US Congress

Main role of lobbyists

Provide legislators with information, though they will sometimes produce evidence designed to support their cause

Salary of Representatives and Senators

$174,000 a year for members of both houses

Structure of the senate

-100 seats -election every 6 years -minimum age: 30 years old -resident for at least 9 years -equal representation

When has there been united government since 1992?

-1993-1994 (Clinton) -2001, 2003-2006 (Bush) -2009-2010 (Obama) -2017-2018 (Trump) -2021-2022 (Biden)

Demographics of the 116th Congress (2019-2021)

-24% female -10.4% black -8.5% hispanic/latino -97% had a Bachelor's degree -91% Christian -2% LGBTQ+ -Average age of 59

Powers of the House of Representatives

-Beginning consideration of all money bills -Bringing charges of impeachment -choosing the president if needed

Other examples of filibusters

-Bernie Sanders spoke for over 8 and a half hours against a tax deal between Obama and the republicans -Senators Chris Murphy, Ben Sasse, and Pat Toomeyhad a 15 hour filibuster pressing for tighter gun control in 2016

Examples of smaller caucuses

-Blue Dog Coalition (fiscally conservative House Democrats) -Congressional Black Caucus (60 members, 58 democrat) -Congressional Hispanic Caucus (35 members) -House Freedom Caucus (most right wing, 45 members) -The Tuesday Group (moderate republicans)

Advantages of incumbency

-Constituency services and name recognition -Pork barrel politics -Fundraising advantage -Gerrymandering

Concurrent powers of Congress

-Creating legislation -Oversight of the executive -Overriding the president's veto -Initiating amendments -Declaring war -Confirming an appointed VP

How do pressure groups attempt to influence members of Congress

-Direct contact -Generate public support -Phone calls -Provide evidence to committees -Organise rallies -Engage in funraising and capaigning

Functions of Congressional caucuses with examples

-Educational (Pro-choice caucus, LGBTQ+ Equality caucus, Artificial Intelligence caucus) -Agenda setting (attempt to gain recognition for possible legislation) -Encouraging support for proposals

Introduction of a bill

-First step in the legislative process -Assigned a number (filed) -Read and referred to a committee

Choosing the vice president if the electoral college is deadlocked - when has this happened

-Granted to the Senate -Aaron Burr elected in 1800 and Calhoun elected in 1824

Factors affecting the relationship between Congress and the presidency

-Party control -Party polarisation -Policy area -Election cycle -Presidential approval rading -Congreessional approval rating -National events

Factors that affect voting behavior in Congress

-Political parties -Congressional caucuses -The administration -The constituency -Pressure groups -Lobbyists

Powers of the Senate

-Ratifying treaties -Confirming appointments -Trying cases of impeachment -choosing the VP if needed

Why is the Senate seen as the more prestigious chamber?

-Senators represent an entire state, and the smaller size means that Senators are more likely to get leadership roles -The Senate is seen as a launching pad for a presidential campaign -Senators have significant exclusive powers and greater name recognition

Key leadership roles in the HoR

-Speaker of the House (elected by the whole House) -Majority and minority leaders -Majority and minority whips

Key leadership roles in the Senate

-Vice president -Majority and minority leaders

Initiating constitutional amendments

-must be approved by a 2/3 majority in both houses before being sent to the States -ex: Bill of Rights

Vetos from 1789 to January 2021

1,518 vetos used, 112 overridden (93% success)

The legislative process

1. Introduction 2. Committee stage 3. Timetabling 4. Floor debate and vote 5. Conference committee (optional) 6. Presidential action

How many house members ran for Senate seats in 2016?

12

Example of a member of congress putting the interests of their constituency over the interests of their party

12 Republican representatives voted against the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act 2017 because it would have seen the taxes of their constituents increase

How many times have the democrats nominated a senator or former senator as their VP candidate?

19 out of the last 20 elections

Longest filibuster

1957 Sen. Strom Thurmond talked for 24 hours and 18 minutes in attempt to kill the civil rights bill

Representation in the Senate

2 senators per state -Longest-serving is the 'senior senator', shortest-serving is the 'junior senator'

Term length of the HoR

2 years -The whole of the House is re-elected

What percent of bills were enacted into law between the 113th and 116th congress?

3% from the 113th to the 115th, 1% in the 116th Congress

Decline in use of conference committees

37 conference reports under the 104th Congress, 7 under the 115th

Structure of the House of Representatives

435 members, 2 year terms, each represents a congressional district -minimum age: 25 -resident for at least 7 years

How many of the last vice presidents were in the Senate at some point?

5/8

How many former House members were there in the Senate in 2015?

50

Division of Congress 2021

50-50 in the Senate with Kamala Harris breaking the tie

Term length of the Senate

6 years -Class I, Class II, or Class III senators are up for re-election every 2 years

Bicameral

A legislature consisting of two parts, or houses

Pressure groups

A type of special interest group which consist of individuals with a common concern who seek to place demands on organisations to act in a particular way or to influence change in their behaviour (e.g. Greenpeace and PETA)

Pocket veto

A veto taking place when Congress adjourns within 10 days of submitting a bill to the president, who simply lets it die by neither signing nor vetoing it.

