US Foreign Policy

Containment

-Defining foreign policy strategy of the COld War -First theorized by Kennan in his "Long Telegram", where he discussed how Sovietism is incompatible with traditional Russian values and norms. As a result, it would eventually fail -As it internally combusted, the US should practice patience and prudence, and Contain the spread of Soviet ideas and practices in order to exacerbate the process -The theory was first elucidated in the truman Doctrine, in a speech in 1947 -Initially saw financial aid to countries, namely Turkey and Greece, countering interior COmmunist aggression -However, Communist coup in Czechoslovakia scared COngress, due to their belief in the Domino THeory, approved a much more militarized version, based off the ideas of military buildup and forceful containment of Soviet aggression laid out by Paul Nitze in NSC-68

Linkage

1970s period, Nixon and Kissinger championed cold war detante. Persuaded the USSR and China to cooperate in restarting revolutions in the Third World in return for concessions in nuclear and economic fields. see detente and linkage

War Powers Resolution

1973 passed by Congress in response to what they considered to be LBJ's unilateral decision making during the Vietnam war. (Gulf of Tonkin Resolution) The purpose of the resolution was to limit the President's ability to send troops into hostile situations. It stated the US military can go to war if it is declared by congress or if there is an attack on US soil. It requires notification of Congress to military action within 48 hours, an explanation of the conflict within 42 hours via letter, and congressional approval to continue the conflict longer than 60 days (not including a 30 day withdrawal period). Every President since the resolution has passed has ignored it, deeming it unconstitutional, as it limits their authority as commander-in-chief of the armed forces.

Washington Consensus

1989 A Set of policy requirements for countries to receive aid from a DC-based institution such as the IMF and the world bank. They emphasize free trade and expansion of market economy within the country receiving aid. Many countries have been critical of these conditions for benefiting the USA and western countries while impeding the development of impoverished states. Also can be used against the US because Russia and other semi-hostile regimes give money/aid with no strings attached.

Group of 2, Group of 8, Group of 20, BRICs

5 major emerging national economies Brazil Russia India China South Africa Not to be confused with MINT Unlike Mexico, Indonesia, Nigeria, and Turkey, BRICS countries have both economies that can grow quickly AND significant regional power. Group of 2 is the special relationship, economically, between the US and China since 2005. Group of 8 was an inter-governmental political forum from 1997 until 2014, with the participation of the major industrialized countries in the world, that viewed themselves as democracies. It was comprised of Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, UK and US. The EU also had a role as an honorary member. The forum ended when Russia was formally suspended in 2014 after its annexation of Crimea, and in 2017 Russia announced it would leave permanently. Group of 20 was founded in 1999, to discuss policy pertaining to the promotion of international financial stability. It is comprised of 19 nations, plus the EU. The countries are: US, UK, Turkey, S. Korea, S. Africa, Saudi Arabia, Russia, Mexico, Japan, India, Indonesia, Germany, France, CHina, Canada, Argentina, Brazil and Australia.

Belief systems, evoked set, operational code

A belief system is the organized and integrated perceptions of individuals in a society, including foreign-policy decision makers, often based on past history, that guides them to select certain policies over others. Such an example would be the implementation of the Marshall Plan in 1948. Foreign policy experts understood that the harsh reparations owed by Germany after the First World War led to financial ruin, leaving a generation to be brought up in abject poverty, and a once-proud Empire to be dismantled and lose its dignity. This frustration gave rise to the Nazi party. To ensure something similar didn't happen, the American government agreed to foot the bill for European reconstruction, even in Axis countries, so that the Allies could maintain control without fear of reprisals. An Evoked Set is the tendency to look for details in a contemporary situation that are similar to information previously obtained, thus leading one to conclusions that are similar to those of the past. An example of an evoked set would be the Vietnam war. While a nuanced explanation would highlight the differences between the Korean and Vietnam wars, at its core those wars were fought to prevent a nationalist force, under the banner of Communism, from grasping power away from US-allied regimes, thus leading the country to become COmmunist and fall under the sway of the Soviet Union. The members of the DOD may have noticed these similarities and assumed the situation was identical, save the pivotal difference that there would be no angry CHina waiting on the other side. Thus, victory was necessary and relatively assured, because of their opinion of the present situation based off past experiences, thus an evoked set. Operational Code and the field dedicated to analyzing it in various world leaders, focuses on determining the modus operandi of of foreign political leaders. The Operational code of a leader is defined by the state of the world around them, whether it is friendly or hostile, and the level of control the leader has on that world. Understanding this fact then leads to the characteristic approach of the actor toward politics: the norms, standards, and guidelines that influence the actor's choice of strategy and tactics.

Covert Operations

A covert operation is one designed to conceal the identity of or permit plausible deniability of the sponsor. Unlike a clandestine operation, a covert operation is designed not to conceal the operation itself. The recipientient of the operation will know that something happened, the goal would just be that they don't know who conducted the operation. The usage of covert operations grew with the introduction of US Special Forces in the mid 20th Century, and has been used by administrations ever since, often through the CIA. The Iran-Contra Affair was an example of Covert Operation during the Reagan admin, or the assassination of bin-Laden during the Obama admin.

Nation building and failed states

A failed state is a state without a central governing body making the decisions for that society. Often the economy has collapsed and this leads to civil disorder, poverty, genocide, ethnic conflict, disease, etc. Examples of failed states include Somalia or Libya, where no official government has been established to represent the people of that country. Nation building is the idea that a more developed country or supranational organization, such as the United States or NATO or the EU, takes the lead on making the leap for a country to transition from a failed state to a functioning state (KFOR in BiH). Nation building, though often well intentioned, can have some people feeling uncomfortable with the parallels to colonialism or imperialism.

Burden Sharing, free riders, hegemonic stability theory

A free rider is an entity that reaps some form of benefit from a collective public good without using any of its own resources to achieve that public good. Instead, this entity relies on the work and effort of another entity in order to produce the good and subsequently enjoy the benefits. Often time free-riding is a state's behavior at the international level. We can look to NATO as an example. NATO was established in 1949 as a collective security organization led by the US. The good that NATO produces is security, and all of NATO's members benefit from this security. However, the US contributes a substantial amount more than some of the other members to achieve the collective security that benefits all. The Organization was established in order to create stability, with all members paying their fare share to make that a possibility, thus sharing the burden. But this has not always been the can see, and countries that fall short of their financial obligations to NATO, such as Luxembourg, is a free rider. It contributes significantly less resources than the US but still achieves the same benefits. Significance is that countries are incentivized to contribute the least amount possible to international agreements while still maximizing benefits. This can also be applied to climate change negotiations. Air quality is a public good, but if Country A is the only one cutting emissions but Country B is benefitting from better air quality then Country B is a free rider. Hegemonic Stability Theory-the belief that one single global hegemon, or a regional hegemon, will maintain a stable liberal economic (free trade) and political system by utilizing the power it has, in comparison to the relatively little power its neighbors have, both economically and militarily. The united states, and the sway it holds over the entire western hemisphere, is an ideal example of this.

Iran-Contra affair

A political scandal in the United States that occurred during the second term of the Reagan Administration. Senior administration officials secretly facilitated the sale of arms to Iran via Israel, despite it being the subject of an arms embargo. They hoped, thereby, to fund the Contras in Nicaragua who were fighting the communist sandinistas, while at the same time negotiating the release of several U.S. hostages taken by Iran-affiliated terrorist groups. It was never confirmed as to whether or not President Reagan was fully aware of the scope of the plan, but under the Boland Amendment, further funding of the Contras by the government had been prohibited by Congress.

Dollar as world reserve currency

A reserve currency is one that is held in significant quantities by governments and institutions as part of their foreign exchange reserves. It is commonly used in international transactions and investments since it is common amongst different states. By the end of the 20th Century, over two thirds of the world utilized the US Dollar as its reserve currency, giving it reserve currency status. It is considered an international favorite because of its stability and the assets associated with the US Government.

Blowback

A term originating from within the American Intelligence community, denoting the unintended consequences, unwanted side-effects, or suffered repercussions of a failed covert operation that fall back on those responsible for the aforementioned operations. To the civilians suffering the blowback of covert operations, the effect typically manifests itself as "random" acts of political violence without a discernible, direct cause because the public is unaware of the failed operations. A recent example of blowback that had negative repercussions on American Foreign Policy was the discovery that the US had tapped into German CHancellor Angela Merkel's phone. THis revelation significantly hurt the US-German relationship, albeit temporarily, but had the much more long-lasting effect of damaging relationships with our allies. Due to the negative effects of Blowback, COngress passed the Hughes-Ryan Amendment in 1974, to the Foreign Assistance Act in 1961. The amendment required the President of the United States to report all covert actions of the Central Intelligence Agency to one or more Congressional committees. The legislation was meant to ensure that the intelligence oversight committees within Congress were told of CIA actions within a reasonable time limit. Senator Hughes, in introducing the legislation in 1973, also saw it as a means of limiting major covert operations by military, intelligence, and national security agents conducted without the full knowledge of the president.

Genocide

According to the 1948 UN Genocide Convention Resolution, it is the act of eliminating from existence in whole, or in part a national, ethnic, religious or racial groups. This is done by means of killing, seriously harming, bringing about physical destruction, or preventing births. The UN Genocide Convention has 149 signatories, with the DR having signed but not ratified it. Preventing genocide was a key feature of the humanitarian aspects of the Clinton Doctrine, such as in Bosnia-Herzegovina, Kosovo.

