U.S. Foreign Policy Terms

Statesman/Politician

(Alexander George): Generally, 'politician' is used to belittle 'statesmen.' Statesmen are considered to be people of integrity, with long and respected careers (domestically and abroad) of public service during which they always do what is best for their people. On the other hand, politicians are seen as self-serving, willing to sacrifice public interest for their own career.

Groupthink

Tendency, most often found in small cohesive groups operating under conditions of stress, to abandon critical thinking in favor of viewpoints that reflect group solidarity. Some say this explains the decisions made to invade Iraq and Afghanistan after 9/11 by the Bush administration. Coined by Whyte. Congress, NSC.

Global War on Terror

Term coined by the administration of George W. Bush, in the wake of the 9/11 terrorist attacks, to describe the US-led global military campaign against Al Qaeda, similar terrorist groups, and the states that support their existence. Significance: In the post 9/11 world, the global war on terror dominated US foreign policy. It provided the impetus for missions in Afghanistan and Iraq. Although the term War on Terror is no longer officially used by the administration of U.S. President Barack Obama (which prefers the term Overseas Contingency Operation), it is still commonly used by politicians, the media, and in some official governmental documents.

Two Presidents thesis

Term invented by scholar Aaron Wildavsky during the Cold War, proposes that there are two kinds of POTUS: one is concerned with domestic policy and one is concerned with foreign policy. According to Wildavsky, the president has more power to act decisively and independently when it comes to foreign policy than domestic policy, making foreign policy his focus more than domestic one. However, since that time, domestic impact has become increasingly important in shaping foreign policies with increasing access of the public and Congress to information, and president has to rely largely on domestic opinion in the process of foreign policy making. While the domestic side of the president falls victim to partisanship and caters to constituents within his party, the foreign side is not. According to the thesis, the foreign presidency transcends partisanship regarding the formation and execution of American foreign policy. Moreover, this thesis asserts that presidents have significantly more influence in the successful crafting of foreign policy, versus domestic policy.

Bush Doctrine

The Bush Doctrine refers to various foreign policy decisions during George W. Bush's presidency specifically post-9/11. The Bush administration has defined this Doctrine as "the policy that nations harboring terrorists would be treated as if they were guilty of terrorist acts." This Doctrine can also be defined in terms of preventative war. After the 9/11 attacks, President Bush created a new security strategy that focused on the prevention of terrorist attacks as well as the development and use of weapons of mass destruction. In addition, the Bush Doctrine also supported the spread of democracy in the Middle East. Unilateralism (e.g. withdrawing from ABM treaty), attack countries that harbor terrorists, pre-emptive strikes, and active support for democratic regime change. Does it follow traditional ideas of liberal interventionism, and American exceptionalism, etc.? Maybe?

CAFTA-DR

The Dominican Republic-Central America Free Trade Agreement, first FTA among USA and Central American countries. Created in 2000s. Four points of policy concerning Latin America: poverty and inequality, public security, migration, energy security. Significance: First FTA connecting USA and Central American countries. Spreading US influence and power.

Iron triangle

The Iron Triangle describes the policy-making relationship among congressional committees, the bureaucracy (executive) and interest groups. Congressional committees fund government programs and operations and then provide oversight. The federal bureaucracy regulates the affected industries. The interest groups (trade associations and lobbying groups) seek benefits from these operations. In U.S. politics, the iron triangle refers to the policy-making relationship between Congress, the government bureaucracy, and the interest groups. Via the tripartite relationship, Congress receives electoral support and policy execution, the bureaucracy receives funding and lobbying support, and the interest groups benefit from low regulation and friendly legislation. The iron triangle is considered a durable, policy-making machine because of its stability and legislative power. The modern military-industrial complex (expanded by Professor Stuart to M.U.S.I.C.) is also considered an iron triangle, because of the similar three-way relationship involving legislators, the national armed forces and the arms industry. MUSIC= Military, Universities, Scientific Communities, Industry, and Congress. These parties receive many of the same benefits that the policy-making iron triangle proliferates, including funding, friendly legislation, lobbying support and regulatory oversight. Stuart emphasizes how all aspects of this complex feed into each other. The Military will hire people from Universities, contract people from the Scientific Community, buy arms from the arms Industry, and the Congress will fund the Military. Many critics, including President Eisenhower, warn of the potential dangers of relying upon an iron triangle as a military-industrial complex, citing claims against its reliance on war, as well as the financial and political power that it wields. Another critique is the link between powerful M-I complexes and the rise of militaristic, dictatorial regimes (Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, Communist Russia, etc.). Too big to fail. Military is so big and receives the most funding because of the military-industrial complex. The reason why the military does humanitarian aid is because they have the infrastructure to do so, because of its size.

Extended Deterrence

The US extending its nuclear umbrella to include other allies (in particular extending nuclear guarantee to NATO allies in W Europe and in Japan) Eg. Italy doesn't need it's own nuclear protection, because it can rely on the US to retaliate on its behalf Problem: In using our weaponry on behalf of our allies, we then open ourselves up to vulnerability. Also, the tendency of American allies to step back and let the United States take the lead on international security and defense issues, as well as in the importance that the United States puts on its military capabilities. E.g. US protects NATO, other allies.

Genocide

The extinction of a race, no border limits. "Acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical racial or religious group." This is done by means of killing, seriously harming, bringing about physical destruction, or preventing births. While intervention in countries where genocide is occurring is primarily a task of the signatories of the genocide convention, the United States often feels a responsibility to act. This sentiment has been increasingly prevalent in U.S. foreign policy formulation after the 1994 genocide in Rwanda when the United States decided not to intervene. Recognizing something as genocide rather than ethnic cleansing necessitates UN action.

Golden Straitjacket/Friedman:

The idea that individual countries must sacrifice some degree of economic sovereignty to global institutions (such as capital markets and multinational corporations). Requires decentralization of government, privatization of industry and elimination of tariffs and other obstacles to foreign investment. Ex) EU

Truman Doctrine

The policy by US President Harry Truman in 1947 to provide economic and military aid to Greece and Turkey so that they wouldn't fall into the Soviet sphere of influence. This was one of the major steps marking the beginning of the Cold War and American containment policy towards the USSR. Kennan's long telegram was used as a justification for intervention. See also containment.