House Rules Committee

An institution unique to the House of Representatives that reviews all bills (except revenue, budget, and appropriations bills) coming from a House committee before they go to the full House.

Creating legislation

Article I states that all legislative powers granted in the constitution are vested in Congress -Bills must pass through both houses, so both must agree -ex: Obama asked Congress to pass the Affordable Care Act, while Trump asked Congress to pass tax cuts

Franking privilege

Benefit allowing members of Congress to mail letters and other materials postage-free (outside of elections)

Independent senators 2021

Bernie Sanders of Vermont and Angus King of Maine (vote with Democrats)

The committee stage

Bills are passed to the standing committees in both chambers of Congress, and the members have full powers of amendment at this stage -Many bills are pigeon-hold (no action taken at all) -Those that aren't have a report written and are passed to the next stage

Floor debate and vote on passage

Both houses debate the bills and vote through simple majorities -Possibility of a filibuster in the Senate

Confirming an appointed VP

Both houses must agree Allowed by the 25th amendment -gives the president the power to fill a vacancy in the VP's office -ex: Nixon's VP resigned in 1973 and he appointed Gerald Ford to succeed him, who was then confirmed by Congress

Declaring war

Both houses must agree on a declaration of war -has only happened 5 times -Declaration of war on Japan in 1941 -Korea and Vietnam were declared by the President

The effect of the administration on voting in Congress

Cabinet members keep in contact with members of Congress in order to persuade them to cast their votes in certain ways -In 2010 Nancy Pelosi played a key role in ensuring that enough voters from the Blue Dog Coalition voted for healthcare reform -Persuasion needs to be regular, reciprocal, and bipartisan

Removal of members of Congress

Cannot be impeached, but under Article I, Section 5 can be expelled by a 2/3 majority vote -Democrat James Traficant of Ohio was convicted of bribery and expelled in 2002

Conference committee

Committee appointed by the presiding officers of each chamber to adjust differences on a particular bill passed by each in different form. (used when the House and Senate pass different versions of a bill)

The Connecticut compromise

Compromise agreement by states at the Constitutional Convention for a bicameral legislature with a lower house in which representation would be based on population and an upper house in which each state would have two senators.

Constituencies in the HoR

Congressional districts -Redrawn once every 10 years to reflect census data (gerrymandering?)

How does party control affect the relationship between Congress and the presidency?

Congressional oversight of the executive is more effective when Congress is not controlled by the president's party. -Senate rejection of presidential nominations are usually when the president's party does not control the Senate (Bork rejected in 1987 under a democratic senate, 1999 rejection of White under Clinton) Oversight drops when there is united government, such as under George W. Bush (this changed in 2007) -There were only 37 oversight hearings in 2003 and 2004

Last pocket veto

Consumer Bankruptcy Overhaul Bill in 2000 under Clinton

Two models of representation

Delegate Model and Trustee Model

The 17th Amendment

Established the direct election of senators (instead of being chosen by state legislatures)

Senator John Cornyn

Example for the Senate being prestigious -Senator of Texas -represents the entire state, and has a 6 year term -elected as Senate Majority Whip in 2015

Trying cases of impeachment

Gives the Senate the power to determine whether impeached officials are guilty -in 2010, Judge Thomas Porteous was found guilty in the Senate and removed from office -Both Clinton and Trump were acquitted -In 2021, Trump was impeached in the House but fell short of the 2/3 majority needed for conviction in the Senate (included 7 republican senators)

The significance of incumbency

High rates of re-election in the US

The effect of constituencies on voting in Congress

House and Senate members should represent the interests of their constituents -They must be residents of the state they represent and often have been born, raised and educated there -Incumbents may have to win a primary election to decide wheter they can continue to represent their party (Democrat Joseph Crowley was defeated after 20 years in office by AOC in a primary)

Oversight of the executive branch

Implied by Article I, Section 8 (a legislative body may investigate any subject within the scope of its legislative powers) -oversight occurs in committees (congressional standing and select committees) -ex: both houses investigated the Trump administration after allegations of collusion with the Russians

Example of the trustee model

In 2017, three republican senators voted against Trump's attempt to repeal Obamacare without a replacement

Name recognition

Incumbents have an advantage over challengers in election campaigns because voters are more familiar with them, and incumbents are more recognizable.