Attentive Public, Mass Public, 'One-Issue Mobilizables'

An attentive public is one that pays attention to the issues and reaches political decisions by discussing and weighing the various arguments carefully before formulating specific viewpoints. But those who understand all arguments and utilize them to guide their own thinking, particularly in Foreign Policy, only make up about 1/4th of the American Public. Those who pay attention are often branded as "elites" and are usually businessman who often work with overseas partners, politicians, military personnel, reporters, or the highly educated students of international affairs. The notion that elites drive foreign policy is a theory known as the Elite Determinacy of Foreign Policy. The other 3/4th comprise the mass public, who are completely checked out when it comes to foreign affairs; generally, they are told what to believe by the media and they do so blindly. This also leaves the majority of the country very exploitable in the eyes of some politicians or the media. The uninformed are generally seen as "teachable" on matters of foreign policy, as the president can, utilizing friendly journalists, sway public opinion on his policies because of the fact the majority of the public does not have strong beliefs on most foreign affairs problems. Going along with the notion that the uninformed majority are easily exploited by the manner in which issues are presented to them, 'One-Issue Mobilizables' are political parties that focus their entire campaign on a single issue, hoping to mobilize action on the very issue by attracting most of their voters who are dedicated to the exact issue the party is pushing, and only that one issue, with most other issues ignored. The Prohibition party, a long-standing and ineffectual political party pushing for a re-introduction of the banning of alcohol, this time adding drugs and pornography to the fold, is an example of 'One-Issue Mobilizable' political parties. Important to note, parties such as these will never win elections because they will only appeal to a very specific demographic

Bay of Pigs

An incident that occured in 1961 under the Kennedy Administration. The United States trained exiled cubans who had been given asylum in the United States. These Cubans (and a few trained CIA operatives) were trained with the intent of staging an invasion of Cuba and taking out Fidel Castro and his regime, which had a coup in 1959 to take control of the country. The plan was to land the CIA-sponsored and trained brigade at the Bay of Pigs in southern Cuba as an infantry ground force and support them with American air support. In the end the US pulled its air support due to concerns over the politics of the situation and the force of exiles was crushed by the Cuban Military. In the end the situation had massive political blowback for the fledgling Kennedy Admin, while helping to strengthen the position of Castro's leadership, making him a national hero. It also strengthened the relations between Cuba and the Soviet Union, who Castro turned to in order to combat the US. This eventually led to the events of the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962.

Global War on Terror

An international military campaign that was launched by the U.S. government after the September 11 attacks in the U.S. in 2001. The term was originally used with a particular focus on countries associated with al-Qaeda. The term was immediately criticised by some within the administration, and more nuanced ones subsequently came to be used by the Bush administration to publicly define the international campaign led by the U.S. and it was never used as a formal designation of U.S. operations in internal government documentation. The Obama admin. explicitly refused to use the term, and criticized its past usage. Its significance is that the "GWOT" defined the post 9/11 foreign policy in America, which sees counter-balancing terrorism as a vital priority, and was the foundation for the Bush Doctrine.

Congress and foreign policy; oversight, war powers, advise and consent, 'twilight zone'

Article I, Section 8, Clause 11 of the US Constitution grants Congress as the ultimate authority in the United States to declare war. They frequently try to limit Presidential unilateral authority that has emerged in recent decades through legislation, such as the War Powers Act. Article Il, Section 2 of the Constitution grants the President the authority to direct the military once Congress has declared war. However, over time the President has developed unilateral authority over the armed forces in a number of ways, and can now allocate troops to various engagements without the approval of Congress. Advise and consent is the power held by the Senate to consult on and approve treaties, appointments to the cabinet, and ambassadors by the president. ⅔ majority vote required by the Senate to ratify treaties; the Senate must consent to all appointments of Ambassadors 'Twilight Zone' - term used to describe the Constitution's unclear allocation of authority between presidential and congressional powers in regards to who dictates foreign policy. A recent phenomenon, since Vietnam, presidents have deployed forces in a warring capacity, but do not declare it a war, so it throws into doubt who actually has the supreme right to engage in warfare. War Powers Resolution vs. Gulf of Tonkin Resolution

Soft Power

As theorized by Harvard Professor Joseph Nye in the 1980s, soft power is the ability of a country to persuade others to do what it wants without force or coercion. It is able to accomplish this by utilizing its cultural impact to bring foreign societies around to its style of thinking. The USA, by having the most dominant social culture that permeates throughout the globe, has incredibly effective soft power, as cultures from Latin America to Southeast Asia are influenced by American society. Soft power is the peaceful younger brother to Hard Power, which is military might, utilized to force people into submission to your ideas or concepts.

Asymmetrical Warfare

Asymmetrical warfare is a fighting style that is based on Guerrilla style tactics and striking away from traditional battlefield scenarios. This approach to warfare is popular among forces that are either outmatched in number or technological supremacy in order to give the smaller or less advanced force a fighting chance against their larger opponents. In older examples the American Indians and later the American Revolutionaries popularized this kind of warfare with hit and run ambushes and strategic strikes. In the more modern world forces such as the Vietcong, the Iraqi Insurgency and the Taliban in Afghanistan. Furthermore special forces from around the world have adopted this strategy in order to allow for small units to take on much larger enemy. This strategy is largely important in the global theatre as it has continued to give small unconventional forces such as terrorist organizations a strategy to fight against their more powerful opponents such as the might of the United States Military.

Balance of Power

Balance of power, at its most basic, refers to the relations between states in the international system. It asserts that national security of any given nation is enhanced when there is a more equal distribution of military capability, so that no single state can use military means to gain dominance over the others. If one state were to develop hegemonic power, the theory states that there is an increased likelihood that state will take advantage of its strength and attack weaker neighbors, thereby providing an incentive for those threatened to unite in a defensive coalition. The League of Nations was a specific attempt to replace the balance of power system: the principle of collective security which was at the heart of the organization was designed to obviate the need for balance. Many realists argue that its absence in the inter-war period resulted directly in the Second World War. Since 1945 the international political system is not so readily explained in terms of the concept and notions of bipolarity and multipolarity have replaced it. However, echoes of it are still common in the language of diplomacy, especially balance of terror.

Sanctions and embargoes

Both terms describe government measures that prohibit individuals and entities under the jurisdiction of one country (not necessarily just its citizens and companies) from engaging in trade or transacting with those of another. Although now generally used interchangeably, an embargo technically connotes a complete ban on all commercial activity between two nations, while sanctions are more limited in scope and prohibit trade in certain types of goods or transactions with particular individuals and entities. In fact, sanctions are described by some as a "partial embargo."

CIA, DNI, IC

CIA- Central Intelligence Agency, responsible for collecting information and analyzing it, then disseminating the synthesized intelligence to the appropriate government 'customers'. It answers to the DNI. Was est. in the NSA of 1947. DNI-Director of National Intelligence is responsible for streamlining the information and intelligence compiled by the IC, and presenting it to the President in the President's Daily Brief. The position was created by Intel Reform And Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004. IC- The Intelligence Community is the multiple agencies that gather intelligence for the purpose of covertly securing America's interests, especially keeping the homeland and other assets safe.

'China Differential', 'China Card'

China Card: Communist China and the Soviet Union do not like each other; Nixon wants to get these 2 to fight each other; Nixon goes to communist China - US become friends with them (cultural exchanges, trade agreements); concerns on behalf of the Soviets that US and China become friends. If this were to happen the USSR fears the Americans may be able to play the "China Card" if conflict were to break out, so the SOviets would have an adversary on their southern border, instead of across an ocean. China Differential: The sale of special technology, often tangentially related to weaponry, to the Chinese, by the Carter administration. Similar to the China Card in that it improved relations between the two countries, much to the chagrin of the USSR, who then felt technologically inferior.

Coercive Diplomacy

Coercive diplomacy is the idea of using the threat of force to get a state or another entity to change its behavior or act in a certain way. An example of successful coercive diplomacy is the President Kennedy's use of a naval blockade during the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis. After traditional diplomatic negotiations had failed, he was able to uses the threat of military force to convince the Soviets to remove the missiles from Cuba. This is significant because the utilization of this strategy is drastic and leaves a large impact on the international community, and a leader who successfully employs coercive diplomacy "makes a name for themselves" globally. That being said, it can be one of the most effective methods of seeing quick results.

Brinksmanship

Coined by Samuel Huntington, it is the risky act of forcing a country to the brink of war in order to convince that country to concede to demands or retreat. Used during Cold War by both USSR and US against one another, and via proxy battles. Employing Brinkmanship gave off the impression that your side was willing to use extreme methods to further their national interests. An example of this political gamble is epitomized in the Cuban Missile Crisis, where the US was minutes away from firing upon Soviet ships carrying nuclear fissile material to Cuba after they breached the US quarantine around the island. In the Cuban Missile Crisis, the Soviet Union backed down and recalled their ships and disassembled their missiles in Cuba. But the alternative consequences, and why it's so risky, could have been an escalation of conflict, which, during the Cold War, could have been nuclear warfare. THus, the gamble is only effective if credible.