Monroe Doctrine

The political principle that Europe should no longer involve itself in the Western Hemisphere by exerting influence. Stated by President Monroe in 1823. US would accept existing European colonies (though most in Latin America had gained independence) but further colonialization/interference would be considered a hostile act to which the US would respond. Creates special spheres of interest. Occurred at a time when Spanish, Portuguese colonies were gaining independence. The doctrine was a precursor to the forthcoming "Special Relationship." Seldom invoked until the end of the 19th century (Spanish-American War in 1898 and Roosevelt's Corollary in 1904).

Balance of trade

The relationship between a country's imports and exports. A positive balance is a trade surplus; the country exports more than it imports. A negative balance is a trade deficit; the country imports more than it exports. The USA has been in a trade deficit for a while now. Balance of trade is the largest component of a country's balance of payments. Debit items include imports, foreign aid, domestic spending abroad and domestic investments abroad. Credit items include exports, foreign spending in the domestic economy and foreign investments in the domestic economy.

Civil-Military Relations

The relationship between civil society and the military. Three levels: gap between society and military, unequal dialogue between politicians and military, and gap in how civ/mil cooperates in the field. Other unequal dialogues include the POTUS as Commander in Chief telling the mil what to do-- POTUS is a civilian and must take into the account the interests of the public and not just how to win an issue. Other issues include politicization of military, emergence of military as volunteer "class," lack of information.

Mission Creep

The situation of a ground operation changes as the US expands its mission, e.g. Afghanistan (attacking al-Qaeda & toppling Taliban --> stabilizing country/setting up effective governance). Nation building, commonly associated with counterinsurgency, go in with one intention and something is added while there. Can make intervention less attractive. Another example: Somalia peacekeeping resulted in Battle of Mogadishu.

Transnationalism

The social phenomenon of interconnectivity between people and cultures with receding significances of boundaries between nation-states. This phenomenon is associated with the process of globalization and the flows of human, goods, and ideas across regions. Empowered by the development of technology and especially the Internet, transnationalism has promoted economic, social and cultural exchanges between countries and regions through transnational actors such as international organizations and multinational corporations. However, there are problems associated with the transnationalism such as illegal immigration, infectious diseases, drug smuggling, and terrorism. National interests are affected by transnational issues thus affecting foreign policy.

Brinkmanship

*The tactic of seeming to approach the verge of war in order to persuade one's opposition to retreat.* It was an effective tactic because neither side of a conflict could contemplate MAD in a nuclear war, acting as a nuclear deterrence for both the side threatening to pose damage and the country on the 'receiving end'. Ultimately, it worsened the relationship between the USSR and the US. Cuban Missile Crisis is an example of brinkmanship; closest the U.S. has ever been to nuclear warfare. Defined by Eisenhower's SoS John Foster Dulles. Eisenhower promoted a New Look policy that focused on massive retaliation; Kennedy followed up with Flexible Response, which required MAD and a range of non-nuclear weapons.

War Powers Resolution

1973-- requires the authorization of Congress before the President can commit to an armed conflict abroad. The only exception to this law is in the case of "a national emergency created by attack upon the United States, its territories or possessions, or its armed forces." A joint resolution passed by Congress providing that the President can send US armed forces in action abroad ONLY by authorization of Congress of it the US is already under attack or serious threat. Resolution requires that the president notify Congress within 48 hours of committing armed forces to military action and forbids armed forces from remaining for more than 60 days, with a further 30 day withdrawal period, without an authorization of the use of military force or a declaration of war. Resolution was passed 2/3 of Congress- overriding presidential veto. See Libya, Truman in Korea, etc.

Reagan Doctrine

1980s-1989/end of Cold War. 1985 announced his plan to replace the previous policy of containment with rollback. Proclaimed overtly and unashamed support to anti-communist rebels worldwide. Led to covert support of the Contras in Nicaragua, and the Afghan rebels in their fight against Soviet occupiers. These policies recreated a hostile environment between the US and USSR and brought major tensions back; also SDI. Reagan changed policies drastically in his second term: Reagan embraced arms control (INF and START both under Reagan) and met with Gorbachev in 1986 at Reykjavik.

Operation Desert Storm

1991. Evolved from Operation Desert Shield 1990 (blockade against Iraq, defending Saudi Arabia from Iraqi expansion). Saddam Hussein's Iraq invaded Kuwait in 1990. The US began with a naval blockade and economic sanctions (fear of Iraq controlling 40% of the world's oil), and the UN gave Hussein a date to leave Kuwait. When he did not withdraw, the US and coalition partners transformed Operation Desert Shield (blockade) into Operation Desert Storm (massive air assault). Along with a massive air assault against Iraq, US-led forces destroyed bridges and roads that the Iraqi's used to supply forces in Kuwait. Within 100 hours the ground forces surrounded the Iraqis, in which many of them surrendered. Saddam Hussein was not removed from power. Considered a proud moment/success for the Bush 1 administration.

Boland Amendment

3 amendments from 1982-84, all aimed at limiting US gov't assistance to the Contras in Nicaragua. In the Iran-Contra affairs, Reagan circumvented the amendment without Congress's consent. Example of imperial presidency.

Kennan's long telegram and X-Article

5,500 word document voicing George Kennan's displeasure and concern on how the US had been handling policy towards the USSR. He spells out why a working relationship with the Soviets was impossible as well as his concerns that Eastern Europe would fall under control of the USSR one by one. This telegram became the basis for US containment policy towards the Soviet Union. X-Article was a public version published in Foreign Affairs with help from Forestal.

Balance of power, unipolar, bipolar, multipolar balances

A concept that states that national security amongst nations is enhanced when no one country or group of countries has complete military dominance over the others. It also posits that nations may bandwagon against a larger state in order to balance out its superior military capabilities and achieve parity. Most commonly associated with realism. States should be balanced to keep any one from gaining too much authority; posits relatively equal states as the basis of the international system. A hegemon will emerge and other states will balance against it. Unipolar: a system where capabilities are concentrated with one actor e.g. USA in 1990s. Bipolar: system where capabilities are concentrated among two major actors e.g. Cold War Multipolar: system where capabilities are spread among many actors, e.g. today. Is this really a balance?

