal retrenchment

when a government has to introduce deflationary measures designed to reduce the amount of borrowing and debt that has been run up during a downturn in their economy. Done by either raising taxes or reducing government expenses. Seen in the fiscal crisis of 70s-service withdrawal. Cities went bankrupt, people moved to suburbs.