'Imperial Presidency'

Coined in the 1960's by Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., it is used to describe the state of the modern presidency. It is based on two observations: 1. The presidency was uncontrollable, i.e. the President can wage war without Congressional approval, and 2. The president had long exceeded its constitutional limit. The president's staff is huge now and acts unilaterally, such as during the Watergate era, and the White House is too luxurious. Schlesinger pinpoints the change in the presidency, and where it developed its power, as occurring during WWII, where the popularity of FDR for leading the country out of the GD, and the morality of the war effort, plus his competitive style of presidential management and no strong Republican opposition, centralized power within his hands, allowing him to act almost unilaterally. It is an argument against the governmental politics model Power of Presidency has escalated significantly, war powers resolution attempt to curb, but didn't work

Foreign Policy & Department of: Commerce, Defense, Energy, Homeland Security, Justice, State and Treasury

Commerce: -promotes job creation, economic growth, sustainable development and improved standards of living for all Americans. -Works to strengthen the international economic position of the United States and facilitates global trade by opening up new markets for U.S. goods and services and promotes progressive business policies that help America's businesses and entrepreneurs and their communities grow and succeed Defense: -The mission of the DoD is to provide the military forces needed to deter war and to protect the security of our country. -Charged with coordinating and supervising all agencies and functions of the government concerned directly with national security and the US Armed Forces. The DoD has three subordinate military departments: Department of the Army, Department of the Navy, and Department of the Air Force. There are also several other Defense Agencies within the department Homeland Security: -Founded after the 9/11 attacks, the primary responsibilities of the DHS include protecting the United States of America and U.S. territories from and responding to terrorist attacks, man-made accidents, and natural disasters. In 2003, DHS absorbed the Immigration and Naturalization Services (INS) and then divided them into the Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) and Citizenship and Immigration Services. Justice: -To enforce the law and defend the interests of the United States according to the law; to ensure public safety against threats foreign and domestic; to provide federal leadership in preventing and controlling crime; to seek just punishment for those guilty of unlawful behavior; and to ensure fair and impartial administration of justice for all Americans. -FBI is a part of DOJ State: -Diplomatic corps of the US. -Manages embassies, the affairs of Americans abroad, and all diplomatic missions with foreign nations. Treasury: -The Treasury Department is the executive agency responsible for promoting economic prosperity and ensuring the financial security of the United States. The Department is responsible for a wide range of activities such as advising the President on economic and financial issues, encouraging sustainable economic growth, and fostering improved governance in financial institutions. The Department of the Treasury operates and maintains systems that are critical to the nation's financial infrastructure, such as the production of coin and currency, the disbursement of payments to the American public, revenue collection, and the borrowing of funds necessary to run the federal government.

Counterinsurgency Doctrine

Counterinsurgency is the comprehensive civilian and military efforts to simultaneously defeat and contain insurgency and its root causes. Though COIN has been used in multiple conflicts, it is most well known for being the strategy adopted during the Afghan surge. The idea is to protect civilians, improve relations, protect infrastructure, establish a responsible government, and most of all root out insurgency movements and eliminate the root causes of those movements.

Democratic Peace Theory

Democratic Peace Theory is the idea that democracies are more peaceful, and in turn democracies are less likely to have conflicts with other democracies. This theory dates back to Kant in the 18th Century but has been a growing source of research and popularity. This theory takes several forms. Many scholars argue that the more democracies there are in a particular region, the higher likelihood of peace and stability there is in that region. This theory is founded in the idea that the democratic norms of countries will translate to the international forum and democracies are of higher likelihood to pursue a diplomatic approach to conflicts. If war does erupt, the theory states that democracies are more likely to form alliances thus raise greater military power. This concept comes from the liberal paradigm and suggests that it would be harmful for liberal governments to go to war with other liberal states. The Democratic Peace Theory is true from a theoretical perspective, but in reality there are many other factors (cultural, religious, economic) that can still drive states to conflict.

Détente and Linkage

Detente is the Nixonian idea of easing political tensions between the US and the Soviet Union during the mid 20th Century. This happened during a time of reform for the USSR. This process began in 1969 with a number of talks/treaties, such as SALT and the Helsinki Accords, were signed during this time. Détente began to deteriorate when Carter aided anti-Soviet forces in Afghanistan and the US boycotted the 1980 Olympics in Moscow. Reagan campaigned on an anti-detente platform; the policy effectively ended in the 1980s with his presidency. Linkage was the Nixon/Kissinger policy within Detente designed to promote the strategic linking of good Soviet/Chinese behavior to access to US trade. Specifically, they wanted to cooperate in restraining revolutions in third world countries, the idea being to enter an era of negotiation and resulting in concessions in nuclear & economic fields. The policy tried and failed to connect political and military issues and more revolutions ensued.

Kissinger and Nixon's 'grand design'

Detente; deal with problems on the international level not through violence but through repeated positive interactions and working out problems diplomatically. see detente and linkage

Deterrence

Deterrence is the threat of retaliation that dissuades a state from taking action. A good deterrent is a credible threat of harm, be it political, militaristic or economic, but is never used. For example, State A will use nuclear weapons against State B if B does something it would not normally be tempted to do. To be effective at deterrence, State A must be able to react and to convince B that it will indeed react. An example of a deterrent is nuclear power exemplified during the Cold War. The Cold War was characterized by the concept of deterrence through nuclear weapons, specifically mutually assured destruction, which defined the international system during this time.

Foreign Direct Investment

Direct investment in production or business in foreign country by an individual or company (private actor) of another country by buying company in that foreign country or expanding operations in already existing company there. In contrast with portfolio investment, which is the passive investment in securities of another country in the form of stocks and bonds. Increase in FDI encourages econ. growth bc of influx of capital and increase in tax revenue. Competition among foreign direct investors leads to increase of production and efficiency in host country. Provides training and job opps. for local people. The results of FDI have been increased globalization and the liberalization of trade markets, which must liberalize in order to attract investments from democratic countries. Such was the case in Brazil and Chile during the 1980s. China is largest recipient of FDI

Economic liberalism, economic nationalism

Economic Liberalism: an economic system organized on individual lines, which means the greatest possible number of economic decisions are made by individuals or households rather than by collective institutions or organizations. It includes a spectrum of different economic policies, such as freedom of movement, but its basis is on strong support for a market economy and private property in the means of production. Although economic liberals can also be supportive of government regulation to a certain degree, they tend to oppose government intervention in the free market when it inhibits free trade and open competition. Economic liberalism is associated with free markets and private ownership of capital assets. Historically, economic liberalism arose in response to mercantilism and feudalism. Today, economic liberalism is also considered opposed to non-capitalist economic orders, such as socialism and planned economies. It also contrasts with protectionism because of its support for free trade and open markets. Economic Nationalism: an ideology that favors state interventionism in the economy, with policies that emphasize domestic control of the economy, labor, and capital formation, even if this requires the imposition of tariffs and other restrictions on the movement of labor, goods and capital. In many cases, economic nationalists oppose globalization or at least question the benefits of unrestricted free trade. Economic nationalism is the doctrine of mercantilism, and as such favors protectionism. This is the type of economy Great Britain had during the 17th and 18th century, when it was the most dominant imperialist power in the world.

Empire, 'unipolar moment', 'indispensable nation'

Empire - The large amount of political, economic, and military influence a state holds. In this case, the U.S is considered an empire. Other characteristics of empire include possessing a large amount of territory under one government, usually acquired through expansionist tendencies. Unipolar Moment - After the end of the Cold War, the U.S has been in a unipolar moment in which it was the only regional/global hegemon because of the fall of the other powers in the bipolar cold war system: the Soviet Union. Indispensable Nation - This stems from the hegemonic stability theory in which the hegemon maintains a stable liberal economic (free trade) and political system.

Fast-Track Authority

Fast track authority is an expedited procedure for Congressional consideration of trade agreements. It requires Congress to vote on an agreement without reopening any of its provisions, while retaining the ultimate power of voting it up or down. (No amendments of filibusters) Fast-track negotiating authority is granted to the President by Congress beg. 1975 to 1994 and was restored in 2002 by the Trade Act of 2002. Expired for new agreements in 2007, but continued to apply to agreements already under negotiation until they were eventually passed into law. In June 2015, President Obama reintroduced the measure and it passed Congress and was signed into law by the President. Known as the Trade Preferences Extension Act of 2015, the legislation conferred on the Obama administration "enhanced power to negotiate major trade agreements with Asia and Europe."

Funnel of Causality and relative Potency (foreign policy causation)

Funnel model used to explain decision making among large groups of people. Widest part = public. In the middle = congressmen, lobbyists, other leaders in Washington. smallest part = Pres. and executive branch. Problems and events filter form public all the way to exec and Pres. Eventually turns in concrete policy by Pres. Policy in turn affects public which affects policy again. Relative potency, meanwhile, is observing and respecting the relative power of each of the sections (public, congress/lobbyists, exec + staff) in the ability to guide foreign policy objectives. This model and the notion of Relative potency pushes back against the realist model which relies on the elite theory of FP determinacy

Statesman vs. politician (George)

Generally, 'politician' is used to belittle 'statesmen.' Statesmen are considered to be people of integrity, with long and respected careers (domestically and abroad) of public service during which they always do what is best for their people. Their focus is good of country. On the other hand, politicians are seen as self-serving, willing to sacrifice public interest for their own career and always focused on gaining re-election, rather than the interests of their constituencies or the nation as a whole.

Geoeconomics, Geopolitics

Geoeconomics: The relationship between economics and politics, and the effect this relationship has in any singular country, with its magnified ripples affecting the entire globe or global financial institutions. Geopolitics: The relationship between politics and the geographical makeup of territories. Attempts to explain why events occur in certain areas based on geographical makeup. Ex: The United States has never experienced a full invasion after its independence due to its isolation from the major powers.