Imperial presidency

A critique of the U.S. presidency which posits that the power of a U.S. president is gradually growing beyond its constitutional limits over the past 100 years since FDR. For example, the practice of seeking Congressional approval for military conflicts started by the president has decreased in recent decades. Use of executive order, role as Commander in Chief of military. War Powers resolution, twilight zone. Significance: Imperial presidents are important during times of national crisis. Assertive AFP. Risks include unhealthy concentration of power. Weakens checks and balances.

Sanctions and embargoes

A form of soft/hard power, they are economic and political tools used with the aim of manipulating an actor in the international system to conform to a larger group's interests/behavior. This is commonly used in maintaining or restoring international peace/security. They are political trade restrictions put in place against a particular target country. Example: Iran An embargo is a full or complete import or export prohibition, whereas sanctions are limited to a certain type of good (ex. arms, or materials used for the construction of WMDs). Example: Cuba Economic strength can be converted into hard or soft power.

Global Warming

A gradual increase in the temperature of the Earth's atmosphere and oceans that is believed to be altering the climate, caused by human activity involving the burning of fossil fuels and the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Relates to issues of energy and resource security, economics, development, etc. Significance: It is a driving force in foreign policy. Treaties and policies are built around reducing carbon emissions and climate change. Kyoto protocol.

Selective Engagement

A less ambitious and reduced vision of USA role in the world. Security ties should be limited to major regions of the globe where there are imbalances of power, and military commitments should be minimized. Selective engagement rejects that peace requires a preponderance of American power, rather focuses on the U.S.' most vital regions of interest. Some argue that selective engagement is outdated, and impractical at this day and age (humanitarian intervention). Bush II initially wanted to follow a policy of selective engagement but was forced to abandon it post- 9/11. Selective engagement is a Grand Strategy idea that endorses the concept that the US should only intervene in regions that directly affect US security or economic prosperity. The idea was first presented in an article titled "Competing Visions for US Grand Strategy" by Barry R. Posen and Andrew L. Ross. The authors state that Europe, Asia and the Middle East matter most to the US because of the military and economic presence of Europe and Asia, and the oil that the Middle East provides is used by much of the developed world. According to the article selective engagement should also focus on preventing nuclear proliferations and conflicts that could lead to a greater war, but does not outline what guidelines should be followed for humanitarian interventions.

Coercive Diplomacy

Getting a target to change its behavior through threat of force/actual use of limited force. Focused on getting someone to stop something they started—not the same as deterrence, which prevents starting the bad action in the first place. E.g. Kennedy uses naval blockade in Cuban Missile Crisis. Failed to prevent Hussein in Kuwait so that led to Gulf War.

Glasnost and perestroika

Glasnost: Policy introduced in the second half of the 1980s by Mikhael Gorbachev that increased transparency in the Soviet government (the word means openness in Russian). It was meant as an attempt to reduce corruption in the government and reduce censorship. However, it had the unintended consequence of reopening tensions within the Soviet Union for independence of several member states, thus starting the process for the breakup of the USSR. This left the US in a unipolar position for a brief period of time. Perestroika: Russian term for restructuring; title of Gorbachev's policy of reordering the Soviet political structure in the late 1980s. This led to some market-like reforms and more individual freedoms. It is credited with starting the dissolution of the Soviet Union, because it started nationalist movements in Russia and the other component states of the USSR. Both Glasnost and Perestroika allowed for stronger dialogue between the U.S. and Russia. Although the U.S. did not foresee the eventual collapse, it did begin to commence better relations between Reagan and Gorbachev. Significance: led to collapse of USSR and end of Cold War.

Global Commons, Lifeboat Ethics

Global Commons: the set of resources on earth not owned by any particular state or organization and are used by the entire international system. These include the atmosphere, water, etc. Regional limitations or scarcity can affect state interaction. Lifeboat ethics: Theory proposed by environmentalist Garret Hardin in 1974. It describes the current method for distribution of world resources as a lifeboat with room for ten passengers [the rich nations], but surrounded by hundreds of swimmers [the less wealthy nations]. Therefore, the wealthy nations see themselves as unable to help the problems of all developing nations, so in the end they only help a certain select few.

Grand Strategy, National Security Strategy of the USA

Grand strategy: overarching foreign policy strategy with a long-term goal in mind. Takes into account all "ways and means" available to get to its "ends," including military, political, and economic areas. Each president has his own Grand Strategy. NSS of the USA: outlines the U.S. government's plan for national security. It is issued by the executive branch of the US Congress. The document states its plans for the advancement of U.S. security, prosperity, values, and international order.

G2, G8, G20, BRICS

Group of 2: Proposed informal relationship between the world's two largest economies, the U.S. and China. Other countries want the United States and China to get along, yet they do not want a Group of 2, or G-2. The U.S.-China relationship is only one link, though an influential one, in a global network of many bilateral and multilateral nodes, all of which are of critical importance to the overall peaceful global order. G8: 8 of the largest world economies US, UK, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Canada and Russia (notably excludes China and Brazil). G20: A group of the world's 20 major economies that convenes to discuss issues related to the global economy. BRICS: Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa- the 5 countries with the most rapid rates of economic growth. They are important because they are the most likely competitors to the United States' global economic dominance.

National security state

Idea that a state's obsession with increasing its security leads it to lose focus on national values to instead focus solely on security issues. Accordingly, the state focuses on territorial security, energy security, economic security, etc. Oftentimes the popular fear becomes that the measures taken to increase a state's security infringe on basic rights and privileges, thus giving rise to the concept of an ever-watching, ever-monitoring state. Current fears are that the U.S. is becoming a national security state. This is tied to the military-industrial complex because it perpetuates the nation state when economic interests are tied to security interests. (Big Brother, George Orwell's 1984, current NSA scandals.) A post- World War II state in which nearly all aspects of political, economic, intellectual, and social life are dominated by considerations of national defense and the drive to maintain a defense establishment capable of protecting the state against any aggression.