Pork barrel politics w/ examples

Legislation that gives tangible benefits (highways, dams, post offices) to constituents in several districts or states in the hope of winning their votes in return. -Over $15.3 billion spent in 2019 -'Big Dig Highway' project in Boston (cost $14.6 billion) -Arts programme in Washington DC ($2.8 million)

Trustee Model

Legislators should consider the will of the people but act in ways that they believe are best for the long-term interest of the nation

Constituency services

Members of Congress doing what they can for the people back home in order to get re-elected -members of congress also have official websites which demonstrate their success and allow their constituents to contact them

Overriding the president's veto

Must vote with a 2/3 majority in each house -ex: In 2007 both houses overrode Bush's veto of the Water Resources Development Bill (381-40 and 81-12) -ex: Under Trump, Congress overrode the veto of the National Defense Authorization Act (322-87 and 81-13)

Increase in filibusters

Only 7 cloture motions in the 91st Congrss compared to 139 in the 110th Congress

Main Congressional caucuses

Party or special-interest groups formed by like-minded members of Congress to confer on issues of mutual concern. -House Republican, House Democrat, and two parallels in the Senate -Elect majority and minority leaders as well as party whips

Bringing charges of impeachment

Power given to the House of Representatives -Successfully used 21 times since 1789 -President Clinton was impeached in the House in 1998 for perjury and obstruction of justice -Trump was impeached twice; for abuse of power and the obstruction of Congress (2019) and later for incitement of insurrection (2021)

Choosing the president if the Electoral College is deadlocked

Power given to the House of Representatives Has been used in 1800 (to elect Jefferson) and in 1824 (to elect Adams)

Beginning consideration of all money bills

Power given to the House of Representatives Only the House can raise taxes (as it was directly elected by the people and remains more responsive to their wishes) -However, the Senate must also pass these bills

Presidential action on a bill

President may: -sign the bill -veto the bill -allow the bill to become law without signing -pocket veto the bill. Vetoed bills are returned to Congress, overridden by 2/3 vote

senatorial courtesy

Presidential custom of submitting the names of prospective appointees for approval to senators from the states in which the appointees are to work.

Leaving bill on desk

Presidents can allow bills to become law without signing them -They may take no position on these, or may wish to veto them but know that would be overridden

Signing a bill into law

Presidents sign bills they fully support and wish to claim some credit for -For example, Obama signed the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act -Trump speaking to the media after signing the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act 2017

Gerrymandering

Process of redrawing legislative boundaries for the purpose of benefiting the party in power. -In North Carolina in 2020, the Democrats won a majority but the majority of seats were won by Republicans

Representation in the HoR

Reflects the population of each state -7 states have only one representative -California has 53 members for represent 40 million people

The functions of Congress

Representation, Legislation, Oversight

Example of a conference committee being used

Tax Cuts and Jobs Act 2017 -took 2 weeks to reconcile differences due to a Republican majority in both chambers

Confirming appointments

The Senate confirms appointments made by the President through a simple majority -ex: When Justice RBG died in 2020, Amy Coney Barrett was confirmed by 52 votes to 48

Ratifying treaties

The Senate ratifies treaties negotiated by the president by a 2/3 majority -ex: voted by 71 votes in 2010 to ratify the START treaty with Russia -ex where this didn't happen: JCPOA treaty with Iran in 2015 wasn't passed by the Senate, and was voided by Trump in 2017

midterm election

The congressional election that occurs midway through the president's term of office

Timetabling

The legislative stage where bills are ordered and prioritised. -Senate deals with this through a unanimous consent agreement -The House deals with this through the House Rules Committee

Significance of political parties in voting within Congress

The political party of a member of Congress is an important determinent of how they will vote -For example, the Federal Information Sustems Safeguard Act (FISSA 2016) saw all but two Republicans vote 'yes' and all but four Democrats vote 'no'

Constituencies in the Senate

The two senators represent the whole state

The election cycle

The two-year period between federal elections; the whole of the House and 1/3 of the Senate are up for re-election

Delegate model

The view that an elected represent should represent the opinions of his or her constituents.

Party unity vote

a roll-call vote in the House or Senate in which at least 50 percent of the members of one party take a particular position and are opposed by at least 50 percent of the members of the other party

Example of the delegate model

a. Republican representatives voting against the impeachment of President Trump (because he was popular among republican constituents) b. Tulip Sadiq, MP for Hampstead and Kilburn: labour shadow minister resigned jan 2017 so that she could vote against the triggering of article 50, because her constituency voted 75% to remain.

unanimous consent agreement

an agreement on the rules of debate for proposed legislation in the Senate that is approved by all the members

What percentage of bills make it into law?

around 2-4%

Fundraising advantage

incumbents can raise more $ because they will most likely win -Incumbent senators raised over 7x as much as their challengers in 2018 -Spent hiring consultants and buring television time and advertisements

Cloture Motion

mechanism requiring sixty senators to vote to cut off debate. (only way to to end a filibuster.)

Regular veto

occurs when the President refuses to sign a bill and returns the bill complete with objections to Congress within 10 days -Used as a threat to make changes

Divided government

one party controls the White House and another party controls one or both houses of Congress

How much money did the financial sector donate to the candidates of both parties in the 2020 election?

over $75 million

Lobbyists

people hired by pressure groups to influence government decision makers

The House of Representatives

the lower house of Congress, consisting of a different number of representatives from each state, depending on population

The Senate

the upper house of Congress, consisting of two representatives from each state