Global commons and lifeboat ethics

Global Commons: the amount of resources needed are outside the reach of any 1 nation state. Spaceship metaphor we are all aboard one ship. We need to take care of the earth and each other. Garrett Hardin criticizes using lifeboat ethics in 1974 - Lifeboat Ethics: metaphor for resource distribution. (argued unlike spaceship earth has no leader) Lifeboat with 50 people. 100 more swimming in ocean. Q: Should swimmers be rescued? Hardin argues no - either try to help them all and lifeboat sinks or randomly pick 10. Unfair selection process. In metaphor, rich countries are lifeboats and poor countries are swimmers. This theory aligns itself with the realist paradigm, as it advocates every man for himself.

Hamiltonians

Hamiltonians- strong national government is needed to guide the economic developments of the nation and restrain the excesses of people. Supported tariffs to strengthen domestic businesses Hamiltonian doctrine is really the doctrine that pushes the economic primacy of the United States. Hamiltonians believe that a fundamental link between the government and big business is key to the survival and success of the country. They are, however, realists who believe that the US is at best primus inter pares among other nations. As a result, they believe that the US is best served by international organizations that protect fundamentally American interests. If you're looking for Hamiltonian legacies, look at things like the IMF, World Bank, NAFTA, and the WTO. Hamiltonians believe that the US should be integrated into the global economy on the most favorable terms possible, and that this above all else drives the success of the American system. One common misconception to beware of is that Hamiltonianism is essentially identical to European-style realpolitik. In that realpolitik view, national interest was most often viewed in terms of a military balance of power. In the Hamiltonian view, however, national interest is best served by preventing the rise of a single hostile power able to unify the opposition, and the concern is as much about economic dominance as it is military.

Bureaucratic Politics

How different bureaucratic orgs interact w/ relation to creating individual FP and furthering its interests. Competition shapes government decisions and FP. Agencies within the government are in constant competition for budget and for gaining responsibility of new programs. Policy decisions are often meant to further a "turf war" and make a name for the agency in question rather than be a product of reasoned analysis of which policy is most effective and efficient. 3 insights: 1. org. position determines policy "where you stand depends on where you sit" 2. FP decisions are result of bargaining effectively w/ orgs 3. Different effectiveness of formulating

United Nations

Initially laid out by Churchill and FDR in the outbreak of WWII in The Atlantic Charter, it would eventually be a successor to the aborted League of Nations. The Charter had the stated goal of defeating the Axis, but the provisions that were used as a foundation for the UN were three-pronged and included: a.) to maintain international peace, b.) to develop friendly relations among states, and c.) to cooperate internationally in solving international economic, social, cultural and humanitarian problems and in promoting respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.

'Iron Triangle' and military-industrial complex

Iron Triangle- The relationship between Congressional committees, bureaucracy and interest groups that shape the foreign policy of America. Congressional committees fund government programs and operations and then provide oversight. The federal bureaucracy regulates the affected industries. The interest groups (trade associations and lobbying groups) seek benefits from these operations like low regulation. Congress designates support and money to the Bureaucracy, which in turn is able to form relationships with interest groups, who provide electoral support to Congressmen, reinforcing the cycle of dependency and durability in policy-making. Military industrial complex- an informal alliance between a nation's military and the arms industry which supplies it. A driving factor behind this relationship between the government and defense-minded corporations is that both sides benefit—one side from obtaining war weapons, and the other from being paid to supply them. The term is most often used in reference to the system behind the military of the United States, where it is most prevalent and gained popularity after its use in the farewell address of President Dwight D. Eisenhower on January 17, 1961, which cautioned against this system.

USA Patriot Act

It stands for "Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act of 2001" it is a piece of legislation in response to the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks and signed into law by Pres. George W. Bushin October 2001, that significantly expanded the search and surveillance powers of federal law-enforcement and intelligence agencies. The USA PATRIOT Act, as amended and reauthorized from 2003, made numerous changes to existing statutes relating to the privacy of telephone and electronic communications, the operation of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court, money laundering, immigration, and other areas. It also defined a host of new crimes and increased penalties for existing ones. Critics of the Act claimed it violated the constitutional right protecting against unlawful search and seizure, despite the fact the information it was culling was electronic metadata. Critics also claim it unfairly targets minorities and violates their human rights with the provision allowing for indefinite detention. The law officially expired in 2015, but certain provisions were repackaged into the USA Freedom Act and were extended through 2019.

Strategic Defense Initiative

It was a proposed missile defense system intended to protect the United States from attack by ballistic strategic nuclear weapons. The concept was first announced publicly by President Ronald Reagan on 23 March 1983. Reagan was a vocal critic of the doctrine of mutual assured destruction (MAD), which he described a "suicide pact", and he called upon the scientists and engineers of the United States to develop a system that would render nuclear weapons obsolete. The program was very controversial, with liberals and experts worried it would upset the balance of MAD that had led to extended peace among the great powers. However, it did have the effect of kicking off another arms race the cash-strapped USSR could not handle, bankrupting the nation, forcing them to the negotiating table. They derided it with the nickname "Star Wars", and it eventually ended under the Clinton administration.

Jacksonianism

Jacksonianism- social shift in the nation's dominant political worldview. The generation began to reject pseudo-aristocratic gentlemen as the ultimate moral leaders in society and began to appreciate the working man more. Common ideologies that arose were manifest destiny, populism, and the spoils system. The Jacksonian tradition is perhaps the least well-known, and certainly the least understood of the four schools of thought that Mead defines. Jacksonians tend to be looked down upon - despite the fact that by the numbers, they appear to be the largest of the four schools. The driving belief of the Jacksonian school of thought is that the first priority of the U.S. Government in both foreign and domestic policy is the physical security and economic well-being of the American populace. Jacksonians believe that the US shouldn't seek out foreign quarrels, but if a war starts, the basic belief is "there's no substitute for victory" - and Jacksonians will do pretty much whatever is required to make that victory happen. If you wanted a Jacksonian slogan, it's "Don't Tread On Me!" Jacksonians are generally viewed by the rest of the world as having a simplistic, uncomplicated view of the world, despite quite a bit of evidence to the contrary. Jacksonians also strongly value self-reliance. "Economic well-being" to a Jacksonian isn't about protectionist trade barriers. Rather, it is about providing Jacksonians with the opportunity to succeed or fail on their own.

Jeffersonianism

Jeffersonianism- preferred a weak federal government and strong state and local governments. He believed that the lower level governments were more in tune with the desires of their people and could better represent them. Jeffersonians are most interested in protection of American democracy on the homefront, and almost as misunderstood as Jacksonians. They believe that foreign entanglements are a sure method of damaging American democratic systems, and are highly skeptical of Hamiltonian/Wilsonian projects to involve the US abroad. Hamiltonians and Wilsonians have a realistic streak, that the United States is fundamentally a state among states, if better managed. Jeffersonians, in contrast, believe that the United States is something better and different. You often find Jeffersonians protesting against international agreements, rather than for them. If you had to look for a fundamentally Jeffersonian institution, look no further than the ACLU. For a Jeffersonian, an organization like that stands on the front lines of the battle to protect American democracy. The Libertarian Party is a fundamentally Jeffersonian organization.

Kennan's 'long telegram'

Kennan describes how dealing with the Soviets will be the US's primary focus over the next generation. Suggests that this problem isn't one that can be solved quickly and it will take years of planning and decision making to accomplish. Foundations of america's cold war: The USSR perceived itself at perpetual war with capitalism; The USSR viewed left-wing, but non-communist, groups in other countries as an even worse enemy of itself than the capitalist ones; The USSR would use controllable Marxists in the capitalist world as allies; Soviet aggression was fundamentally not aligned with the views of the Russian people or with economic reality, but rooted in historic Russian nationalism and neurosis; The Soviet government's structure inhibited objective or accurate pictures of internal and external reality. Kennan advised that the main objective of the US is not to attack the USSR and go to war with it, but to systematically prevent its expansion and the proliferation of communism.

Goldwater-Nichols Act

Made the most sweeping changes to the United States Department of Defense since the department was established in the National Security Act of 1947 by reworking the command structure of the United States military. Streamlined the chain of command which runs from the President through the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs as opposed to the service chiefs or combatant commanders (in charge of NORTHCOM, SOUTHCOM, AFRICOM, CENTCOM, PACOM, EUCOM). The Chairman was designated as the principal military adviser to the President of the United States and National Security Council. Service chiefs no longer exercise any operational control over their forces. Signed into law by President Reagan on October 1, 1986. Named after Sen. Barry Goldwater & Rep William F. Nicols, it is significant for shaping the institutional culture of the NSA by affording integrated planning and a reduction or elimination in inter-service rivalry

Mission creep

Mission creep is a situation where the expansion of a project or mission goes far beyond its original goals or initial success. It is an undesirable path to go down because it means that the mission could only end when catastrophic failure occurs after the more ambitious goals are set. For instance, during the Somali civil war George H. W. Bush intervened only under the label of "humanitarian assistance." Americans assisted them and it was eventually converted into a UN peacekeeping mission. A Somali warlord kidnapped and murdered 23 Pakistani peacekeepers who were part of the mission, which lead the Security Council to pursue the warlord. In his pursuit, the situation became more tense and violent, which lead to the battle of Mogadishu where 18 American soldiers died. The mission far exceeded the original "humanitarian assistance" after the situation escalated and undermined their original intentions.