Idealism/Wilsonianism

Idealism: Philosophy of governance adopted within Wilsonianism that believes in solving issues around the world via Wilsonianist ideals. Wilsonianism: foreign policy style popularized first by President Woodrow Wilson in WWI policies. The principles include promotion of democracy, interventionism, capitalism and national self-interest.

Ideology, Culture, National Character, and National Style (as foreign policy determinants)

Ideology: set of principles, or worldview that indicate goals and expectations Culture: Cultural similarities and differences can explain state behavior, such as the "special relationship" between the US and UK resulting from perceived cultural links. Cultural differences are often not taken into consideration while shaping foreign policy, especially regarding issues of "universal" humanism. National character: describes the enduring personality characteristics and unique lifestyles found among the populations of a particular nation. National style: the manner in which a state conducts its foreign policy. Has been largely influenced by the presidential administration in the U.S., though often the U.S. is perceived by other countries as being aggressive. Currently the Obama administration's style is to lead from behind, as opposed to a stance of authoritative hegemony. All of these have an impact on how foreign policy is determined.

Illiberal Democracy

Illiberal democracies have elections but ignore constitutional limits on power and deprive citizens of basic rights and freedoms. According to Fareed Zakaria, illiberal democracies are increasing around the world (around half of democratizing countries) and are increasingly limiting the freedoms of the people they represent. Seven years ago 22% of democratizing countries could have been labeled illiberal and 2 years later that number increased to 35%. He argues that democratization is directly related to illiberalism. He argues that the liberal democracies of the West have free and fair elections and everywhere else in the world, do not; hence, these illiberal democracies have limited liberty. People want democracy now, and don't want to wait for liberalism to fully develop. Better to have a liberal autocracy than an illiberal democracy. Examples of illiberal democracies: Nigeria

Blowback

In intelligence, unintended negative consequences of a covert operation suffered by the aggressor. The public may see blowback as a random act of aggression when in reality it is a response to a specific issue. Blowback is a central theme in debates about the efficacy of the Reagan Doctrine, which supported open and covert anti-Kist missions. E.g. when funding the Contras against the Sandinistas, USA sold weapons to Iran to finance the Contras, which led to them receiving Warsaw Pact weapons and selling drugs in the USA. Negative consequences of U.S. FP in the M.E. such as arming the mujahideen in Afghanistan.

Interest groups, Israel Lobby, CANF, Pluralism

Interest groups: Groups dedicated to influencing domestic and foreign policy of the US Israel lobby: coalition of groups and individuals who seek to influence U.S. policy in favor of Zionist and Israeli interests. CANF: Cuban America National Foundation- A non-profit organization dedicated advancing freedom and democracy in Cuba. Its initial goal when founded in 1981 was to influence Washington in order to overthrow the Castro government in Cuba. In 2009 it published an article calling for lifting US restrictions on aid and travel to Cuba. It is the second most influential lobbyist group in Washington today Pluralism: The idea that many voices participate in shaping a decision or opinion. In foreign policy, this contrasts an elitist view positing that the public/democratic majority holds little influence. Interests groups serve to distill and clarify the voice of minority groups, augmenting their influence in the policy-making process.

ICC

International Criminal Court, created in 1998 under Rome Statute due to the lack of infrastructure to prosecute war criminals. Headquartered in The Hague. 126 member nations. Establishes four fundamental international crimes for which it can try people, not states: crimes of aggression, war crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocide. The court may only prosecute in countries "unwilling" or "unable" to prosecute domestically. 36 individuals have been indicted, notably Joeseph Kony (Uganda), Laurent Gbagbo (Ivory Cost), and Omar Al-Bashid (Sudan). Has been criticized as a vehicle of Western ideology. USA is not a member of ICC.

Bretton Woods System

International liberal economic order created in 1944. Exchange rates pegged to the dollar; dollar serves as global currency. Established IMF to assist countries with balance of payments difficulties, World Bank (and the IBRD, for reconstruction in Europe, now part of the World Bank), GATT (replaced by WTO). USD as global reserve currency = USA power. Its purpose was to rebuild economies, finance reconstruction and to promote international cooperation after WWII. As national security becomes a national priority, deficit spending increases in order to sustain the defense budget. Because of this, the gold standard is no longer feasible, so Truman does away with it in 1971. Now, Asia is starting to rise in dominance of the global economy, and we see the start of a hegemonic decline for the U.S.

Kissinger and Nixon's grand design

Kissinger and Nixon's plan to improve relations between the U.S. and the USSR. This included a policy of detente in which the US used the carrot and the stick method to encourage cooperation on the part of the soviets. This was instrumental in reducing the amount of nuclear warheads both countries had at their disposal through the START treaty. Late 1960s. ALSO—3 main parts: Tripolar world, accompanying international system, and halting communism while avoiding confrontation (Linkage). Led to improved relations (rapprochement) with China and détente with USSR.

Protectionism

Limits trade through tariffs and quotas that are designed to allow for fair competition between imported goods and services and domestic goods and services. This contrasts with the idea of free trade and has recently been seen as anti-globalization. Before 1945, most U.S. economic foreign policy was protectionist policy and involved restrictions to trade. Protectionist policies lent themselves to monopolies (i.e. Rockefeller). 1930 Hawley-Smoot tariff globalized Great Depression because US was protectionist, causing everyone else to employ the same policies and protect their own industries

Attentive public, Mass Public, and One-issue mobilizables

Mass public: on a pyramid of the public, these people are at the bottom; they care the least about FP. Above them are the attentive public, who do kind of care. Above them are the opinion leaders, scholars, generals, etc. One-issue mobilizers are interested in only one issue, say policy towards Iran. On the one hand, they contribute nothing otherwise; on the other hand, they can be especially vocal concerning this one issue. The imbalance of the groups' levels of influence and involvement is at the heart of the paradox of the inverse relationship between public opinion and U.S. foreign policy. Further compounding this paradox is the continuous debate over whether government officials should represent the foreign policy wishes of the public or use their experience and expertise to make foreign policy decisions.

Massive retaliation, 'new look', flexible response, mutual assured destruction, SIOP

Massive retaliation: a policy considered by Eisenhower. All-or-nothing strategy in which virtually any provocation against the U.S. would be met with full-scale nuclear war. Associated with Eisenhower's administration, esp. before the Soviets got the bomb. Could not prevent "limited" challenges, was an ineffective foreign policy tool (inflexible), and lowered U.S. credibility. This requires a strong financial and weapon-based advantage for the U.S. over the Soviets. Rejected, as was the idea of rollback. JFK's New Look: proposed a cut in conventional military power (land and naval forces) and expansion of air force and nuclear power. Flexible response: An attempt to provide credible means to deal with crises, yielding multiple options and dealing with issues on a case-by-case basis. Practically meant conventional armed forces in Europe to serve as a deterrent and fight limited conflicts. Associated with Kennedy, who wanted to increase U.S. ability to confine its responses to non-nuclear weapons; created tensions among NATO members, especially West Germany; Kennedy articulated this in response of Eisenhower's new look/massive retaliation method MAD: Emerged at the end of the Kennedy administration when the Soviet Union achieved nuclear parity with the United States; each side could obliterate the other multiple times over. The victim could retaliate against the aggressor before their destruction. "Whoever shoots first, dies second." The response to this concept was the policy of deterrence. SIOP: Single Integrated Operation Plan: US plan for nuclear war, initiated in '61 and carrying through to '03. Gave the President various options for missile launches and targets, including ICBMs.

Collegial, competitive and formalistic models of presidential management

Models of presidential management include Collegial: advisers act as a team FDR; competitive: open discussions and arguments about ideas, differing opinions and views, and formalistic: hierarchy and very routine Eisenhower. Fourth is Bush's CEO system of very tightly controlling info and access. Lincoln: team of rivals (competitive)

NATO and San Francisco System

NATO is an intergovernmental military alliance established in 1949 by the North Atlantic Treaty. During the Cold War, the alliance used its system of collective defense to protect against Soviet aggression into the West. In contrast, the San Francisco System, established in 1952, was a hub-and-spoke system of bilateral alliances between the United States (the hub) and several Asian states (the spokes) to protect against communist expansion and the emergence of a regional hegemon in Asia. Term particularly refers to two treaties signed then, one between the US and Japan, and one among Japan and 48 allied nations. Solidified that the US was the financial and military center of world. However, it has also created a divide between Japan and China or Japan and the rest of the system.

CNN Effect

24-hour news cycle affects news in later Cold War era and today. May function as a policy agenda-setting agent, an impediment to achieving FP goals, or an accelerant to FP decision-making. E.g. Mauerfall, Battle of Mogadishu.

Post-American World

Zakaria's 'Post-American World' theory argues that the power dynamic of the international system is changing so that the United States will continue to be the most powerful country in the world, but that its relative power will decline. USA continues to dominate in the realm of political and military power, but countries such as China and India are fast becoming global players, so USA's relative power will decline. USA's political system is actually its core weakness, while its economic system is its core strength. USA is not yet fundamentally a weak economy or decadent society, it has developed highly dysfunctional politics: with fewer and fewer moderates on either side of the political spectrum, the result is gridlock. Overall, Zakaria argues that the "rise of the rest" is a positive phenomenon for the global economy but could cause political instability in the international system.

New World Order

After the fall of the USSR, Soviet waned dramatically, and Bush I sought to determine the future nature of US foreign policy. It would involve: a new balance of power post-Cold War; new collective security effort through the UN (driven by the success of Kuwait), USA role in global governance. At end of the Cold War and success in Kuwait, promised a new era of effective global governance, collective security, economic liberalization etc. led by the US. Partial successes like the Oslo Accords supported this idea. Failures like Somalia and Rwanda undermined it.

Kyoto Protocol

An international agreement linked to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change. Members set binding emissions reduction targets, although there is not a penalty for failure to meet. The USA has signed but not ratified, arousing much consternation. Adapted worldwide 1997, activated in 2005, expired 2012.

Intermestic Issues

An issue that is both international and domestic in the way it affects both entities. An issue that is largely domestic (immigration/drugs) but has international implications. (e.g. Immigration policy - not a classic foreign policy issue. In many ways a question of domestic policy, but with strong international drivers and implications.)

Iron Curtain

As described by Churchill, a symbol of the ideological conflict and physical boundary dividing Europe into two separate areas from the end of WWII (1945) to the end of the Cold War (1991). Erected by the Soviet Union to block itself and its dependent central European allies off from open contact with western capitalist areas. The United States protected Western Europe from Soviet aggression with economic aid, supplies, and a security guarantee. Each "side" of the Iron Curtain formed its own military alliance (NATO vs. Warsaw Pact).

Mueller thesis/Vietnam Syndrome

As war drags on unresolved, public support decreases as the public loses interest and knowledge, e.g. Vietnam. Creates a situation in which it is difficult to create/pass policies. When more than 50% of Americans turn against the war, it's time to get out. Can also spell bad things for the party of the current president. Came out of the Vietnam War, 1970s. When there is a crisis the public will rally around the flag, the president, lots of activity. As the crisis continues for many years, public wouldn't want to deal with issues, wouldn't know the issues, support dwindles and becomes apathetic—it becomes a quagmire.

APEC

Asia Pacific Economic Corporation is a group of 21 member countries from the Pacific Rim economies that promote free trade and econ cooperation within the region. APEC was founded in 1989 in response to Japan having the potential of becoming a dominant economic force within the region. They promote higher education and living standards through economic growth, and have three pillars: 1. Trade and Investment Liberalization 2. Business Facilitation 3. Economic and Technical Cooperation APEC makes up about 54% of the world's GDP and 44% of world trade. The United States along with other western countries are a part of APEC. Relevance to FP: U.S. has interest in Asia and its emerging economies. APEC allows U.S. to be involved in the growth of these economies in order to maintain economic power.