Free Trade Agreements (NAFTA, CAFTA-DR, TTIP, TPP)

NAFTA-North American Free Trade Agreement. Agreement between the US/Canada/Mexico to allow for the easy distribution of goods within North America. As a result, Canada and Mexico are the US' biggest trading partners, more so than CHina CAFTA-DR-Dominican Republic, Central American Free Trade Agreement. Originally, the agreement encompassed the United States and the Central American countries of Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua, and was called CAFTA. In 2004, the Dominican Republic joined the negotiations, and the agreement was renamed CAFTA-DR. The CAFTA-DR constitutes the first free trade agreement between the United States and a small group of developing countries. It was created with the purpose of creating new and better economic opportunities by opening markets, eliminating tariffs, reducing barriers to services, and more. TTIP- Trans-Atlantic Trade and Investment Partnership. A proposed trade agreement between the European Union and the United States, with the aim of promoting trade and multilateral economic growth. TTIP is considered by the US a companion agreement to the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP). The negotiations were halted indefinitely following the 2016 United States presidential election, but by mid-2017, representatives of both the US and the EU expressed willingness to resume the negotiations. TPP- Trans-Pacific Partnership. A trade agreement between Australia, Brunei, Canada, Chile, Japan, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Peru, Singapore, Vietnam, and United States signed on 4 February 2016, which was not ratified as required and did not take effect. After the United States, under the new Trump Administration withdrew its signature, the agreement could not enter into force. The remaining nations negotiated a new trade agreement called Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership, which incorporates most of the provisions of the TPP.

NSC-68

NSC-68 was the 66 page document that laid the blueprint for how the Cold War was to be conducted by the United States from its conception in 1950, under President Truman, all the way to the Soviet Union's collapse in 1991. It subsequently advocated for a large military expansion for security purposes against a potential threat from the Soviet Union, which included the creation of the hydrogen bomb. Rollback of communist expansion became the main priority and friendly détente or even containment became opposing policies to NSC-68. Those strategies were labeled as dangerously inadequate and a complete rollback and destruction of communist thinking became the ultimate goal of NSC-68.

Neoconservatives

Neo-conservatism is a variant of conservative ideology that mixes traditional conservatism with political individualism. They endorse free market economics and grew out of a collective disdain for communism and 1960's youth counterculture. They hate political radicalism and those who choose to disobey authority, customs, and traditions. Neoconservatives warn that well-intentioned government programs can produce unintended and unfortunate consequences for the people they are meant to help. More particularly, neoconservatives argue that social welfare programs can and often do create dependency and undermine individual initiative, ambition, and responsibility. Such programs should therefore aim to provide only temporary or short-term assistance. They also contend that power—military, economic, or political—that is unused is for all practical purposes wasted. The military might of the United States should be employed around the world to promote American interests. And it is in the interests of the United States, they say, to promote the development of democratic regimes abroad,

Boland Amendment

One of Three laws passed (1982-1984) to prevent the Reagan Admin from providing support to the Nicaraguan contras in response to CIA financing of these groups without congress being informed. (Civil war in nicaragua. Elected pro-marxist sandinistas against cia-backed contras.) Prohibited government from providing funds for purpose of overthrowing Nicaraguan government. Introduced by Edward Boland, it was later replaced by 2 other amendments that closed further loopholes, with the end result being that the government could not provide any sort of aid, financial or otherwise. It ultimately proved ineffective, as Reagan strategically interpreted it to mean that intelligence agencies couldn't fund the rebels, so the NSC took the reins from the CIA. Its significance is in the fact It is an example of COngress trying to control the President on FP matters, especially in regards to relations with the IC

Operation Desert Storm

Operation Desert Storm, known as part of The Gulf War, was the US response to Iraq's attempt at overtaking neighboring Kuwait. Kuwait's liberation in 1991 brought to the battlefield a new era of military technology. Nearly all battles were aerial and ground combat within Iraq, Kuwait, and outlying areas of Saudi Arabia. It started on January 17th, 1991 when a massive U.S.-led air offensive hit Iraq's air defenses, moving swiftly on to its communications networks, weapons plants, oil refineries and more. The latest technology that they used were stealth bombers, Cruise missiles, so-called "Smart" bombs with laser-guidance systems and infrared night-bombing equipment. The Iraqi air force was either destroyed early on or opted out of combat under the relentless attack, the objective of which was to win the war in the air and minimize combat on the ground as much as possible.

Operation Iraqi Freedom

Operation Iraqi freedom began in 2003 after President George W. Bush announced that the mission's purpose was to rid Iraq of its tyrannical dictator, Saddam Hussein. The mission's purpose was not only to eliminate Saddam Hussein but to also eliminate any chance they had of developing WMDS (weapons of mass destruction). Operation Iraqi Freedom illustrated the Bush administration's pledge to use unilateral, pre-emptive strikes if necessary against nations believed dangerous to American national security. This was problematic on an international scale because US allies like France and Germany were skeptical that Hussein had WMDS, so President Bush decided the US would go in alone, with only the UK backing them. President Bush gave Hussein and his sons 48 hours to leave Iraq or they would face war, an order that they defied. With a small group of international supporters, like Spain and Belgium, President Bush launched his attack that plunged the US into a war that would end with no WMDS and Iraq as a failed state.

Ethnic Lobby Groups (AIPAC, CANE, AAA)

Organizations that exert pressure on lawmakers through voting or monetary donations, to further their own, specific agenda. AIPAC-American Israel Public Affairs Committee. A powerful pro-Israel lobbying group that has over 100,000 members and has been called the "the most important proponent of the US-Israel alliance." CANF- Cuban-American National Foundation. Comprised of Cuban exiles, it was originally a strong advocate for isolation of Cuba by the USA and passionately anti-Castro, but in April 2009 they published an article calling for lifting US restrictions on aid and travel to Cuba, and aiding civil society groups there. AAA- Armenian Assembly of America. Constantly push for the US to condemn Turkey and force them to recognize the Armenian genocide as an actual genocide.

Global Warming Agreements

Paris Agreement, Kyoto Protocol. The Kyoto Protocol came first, being agreed to in the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change(UNFCCC) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, based on the scientific consensus that (a) global warming is occurring and (b) it is extremely likely that human-made CO2 emissions have predominantly caused it. The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on December 11, 1997, but was not ratified by US Congress, and then the incoming Bush admin refused to consider it, leaving the US off. Paris Agreement is an agreement with UNFCCC due to start in 2020. The Agreement aims to respond to the global climate change threat by keeping a global temperature rise this century well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase even further to 1.5 degrees Celsius. However, Trump pulled the US out of the Agreement in June 2017.

Extended Deterrence

Policy of deterrence can fit into two categories preventing an armed attack against a state's own territory (known as direct deterrence); preventing an armed attack against another state (known as extended deterrence). Extended, or active deterrence threatens with a nuclear-strategic response in case of a nuclear attack on the territory or troops of allies (for example, members of NATO). U.S. policy-makers preferred the term "extended deterrence" during Cold War, which is rather vague. The choice in words, however, hinted at the political dilemma nuclear deterrence created for the United States. How could an American president credibly persuade his Soviet counterpart that he was prepared to risk Chicago for Hamburg?

Pre-emptive and preventative war

Pre-emptive War is a legitimate method of warfare where one party/state attacks another party/state to prevent the latter from attacking the former, who had believed such an attack was imminent. Essentially it is "firing the first shot" as a method of undermining your opponents leverage in a geopolitical situation, and is justified under the laws of international warfare. The classic example in recent history is the 1967 Arab-Israeli War. Israel was aware that Egypt and Syria where about to invade. Instead of waiting, Israel struck first and successfully destroyed Egyptian air power before they were able to get their planes in the air. This is opposed to Preventative War, which occurs when one belligerent launches an attack on an opponent who did not pose an imminent threat, thus it is not legal under international law. An example of this sort of unlawful method of warfare reared its head as Communist China, which had frosty relations with the USSR, developed nuclear weapons. The Soviets reached out to the Nixon Administration, wondering if they should bomb China's nuclear fission plants, in order to prevent the first state that did not fight for the allies in WWII from obtaining nuclear weaponry. The US opposed the idea on the basis of its illegality, and China became fully nuclearized a short time later.

Doctrines: Truman, Eisenhower, Nixon, Carter, Reagan, Clinton, Bush, Powell/Weinberger

Presidents are known for having a distinct doctrine that characterizes their foreign policy. The Truman Doctrine was containment policy, designed to contain the spread of the Soviet Union. The Eisenhower Doctrine was the policy that any Middle Eastern country could request economic assistance or aid from the US if if was subject to aggression from another state (pointed at the Soviet Union). Nixon doctrine was the idea of Vietnamization. This was the concept that the US would assist in the defense and development of friends and allies, but would not undertake the defense of all free nations around the world. The Carter Doctrine is the policy that the US would use military force if necessary to defend its national interests in the Persian Gulf. The Reagan Doctrine was the policy that the US would provide overt and covert support for anti-communist guerillas and resistance movements around the world in an effort to "roll back" the USSR. The Bush Doctrine was the idea that the the US reserved the right to protect itself from any country harboring or giving aid to terrorist groups. This stemmed from the attacks on 9/11. The Powell/Weinberger Doctrine was adopted by President H.W. Bush. It was the idea that if military forces are used, they should go in with a clear military objective, get the mission accomplished, and get out. The military should be used in numbers that are controllable. "The military's role is not to build schools, but to accomplish the mission of protecting the national interest".