Belief Systems, Evoked Set, and Operational Code

Belief systems: A set of mutually supportive beliefs. Difficult to revise or reject. Evoked set: The number of alternatives considered during the problem-solving process. Can mean that new information will typically be ignored. Operational code: the values, worldview, and response repertoire that an individual acquires and shares with other members of an organization. All are psychological factors in foreign policy decision-making.

Bureaucratic Politics

Book by Halperin and Clapp; politics among State Dept., military, presidential advisers, etc. influences decision-making. Stresses the role of relevant officials in the bureaucracy who want to promote their own interests. Agencies care about missions (diplomacy), capabilities (budget/personnel), influence (access to POTUS), essence (identity). Agencies are most motivated to give POTUS info that favors them even though POTUS needs unbiased info.

Neoconservatives

In foreign policy, neoconservatives argue for a grand strategy of primacy. The United States' main concern should be to prevent the emergence of a new rival. The neoconservative view on foreign policy is also identified by the use of democracy promotion through military engagement and the Bush Doctrine of preemptive war. "Wilsonians in combat boots": want to spread democracy through hard power improve the world order for the US and other democratic states, democratic peace theory.

National Security Adviser

Serves as the chief advisor to the president on national security issues and meets with the NSC. Has no authority over the DoD or State Department, but can offer advice independently of bureaucracies' interests. Current NSA: Susan Rice; established by the National Security Act of 1947. Other important NSAs to remember are Henry Kissinger, Colin Powell, Condoleeza Rice.

Carter Doctrine

Created by President Jimmy Carter in 1980 which stated that the U.S. would use military forces if necessary in order to promote its national interests in the Persian Gulf. *Response to 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and was intended to deter the USSR from seeking hegemony in the Gulf. * Brzezinski (Nat'l Sec. Advisor) helped create Doctrine: "An attempt by any outside force to gain control of the Persian Gulf region will be regarded as an assault on the vital interests of the United States of America, and such an assault will be repelled by any means necessary, including military force."

Covert Operations

DOD defines as "an operation that is so planned and executed as to conceal the identity of or permit plausible denial by the sponsor. CIA can carry out covert operations under the 1947 NSA/expansion under Eisenhower. Under 1984 Exec Order 12333, the gov't can deny their existence. Examples: Eisenhower in Central America; Argo hostage rescue in Iran.

Eisenhower Doctrine

1957- Under this doctrine, if a country was being threatened by another state, it could ask the U.S for economic assistance or military aid. In his doctrine, Eisenhower singled out the Soviet threat by authorizing the U.S forces to "secure and protect the territorial integrity and political independence of such nations that requested aid against overt armed aggression from any nation controlled by international communism." The doctrine was influenced by the Suez Crisis of 1956, ensuring that the USSR would not fill the power vacuum. The military action provisions of the Doctrine were applied in the Lebanon Crisis the following year, when America intervened in response to a request by that country's president. Significance: A facet of our foreign policy in confronting the spread of communism.

Nixon Doctrine

1969. This doctrine stated that each ally nation was in charge of its own security in general, but the United States would act as a nuclear umbrella when requested. The Doctrine argued for the pursuit of peace through a partnership with American allies. The Nixon Doctrine implied the intentions of Richard Nixon the shifting of direction on international policies in Asia, especially aiming for "Vietnamization of the Vietnam War." It included: o Keep all of the United States Treaty Commitments o The United States would "provide a shield" should a nuclear power threaten either the freedom of a nation allied with the United States or the existence of a country deem vital to U.S. security (Extended deterrence). o The U.S. vowed to maintain the outward flow of economic and military assistance in accordance with U.S. treaty commitments, however,we shall look to the nation directly threatened to assume the primary responsibility of providing the manpower for its defense. (Vietnamization) o An attempt to lessen the tensions of the Cold War and focus more on a retrenchment policy and pull back in arms races and the active fight against communism. The idea was to open foreign policy to more cooperation between the Soviet Union and China

Fast Track Authority

Ability of US President to negotiate international agreement that Congress can approve or disapprove but cannot amend or filibuster. The authority is granted to the President. Many bilateral trade agreements were created in this manner. E.g. TPP. Relevance: affects relationship of President to Congress (like War Powers). Imperial presidency, war powers

Detente and Linkage

A period beginning in 1969 during Nixon/Ford and Brezhnev in the 1970s characterized by the relaxation of tensions between the USA and USSR. A number of talks/treaties, such as SALT and the Helsinki Accords, were signed during this time. Détente began to deteriorate when Carter aided anti-Soviet forces in Afghanistan and the US boycotted the 1980 Olympics in Moscow. Reagan campaigned on an anti-detente platform; the policy effectively ended in the 1980s with his presidency. Before detente: 1968--Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty signed, a building block of detente. During: Talks held and treaties signed, including SALT I and SALT II, Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, Biological Weapons Convention. Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe conducts Helsinki Accords. Brezhnev accuses Carter of interfering in Soviet republics re: human rights issues. Trade increased. But conflict continued. Linkage: Nixon/Kissinger's 1970s detente strategy of linking good Soviet/Chinese behavior to access to US trade. See the Jackson-Vanik Amendment, signed 1975 by Ford, which links trade with Soviet countries to their allowing people to emigrate (this law was repealed in 2012). Overall the policies wanted the USSR/PRC to help prevent revolutions in the Third World in exchange for concessions in nuclear and economic issues. The policy tried and failed to connect political and military issues. Deviations from international norms and laws would be punished. The policy ultimately was not effective; revolutions increased.

Globalization

A process that is making people more interdependent and therefore altering the structure of the international system. Process of integration and increasing interdependence among economies, societies, and cultures on a global level. This contributes to current issues such as border security (trafficking and terrorism), asymmetric warfare, immigration, rising inequality, and economic crashes. Significance: Increased interconnectedness between nations which influences foreign policy.