Intermestic issues

Problems that involve elements of both domestic and international issues. Issues such as immigration, energy, international trade and transnational environmental issues won't become apparent until the future. It has led to the idea of 2 presidents: a domestic president and international president, where their policies do not necessarily have to align.

Groupthink

Psychological phenomenon which occurs when a group of people make collective decisions where harmony or unity is desired, but ultimately results in the decisions becoming irrational or dysfunctional. This is because rather than encouraging others to fully express their dissenting viewpoints or critically evaluate your viewpoint, you put more effort into suppressing their ideas and showing them they are wrong than coming up with the best possible plan. In AFP history, the belief in the morality and necessity of the causes of the Bay of Pigs Invasion or the March to War with Iraq are examples of Groupthink, where those who were not within their majority saw their viewpoints marginalized or flat out ignored, such as SecState Colin Powell and his opposition to war in Iraq, a dissent which led him to be isolated within NSC meetings, leading to his eventual resignation.

Allison's Three Models

Rational actor model -States will always act rationally to pursue their national interests -States are monolithic, unitary actors -B/C gov't is unified and rational, they would seek for carefully planned and well-defined foreign policy goals. In this sense, rational choice model is primarily a realist perspective of foreign policy level of analysis. -B/C this model is realist, it has been criticized for neglecting the intricacies of a bureaucratic government, as well as ignoring the influence of human nature on decision making. Bureaucratic/Governmental politics model -State is NOT a unified, monolithic actor. -Instead it is a collection of different bureaucracies vying for increasing their funding and size. -Individual decision makers try to bargain and compete for influence with their own particular goal in mind. -Within one government, there are zero-sum struggles to receive funding and gain influence on decision-making, often at the expense of another government department Organizational Process Model -States will do things because its standard operating procedure, and they will act because of precedent. -In this model different bureaucracies have different standard operating procedures. These procedures are made in order to allow day-to-day operations to be carried out. Often an order or decision will have to work around these standard procedures. -It is often exceedingly difficult for a bureaucracy to do something "out of character" or contrary to their standard procedures.

Realism and Neorealism

Realism: Power politics, military capability is vital. 2 types of realists: Human nature realists (think all conflict in world is reflection of violent human nature) and Structural Realists (anarchy exists in the world order, and states are just trying to obtain and protect their national interests). Structural realists are often called neorealists. There are 2 types, offensive realists, who believe in hegemonic stability theory, and defensive realists, who believe in a balance of power.

Arms Control Negotiations (SALT, SALT II, INF, START, New START)

SALT Strategic Arms Limitation Talks, which resulted in the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty I, signed on May 26, 1972 by Brezhnev and Nixon. Negotiations took place in Helsinki, Finland. SALT I led to the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty and an interim agreement between the two countries. The signing of this treaty also improved relations between the two superpowers, especially important because of Nixon's ongoing opening of CHina, the invasion of Czechoslovakia and the Vietnam War had put increased strain on the relationship. SALT II A second round of Strategic Arms Limitation Talks between US/USSR, between '72-'79. It was a continuation of the SALT I talks and was led by representatives from both countries. SALT II was the first nuclear arms treaty which assumed real reductions in strategic forces. The SALT II Treaty banned new missile programs, so both sides were forced to limit their new strategic missile types development and construction. BRezhnev and Carter came to the agreement on June 18, 1979 in Vienna. Six months after the signing, the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan, and in September of the same year, the United States discovered that a Soviet combat brigade was stationed in Cuba. Although President Carter claimed this Soviet brigade had only recently been deployed to Cuba, the unit had been stationed on the island since the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. In light of these developments, the treaty was never ratified by the United States Senate. Its terms were, nonetheless, honored by the U.S. until 1986. INF Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty. It was a 1987 agreement between the United States and the Soviet Union (and later its successor states, in particular the Russian Federation) which eliminated all nuclear and conventional missiles, as well as their launchers, with ranges of 500-1,000 kilometers (short-range) and 1,000-5,500 km (intermediate-range). The treaty did not cover sea-launched missiles. By May 1991, 2,692 missiles were eliminated, followed by 10 years of on-site verification inspections. The treaty was signed on December 8, 1987 by Reagan and Gorbachev. It was ratified by US congress on MAy 27, 1988 and went into force on June 1, 1988. START Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty. Negotiated initially by Reagan, the treaty barred its signatories from deploying more than 6,000 nuclear warheads atop a total of 1,600 ICBMs and bombers. START negotiated the largest and most complex arms control treaty in history, and its final implementation in late 2001 resulted in the removal of about 80 percent of all strategic nuclear weapons then in existence. It was signed on July 31, 1991 and went into force on December 1, 1994, implemented by the Russian Federation and other SOviet successor states. The START I treaty expired 5 December 2009, which kicked off negotiations of New Start. New START Signed on 8 April 2010 in Prague, and, after ratification, entered into force on 5 February 2011. It is expected to last at least until 2021. Under terms of the treaty, the number of strategic nuclear missile launchers will be reduced by half. A new inspection and verification regime will be established, replacing the SORT mechanism. It does not limit the number of operationally inactive stockpiled nuclear warheads that remain in the high thousands in both the Russian and American inventories. Negotiated and signed by Obama and Medvedev.

NATO out of area disputes; articles 4,5,6 of NATO treaty

Since 1990s, at the end of Cold War, NATO has made the decision to reach out and provide collective security to surrounding nations, in doing so emphasizing its political capabilities rather than security. Australia, S. Korea, japan are now partners of NATO, for example. It has also engaged in crisis managements, such as Somali Pirates or natural disasters. Article 4: Article 4 states that: "The Parties will consult together whenever, in the opinion of any of them, the territorial integrity, political independence or security of any of the Parties is threatened." The treaty includes Article 4, which triggers not military intervention but merely consultation over military matters when "the territorial integrity, political independence or security of any of the parties is threatened". It has been invoked three times by Turkey: once in 2003 over the Second Persian Gulf War (Iraq War), once in June 2012 after the shooting down of a Turkish military jet, and once again in October 2012 after Syrian attacks on Turkey and their counterattacks. An Article 4 meeting was invoked by Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland in March 2014 as a response to the extraterritorial 2014 Crimean crisis. Article 5: Collective Defense commits each member state to consider an armed attack against one member state, in Europe or North America, to be an armed attack against them all. It is the most important Article in the treaty, as it is the bedrock for the NATO alliance. It has been invoked only once, by the US after 9/11. Article 6: States that article 5 can only be invoked on an attack close to home or of the homeland. When the treaty was signed, the US didn't expect Hawaii to ever be attacked by the Warsaw Pact, so it was left off.

Ideology, culture, national character and national style (as foreign policy determinants)

Soft powers, as initially proposed by Joseph Nye, is the pervasiveness of a country's culture, which defines its national character, and its ability to permeate globally, thus influencing other cultures through persuasion. It is diametrically opposed to the notion of hard power, i.e. military might. The belief is, that when a country is heavily influenced by another country's culture, they begin to take on the character of that country, thus changing the national style and ideology in all aspects, including how the two countries begin to act on the international level and how they conduct foreign policy. The spread of soft power may be accomplished through various forms of media like TV, movies, music, etc. This soft power shapes the way other people from other countries view us; ties into constructivism

Status of Forces Agreement

The Agreement that the US government signs with any country that is hosting our troops on their soil, or have bases in. They deal primarily with criminal jurisdiction for troops stationed in another country, and tend to defer jurisdiction of trials to the host. A notable issue arose in 2008 when the Iraqi government would not extend our agreement, so we signed a different agreement saying to pull out all our troops between 2009-2011

Base Force plan, Bottom-up review

The Base Force Plan was developed by Colin Powell under the first Bush Administration, and consisted of the DOD transforming its Cold War military capabilities to adjust for the new geopolitical climate. By 1990, when the plan was approved, the defense needs of this almost post-Cold War America were radically different than those during the Cold War. Instead of military buildup in the name of COntainment, there was a new focus on regional threats. It called for 25% reduction of military forces and 10% reduction in budget. This decision was made during the Bush admin. Comprehensive review of national security in a world without the Berlin Wall (and within 2 years, without the Soviet Union). The Ultimate Motivation was to reduce risk of resurgent Soviet threat by lowering tensions. It predicted fewer challenges to US interests and security bc of weakening USSR, and was a precursor for Bush's "New World Order". It was followed later in the decade with a second major restructure and reduction of US military forces and capabilities. The Bottom Up Review was a comprehensive review of the nation's defense strategy and force structure. It focused on force reductions and budget matters more so than the Base Force Plan. The BUR's force structure reductions were to accelerate and surpass those planned in the Base Force, leading to a total reduction in forces of about one-third—well beyond the Base Force's planned 25 percent reduction. The BUR redefined the meaning of engagement in an important way, giving increased importance to multilateral engagements and humanitarian missions. It was based on the assumption that the USSR/Russia would continue to decline. SOD Aspin announced the planned budget cuts before BUR calculations were made. Force could not meet responsibilities with the cut but still kept as policy.

Bretton Woods System

The Bretton Woods system of monetary management established the rules for commercial and financial relations among the United States, Canada, Western Europe, Australia, and Japan after the 1944 Bretton-Woods Agreement. The Bretton Woods system was the first example of a fully negotiated monetary order intended to govern monetary relations among independent states. The chief features of the Bretton Woods system were an obligation for each country to adopt a monetary policy that maintained its external exchange rates within 1 percent by tying its currency to gold and the ability of the IMF to bridge temporary imbalances of payments. It is important because the Bretton Woods Agreement allowed for the U.S. to adopt the gold standard and allowed other countries to peg their currencies to the U.S. dollar. This made the dollar the most important and soundest currency in the world, but led the USSR to refuse to sign the agreement, thus lessening the value of their currency during the opening stages of the COld War. The system was effective until the U.S. dropped out of Bretton Woods during the Nixon administration of the early 70s.