Organization of American States

A regional international organization headquartered in DC. Consists of the 35 states in the Americas. Began in 1948 in Bogota, Colombia with the signing of the OAS Charter. The original 21 countries extended their cooperation beyond collective security. Today, the organization constitutes the main political, juridical, and social governmental forum in the Western Hemisphere, promoting the ideals of democracy, human rights, security, and development. US attitude towards Latin America took a hard edge during the Cold War when the perceived threat was no longer defined generally as internal unrest, but very specifically as a communist revolution. Long-standing interest in US domination in Latin America became stronger. Through the OAS, the US effectively guaranteed the security of its neighbors throughout the hemisphere--also guaranteed that communism would not take hold in the region without a fight.

Bottom-up review

A report released by Clinton's Sec of Defense 1993-94 Lee Aspin. Planned for a reduced force structure still capable of fighting and winning two simultaneous major regional conflicts. Would still cost a fair deal but helped along by the end of SDI. Provides a comprehensive review of the nation's defense strategy, force structure, modernization, infrastructure, and foundations • BUR's force structure reductions were to surpass those in the Base Force, ultimately leading to a ⅓ reduction in forces from fiscal year 1990 • Redefined the meaning of engagement, giving increased rhetorical and policy importance to U.S. participation in multilateral peace and humanitarian operations, but also having soldiers trained and ready to be deployed even as force reductions continued

Smart Diplomacy

According to Joseph Nye, Smart Diplomacy (or Smart Power) is a strategic combination of soft power and hard power techniques. According to the CSIS "an approach that underscores the necessity of a strong military, but also invests heavily in alliances, partnerships, and institutions of all levels to expand American influence and establish legitimacy of American action." It claims that neither military force, nor cultural capital is sufficient in solving most modern security dilemmas (i.e. terrorism). Smart Diplomacy refers to President Obama and Secretary Hillary Clinton. E.g. US intervention in Libya exemplifies 'Smart Diplomacy' because US combined military force, persuasion, and influence along with working with the Arab League to regain prominence all to stabilize the state, which was the initial interest.

Bounded rationality, Substantive rationality, Procedural rationality, and Crisis decision-making

Bounded rationality: In decision-making, the idea that people's rationality is limited by the info they have, their cognitive abilities, and finite time. Proposed by Herbert Simon in 1991 to better explain Allison's Rational Actors Model. Because decision-makers lack the ability and resources to arrive at the optimal solution, they instead apply their rationality only after having greatly simplified the choices available. Thus the decision-maker is a satisficer, one seeking a satisfactory solution rather than the optimal one. Substantive rationality: Simon. Behavior appropriate to the achievement of given goals within the limits imposed by given conditions and constraints. Procedural rationality: Simon. Refers to behavior that is the outcome of appropriate deliberation. Crisis decision making: Crisis can be a variable in FP decision-making. Related to Alex George's work on presidential decision-making. President is influenced by worldview, style, and character.

Burden sharing, Free Riders, Hegemonic Stability theory

Burden Sharing: According to Kenneth Waltz, in bipolar systems there will be unequal sharing of burden between major and minor powers in an alliance. E.g. the US/USSR were not accommodating to their allies, but expected their allies to accommodate them. This can be a good thing—the rigidity of the bipolar system makes for flexible strategy. Example: USA wants EU countries to contribute more to NATO. Free riders: An actor that takes advantage of public resources and does not contribute to collective norms. E.g. USA does not contribute to Kyoto Protocol but benefits from reduced emissions. Illustrates the wider problem of how a group can serve collective interests when doing so requires states to forego their individual goals. Hegemonic Stability Theory: A theory that says that stability and order in the international system increase when a powerful state or "hegemon" has the ability and will to enforce the rules of the international system. In some realist systems, the presence of a superpower will deter shifts in the balance of power, ensuing long-term stability. This is often used to describe the time of Pax Americana and Pax Britannica when American and Britain respectively effectively dominated the international system. Gilpin and Keohane.

CIA, DNI, IC

CIA: Created 1947 by Truman's National Security Act; predecessor was the OSS. Three activities: gather information about foreigners, analyze the info to report to policymakers, and carry out/oversee covert operations per the direction of POTUS. Current director John Brennan. Reports to DNI. Near-death experiences post-1945, post-Cold War; saved by 9/11. DNI: Created in 2005 as result of 9/11 commission report; role previously served by the Director of the CIA. Duties: advise POTUS/NSC/Homeland Security Council, head of Intelligence Council, and direct/oversee the national intelligence program. First DNI was John Negroponte; current is James Clapper. DNI is having trouble assimilating into IC and still trying to find its place. Intelligence community: Formed 1981 under Carter; 17 gov't agencies within the Executive Branch that work both independently and collaboratively to gather and analyze the intelligence necessary to conduct foreign relations and national security activities.

China differential/China Card

China differential: The China differential was a set of restrictions on exports to China that the United States tried to force the allies to uphold in the 1950s. These restrictions were in response to China's role in the Korean War and were more restrictive than export sanctions on the Soviet Union. The allies however did not take kindly to the United States trying to control their economic activity and abandoned the restrictions by 1957. The United States maintained its embargo against China until the 1970s. China card: In the 1970s/80s, proponents of the USA playing the China card argued that improved relations with China would cause the USSR to feel left out, worry and seek accommodations with the US in arms control treaties, etc.

Soft Power

Coined by Joseph Nye, soft power is the ability to get the outcomes you want without the use of "hard power" (use of coercion/force or payment/wealth). More about influence than coercion. Nye considers soft power to be harder for states to wield than hard power but to be more effective than hard power, as it convinces others to emulate them. Easier to drop a bomb, than build good will. Soft power mechanisms include diplomacy, strategic communications, foreign assistance, civic action and economic reconstruction and development. USA has used soft power in spreading its democratic and liberal values.

Department of...Commerce, Defense, Energy, Homeland Security, Justice, State, Treasury.