CNN effect

The CNN effect came about in the latter years of the Cold War. It began when CNN introduced the idea of a 24 hour broadcast of political and world events. This introduction of this style of media by CNN, and soon after other major news networks around the country, tended to have a substantial influence on the overall political climate in the US. Because information was more readily available and major events were constantly being presented to the viewers, people were more narrowly focused for a prolonged period of time, thus invoking a more aggressive reaction. There are both positives and negatives to this. The positive aspect is that viewers are hypothetically gaining education, so should be more aware citizens. The negative side is that viewers and networks will focus on events blowing them out of proportion, then forget about it as soon as the next big thing comes about. Has a tremendous effect on the public and their views toward Humanitarian responses/acts led by the US armed forces. For example, the Bush '41 admin was forced to send troops into Somalia despite it not having any strategic interests, principally because not doing so would be dangerous politically. CNN continually showed images of the horrors being perpetrated by the Somali warlords against innocent citizens, forcing Bush's hand.

Cuban Missile Crisis

The Cuban Missile Crisis, occurring October 16-18, 1962, was arguably the highest point of tension in the Cold War and the closest the US and Soviet Union came to a full-on war. The crisis began after surveillance plans discovered Soviet warheads on the island of Cuba. After the US government publicly condemned the action and began attempts to convince the Soviet Union to remove the weapons, tensions began to rise. On October 22, 1962 President Kennedy announced the presence of the missiles to the nation and publically announced the formation of a naval blockade against the nation of Cuba. After a series of tense negotiations and fear around the world of nuclear war, the two nations came to an agreement. Nikita Khrushchev agreed to remove the missiles from Cuba under the condition that the US doesn't invade the country. President Kennedy also agreed (secretly) to remove nuclear missiles from Turkey. The Cuban Missile Crisis is of significant importance because it projected the shadow of nuclear war over the world. From a diplomatic perspective it showed that negotiations can be effective eventually and that communication between world leaders is absolutely necessary. Soon after the crisis, a direct phone line between the White House and the Kremlin was established.

Marshall Plan

The Marshall Plan was the American initiative to rebuild Europe after World War II in a $13 Billion recovery package. Originally laid out by SecState George C. Marshall at the 1947 Harvard Commencement, it was meant to re-construct European economies by modernizing them and removing any trade barriers that would inhibit mutual economic assistance. European countries were incentivized to drop regulations, and economic barriers as well as increase trade union membership and update modern business procedures. This was in the American national interest because they did not want to see the countries that were especially hurt by the war to fall under the influence of communism, which was their worst post-WWII fear. Benefits of the Marshall Plan were offered to the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc countries but they refused to participate. Countries that received the most aid were Britain, France, and West Germany. The Plan successfully resuscitated the European economy and has been deemed as "History's most successful structural adjustment program" by economists Bradford De Long and Barry Eichengreen. In so doing, America was able to remake Western Europe in its image, and bring it under its sphere of influence in the dawning COld War through its incorporation into NATO.

Mueller Thesis ('syndromes')

The Mueller thesis points out that there is an inverse relationship between casualties in war and public support for war. During the Vietnam War, political scientist John Mueller used casualty figures and public support figures to prove that more American deaths leads to less support of the cause. This idea can be conceivably expanded into future wars where he claimed that the casualty-sensitive public would no longer accept conflicts with large numbers of American losses. Counter-arguments against this have been made from many angles, namely that the American public is unaware of the true cost of war which is a result of the American media and because the American government has considerable power over casualty reporting.

National Security Council

The NSC is a US agency within the Executive Office of the President, that was established after the National Security Act of 1947. The NSC advises the president on domestic, foreign, and military policies for the country's national security. The president serves as the chairman of the NSC alongside other members like the Vice President, secretary of state, secretary of defense, etc. Advisers to the NSC are usually the director of the CIA, and the chairmen of the joint chiefs of staff and other various officials that the president can appoint with the approval of the senate. The NSC staff is headed by a special assistant for national security affairs, the national security adviser, who generally acts as a close adviser of the president. The NSC is especially relevant because it provides the president with a foreign policy making instrument outside of the State Department.

National Security Act of 1947

The National Security Act of 1947 completely restructured the military and intelligence agencies of the post-WWII American government. The act merged the department of war and the department of the navy into the National Military Establishment headed by the Secretary of Defense. It also created the Department of the Air Force and the United States Air Force, which had previously not been its own branch of the military. In terms of intelligence, the act established the National Security Council and the Central Intelligence Agency, the US's first peacetime intelligence agency.

National Security Advisor

The National Security Adviser is a senior aide to the US President who functions as the chief in-house advisor for national security issues. They are directly appointed by the president and do not require confirmation from the senate. They participate in National Security Council meetings alongside the Secretary of State and Secretary of Defense. They are backed by the NSC who produces briefings and research for them to review with the President, especially if they are urgent.

Pivot to Asia

The Pivot to Asia was the Obama Administration's attempt to re-focus attention on East Asia for various reasons. First of all, nearly half of the world's population is in Asia which makes it a significant point of interest economically and politically for the US. Strengthening bilateral security measures would hopefully create deeper trust amongst East Asian countries and the US, ushering in an era of continual peace and unparalleled economic growth. Ultimately, though, the pivot to Asia is not something that can be accomplished in a few years but could take decades of continual partnership and trust to make a difference. Each Asian country must learn to balance having a better relationship with both China and the United States, which is not necessarily based on politics but just geography. America's relationship to China, as the regional hegemon, will be the most complicated because at some point the US must address that China could surpass the US in many respects (mostly economically) and that could be the root of distrust. Ultimately, the US pivot to Asia is about strengthening ties and making sure security is always protected.

NATO and San Francisco System

The San Francisco System is a set of bilateral agreements that the US has with various East Asian governments, created after WWII. Bilateral agreements were made for collective defense with the Republic of Korea, China, and Japan. It is the most dominant security architecture in East Asia for the US right now. After WWII the United States was more focused on the damage in Europe rather than Asia, but after the Korean war their attention was directed back to East Asia. They started by building bilateral agreements with Japan first at the San Francisco Conference of 1951 then created mutual defense treaties with the Philippines, Korea, China, and Taiwan. The underlying reason for these treaties was the Domino Theory, that if any of those countries fell to communism then the rest would share that same fate and pose a potential threat to US national interests. NATO is the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, a military alliance of 29 European and North American democracies founded after World War II (April 1949) to strengthen international ties between member states and to serve as a counter-balance to the Soviet Union. After the Cold War, NATO continues to serve as the preeminent military organization in the world, and has led numerous missions throughout the world ever since, such as in the Balkans and Middle East in the 1990s, Middle East in 2000s, and Libya in the 2010s. Member states pledge to come to each other's aid whenever one is attacked (Collective defense). NATO's first significant joint action was involvement in the Korean War, far from Europe, which signaled NATO's global commitment to fighting the Cold War and supporting anti-communist concepts like those expressed in the Truman Doctrine, and acted out through prescription in NSC-68 (esp. during Cold War).

Manifest Destiney and US exceptionalism

The belief that the American people are inherently benevolent and should expand as much as possible to spread its influence first to the Pacific and then abroad. Fueled actions like the seizure of islands in the Pacific and Africa, as well as the Westward expansion, the Mexican-American war, and the forced Indian removals. Manifest destiny goes hand-in-hand with US exceptionalism, which is an an ideology holding the United States is unique among nations in positive or negative connotations, with respect to its ideas of democracy and personal freedom that were unique to the world at the beginning of the American Public

Selective Engagement

The belief that, now that the USSR had disintegrated and USA was only superpower, we had the luxury of being more selective in how we utilized our armed forces, in a pattern of more ad hoc engagement, on a case-by-case basis, rather than countering communism wherever it spread, such was our policy of Containment. This policy was especially practiced by Clinton during his second term, as he deployed US troops to the Balkans only because of European inaction, despite him never truly believing it was an American problem. Obama also demonstrated certain selective engagement trends, such as his "leading from behind" strategy in Libya, and his "red line" inaction in Syria.

Domino Theory

The domino theory was applied to the US's strategy of containment and general opposition to communist and socialist ideologies during the Cold War with the USSR. The theory goes, if one state becomes a communist regime, that puts more pressure on the other states around it to follow. The US, as a result, declared as its national interest to contain the spread of communism, even to countries that were themselves not of great strategic importance, for fear that the fall of those regimes to communism would put pressure on others to do the same. This is why beginning in the 1950s the US (Eisenhower) deployed troops in Vietnam to prevent Ho Chi Minh from converting the Vietnamese regime to communism. This is also why the US got involved in Korea to stop Korea at the 38th parallel. The US was afraid that if communism was successful there, then other countries would develop similar regimes

Bounded rationality, substantive and procedural rationality, crisis decision making

The following are methods to evaluate previous decisions, and subsequently formulate more decisions in the future. Bounded rationality: In decision making, rationality of an individual is bounded by the info they have, cognitive limitation of mind, and the finite time to make a decision. Theory proposed by pol. sci Herbert Simon Substantive Rationality: Goal oriented rational action, where the objective is outcome and moral/ethics don't play role. Much more aligned with Realist paradigm. Procedural Rationality: Decision making using a reasonable procedure. However just bc procedure is good doesn't guarantee good outcome. Crisis Decision Making: The ability to rely on past experiences and knowledge in high-stress environments.

Collegial, Competitive and formalistic models of presidential management

The formalistic style of presidential leadership is a hierarchical division of labor. The chief of staff plays a central role in controlling the flow of information to the president, reason being to leave the president time to make the 'big decisions'. Presidents Truman, Eisenhower, and Reagan are known as formalistic presidents. The collegial style of presidential leadership focuses on working as a team and collaboration. Presidents who adopt this style generally want to be be involved with policy making and are uncomfortable when they are not in the middle of things. Presidents Kennedy and Carter are known for collegial style of leadership. Though similar, the competitive style revolves around confrontation and organizational competitiveness. Presidents who abide by this style set up different areas with overlapping fields of authority. This serves to maximize the availability of information and variety of perspectives. FDR was known for this style of leadership.

Smart Diplomacy

The practice of mixing a steady balance of hard and soft power together to further national interests is commonly referred to as "smart diplomacy". It is the approach that the Obama administration attempted to take in the aftermath of the destruction wrought by Bush '43, where the US needed to re-establish close ties with its global allies who felt alienated from the prior administration, but still maintain its global military responsibilities, especially the Iraq and Afghanistan wars.

Civil-military relations

The relationship between military leadership and civilian leadership in the United States. The relationship revolves around the fact that the military is overseen by civilians, thus producing the debate as to who should truly run the military. The debate struck it's high point during the 1990's, particularly during the Clinton Administration. The debate tends to revolve around the idea of military leaders making and influencing policies. Theoretically, the military is designed to follow and carry out the orders of the policy makers. Some scholars believe that to be a critical aspect of our government in that it is a form of balance of power. Others believe that it is impairing the military's ability to do its job since civilian leaders tend to not know military operations and planning as well as senior military leadership. These people are likely of the mindset "let the military be the military and do what it does best". This relationship is significant to the efficacy and internal stability of a democracy, because if the relationship between the public, government and military gets thrown out of whack, animosity could formulate between each branch of society, threatening societal stability moving forward.

'New World Order'

The term "New World Order" has been used several different times throughout the 20th century. It first appeared after Woodrow Wilson's fourteen points where he called for the League of Nations to craft a New World Order on which to define peace for the coming century. The phrase was used sparingly after WWII and was mostly used to describe the world in which the victors of WWII would create (or re-create). The period where this term was most widely used was after the Cold War, to describe the world order that the United States was destined to create after the fall of the Soviet Union. There would be no substitute for American leadership and this was tested after the Gulf War, where it became evident to the entire international arena that the United States was at the center of international leadership and that they would not be challenged in the foreseeable future.

'Two presidencies thesis'

Theorized by Aaron Wildavsky during the Cold War, the Two Presidencies Thesis states that there are two versions of the American President: one who is concerned with domestic policy and one concerned with foreign policy. Influenced by the time period of 1946-1964, Wildavsky makes the claim that presidents would prefer to focus foremost on foreign policy because he is granted more traditional, constitutional, and statutory authority when compared to his domestic policy powers. Wildavsky argues that presidents have assumed a more active role with regard to foreign policy because they are able to act more quickly than the United States Congress when pursuing foreign policy. Also, a lack of interest groups active in foreign policy allow the president more discretion when making a decision. However, since Wildavsky's time, some would argue that the domestic impact of foreign policy has become more pronounced and important, blurring the lines between foreign and domestic affairs. Politics no longer stop at the water's edge because Congress receives more reliable information on foreign affairs. Foreign policy is very much controlled by partisan politics in the United States today. Presidents no longer may take the liberty to assume public support for his foreign policy initiatives and must strive to build and maintain domestic support for them instead.

Massive retaliation, flexible response, mutual assured destruction

These are all terms of nuclear strategy in the event of an imminent nuclear attack. Massive retaliation was created under President Eisenhower's New Look Policy and it means that if attacked the state will commit itself to retaliate in much greater force, leading to mutually assured destruction. Second strike capability, however, meant that Eisenhower's policy would become obsolete and change the way nuclear war would be fought. Flexible response meant that there was an array of other options that the United States could utilize to deter an attack. The lines of attack could include diplomatic measures (such as pursuing strong relations with potential allies while being ready to withdraw embassy personnel on short notice), political measures (such as increasing the dialogue with the press and releasing frequent public policy statements), economic measures (such as increasing or canceling American aid to other countries), and, perhaps most important, military measures (such as modernizing the U.S. missile fleet, increasing conventional capabilities, and intensifying training for special forces).

Elite theories of foreign policy determinacy

This theory acknowledges how elites shape foreign policy in countries. The political power is held by a small, wealthy group of people who share similar values and interests. This "hegemon" has an influence in their political making process and in who gets elected, making it difficult for others to enter the political arena and have an influence. (Corporate interest influencing foreign policy). This belief stems from the fact most of the American population are uninformed on matters of AFP, and therefore consider those who are to be elitist.

Monroe Doctrine

This was the American policy of rejecting European colonialism in the Western hemisphere. It stated that further efforts by European nations to take control of any independent state in North or South America would be viewed as "the manifestation of an unfriendly disposition toward the United States." Similarly, it meant that the United States would not interfere with European colonies or the concerns of European countries. The doctrine was issued on December 2nd, 1823 by President James Monroe after being written by his SecState John Quincy Adams, when nearly all Latin American colonies had achieved independence from Spain and Portugal. It is so crucial because it made sure that the New World wouldn't become a battleground for Old World powers and that the United States could exert its influence undisturbed.

Foreign Aid: USAID & Millennium Challenge Corporation

USAID: United States Agency for International Development created under JFK in the Foreign Assistance Act in 1961. Originally created with a focus on econ. growth, it has since grown to include working to establish long-term aid goals such as promoting economic prosperity, strengthen democracy, protecting human rights and preventing conflicts. US foreign aid came in the forms of bilateral development assistance, economic aid to support security interests, humanitarian assistance, multilateral assistance, and military and civilian security assistance. Recently it has become a tool for FP, rather than being a national security objective as it was during JFK/LBJ admin. Incredibly difficult to get public support for funding foreign aid, as there is no constituency, so USAID is in a constant battle to receive government funding. Millennium Challenge Corporation: an agency established in 2004 by Congress. It is a non-political mechanism that revised the U.S. foreign aid process to include more accountability. It focuses on aid solutions and implementation led by the receiving country, and has no connection to State Dept or USAID. It monitors the receptiveness and effective implementation of aid to the receiving countries, and gages further funding based off the ability to reach goal-implementation.

Grand Strategy of the US//National Security Strategy (NSS)

Using a country's influence to pursue long term goals to gain power and hegemony. Not just military strategy- DIME Diplomatic Information (including cyber) Military Economic (others- financial, cultural, etc.) Taking into account internal and external forces Takes into consideration peacetime as well as war time Grand strategy is the logistical deployment of a country's resources across the world to enhance its position of power. It requires multi-tiered strategies and grand thinking. Differs from foreign policy in that grand strategy focuses primarily on military implications of policy, and senior military officials' input are used the most in creating a grand strategy.

Vietnam War and Vietnam Syndrome

Vietnam (1955-1975) -US became financially involved (giving French money to fight North Vietnam-Dien Bien Phu) -Geneva Peace Deal 1954-keep delaying national referendum, angering Communists, led to war -Had to provide troops, overthrew Southern government, military strategy wasn't good, Gulf of Tonkin Resolution -Slowly withdrew, Paris Peace Accords ended war, but didn't follow through -Vietnam fell to communism, but no domino effect. Turns out we were fighting nationalism, not communism. -Vietnam Syndrome was a political term coined by conservatives to criticize the peace and anti-Vietnam sentiments dominating American pop culture in the 1970s, causing a divisive rift in the social cohesiveness of America unlike anything the country had felt since the civil war. The belief, born of brutal experience during the Vietnam War, that never again will the United States gradually tiptoe into questionable wars without a clear cut objective, overwhelming military force, an endgame strategy and, most important, the support of Congress and the American people. In today's world of terrorist threat and guerrilla war, the Vietnam syndrome means, if nothing else, a fundamental reluctance to commit American military power anywhere in the world, unless it is absolutely necessary to protect the national interests of the country. The Vietnam syndrome is a giant step away from hard-edged policies, such as President George W. Bush's adventurous plunge into Iraq in 2003, and toward softer-edged policies, such as President Obama has pursued in his measured anti-Qaddafi approach to the Libyan revolution and his careful, arms-length-away attitude to the complicated mess in Syria.

Wilsonianism

Wilsonians- supports Wilson's 14 points and believes it will create world peace. Wilsonianism is another form of liberal internationalism Wilsonians believe that both the moral and national interests of the United States are best served by spreading American democratic and social values throughout the world. They want to see the U.S. involved on a worldwide basis with a peaceful international community based on the rule of law. Want a Wilsonian organization? Look no further than the United Nations, perhaps the quintessentially Wilsonian creation. An interesting point to note is that Wilsonian values are a fundamentally American conceit, yet they have been adopted wholeheartedly by many of the ruling political organizations in Europe, especially by those most passionately interested in furthering the European Union. Wilsonian tendencies have run through American foreign policy thought since long before Woodrow Wilson took office. The tens of thousands of missionaries sent abroad from the US in the 19th century, for example, are an exemplar of Wilsonian thinking.