Commerce: Creates jobs, promotes economic growth, technological competitiveness, and sustainable development, and improves standards of living for all Americans. First formed in 1903 as Dept. of Commerce and Labor. Related to USFP: Includes Census Bureau, International Trade, Oceans and Atmosphere (yes, really), Intellectual Property (patents/trademarks). Defense: Headed by Sec. of Defense Chuck Hagel, who oversees Depts of Navy, Army, and Air Force. Also subordinate are 4 intelligence agencies: DIA, NSA, NGA, and NRO. Nine regional/functional combatant commands (e.g. Norcom). Existed as the War Department till Truman signed the National Security Act in 1947, creating the "National Military Establishment" (under control of the Sec of Defense), the CIA, NSC, Nat'l Security Resources Board, the Air Force, and the Joint Chiefs of Staff. In 1949, the NME was renamed the DoD and gained a stronger Secretary of Defense. Reforms in 1953, 1958 the agency that would become known as DARPA was created, and 1986. Energy: Predecessors came into being during WWII in association with the Manhattan Project. As a result of the 1973 oil shock, Carter created the DoE in 1977. Also oversees research and nuclear energy. Homeland Security: First proposed 1/01 and created in 2002 because of 9/11. Protects the USA from terrorist attacks, man-made disasters, and natural disasters. Handles immigration as of 2003. 3rd largest Cabinet department after DoD and DoVA. One of the most significant government reorganizations since the Cold War and most substantial since the 1947 National Security Act. Also includes FEMA and the Coast Guard. Justice: Officially established in 1870, though USA has had an attorney general (head of DoJ) since beginning. Handles, among many others, INTERPOL. State: Department responsible for IR. Created in 1789, the first executive department. Since 1947, it has been losing ground as the DoD gains power. Publishes the Quadrennial Diplomacy and Development Review (QDDR). In the post-Cold War era, it may be gaining a larger role. Diplomacy/Foreign Service. Treasury: Created in 1789 and first headed by Alexander Hamilton, seriously the greatest man of all time. Prints/mints currency, collects taxes, manages gov't debt. Reorganized in 2003 and some capabilities given to DHS

EU and Regional Integration

Economic and political union of 28 member states in Europe. First roots of EU began in 1951 with the Treaty of Paris. Established 1992 by the Maastricht Treaty. Regional integration: process in which states enter into a regional agreement in order to enhance regional cooperation through regional institutions and rules. Creation of the EU allowed for greater transatlantic relations. Kissinger: "If I want to phone Europe, what number do I call?" EU allows for "one telephone number" for Europe.

Economic liberalism and Economic Nationalism

Economic liberalism asserts that politics and economics exist in separate spheres. Adam Smith argued that markets should be free from government interference (laissez-faire). The general concept is to have free markets and minimal state intervention. Economic nationalism: This ideology implies that the market should be subordinate to state interests. Its objective, according to Alexander Hamilton, is industrialization (reasons for tariffs and trade barriers). Contrary to economic liberalism, states want to create an international division of labor most favorable to their interests.

Congress and foreign policy; oversight, war powers, advise and consent, 'twilight zone'

Congress and FP: Senate approves treaties and ambassadors. Otherwise it can be tough. E.g. Bush II, Obama are both unitary presidents who take action without Congressional approval. Pendulum theory—authority swings between POTUS and Congress, currently towards POTUS. Conflict influenced by partisanship, public opinion, presidential dominance of Congress. Fight over appointments, treaties, war powers. Strategic Congress under Obama—less active, more assertive. Oversight is a key role of Congress. Refers to the review, monitoring and supervision of fed agencies, programs/activities, and policy implementation. War Powers: Constitution gives Congress the power to declare war in Article I. Tension vs. president as Commander in Chief. 1941 War Powers Act—FDR increases power of Exec Branch. 1973 War Powers Resolution says that the President can send U.S. armed forces into action abroad only by declaration of war by Congress, "statutory authorization," or in case of "a national emergency created by attack upon the United States, its territories or possessions, or its armed forces." Requires 48-hour notification and troops can stay no more than 60 days. Violated in case of Kosovo, maybe MEast? Advise and consent: presidential nominations for executive and judicial posts must be confirmed by the Senate, and international treaties become effective only when the Senate approves them by a two-thirds vote. Twilight zone: 1991 Keynes book; declaring war is a twilight zone between POTUS and Congress. Relevance to USFP: Tensions between Congress and President over declaring wars and carrying them out (and also approving treaties and ambassadors). For example the Iraq War, Obamas AUMF against ISIS.

Base force plan

Created by Colin Powell when he was Chairman of the JCS in 1989-1993 under Bush I, Clinton. A formula for downsizing the Armed Forces post-Cold War while avoiding inter-branch rivalry and maintaining a balanced and robust military. Part of the USA's shift to dealing with regionally based Third World threats rather than the USSR. Powell later served as Bush II's first Sec of State. Would reduce military strength by about 25 percent over six years. The Base Force cut of 25 percent was predicated in part on the collapse of the Soviet Union and the demise of the Warsaw Pact. A "new world order" was anticipated. There would be fewer challenges to US interests and security, and the US could rely more on periodic deployments of forces to demonstrate commitment and protect American interests. Base force plan: substantial changes in the U.S. military forces to meet the defense needs of the post-Cold War era by replacing Cold War strategy (which was focused on deterrence and relied on forward defense): • 25 % reduction in force structure • 10% reduction in budget authority • more than 20% reduction in manpower since 1990

Counterinsurgency Doctrine

Created by Petraeus in 2006. Replaced in 2009 by new Counterterrorism Strategy. This required U.S. soldiers and marines to undertake, in roughly proportionate measure, five tasks: safeguard the indigenous population, improve democratic governance, combat corruption, deliver economic projects and institute the rule of law as understood in the Western tradition. Can be tied to the theory of "Clash of Civilizations" in that cultural differences can both cause conflicts and the recognition of differences can lead to resolution.

NATO out of area disputes

Debate amongst NATO member states over whether or not NATO should expand its operations to include missions outside of the North Atlantic area. NATO involvement in the Balkans sparked this debate and the dispute has continued over the issue of Afghanistan. Idea that NATO's involvement in disputes not normally covered in its territorial 'sovereignty' could/ has caused a sort of 'identity crisis' as to the purpose and extent of NATO's power and influence. See Libya, Kosovo, Afghanistnan. Article 4: The Parties will consult together whenever, in the opinion of any of them, the territorial integrity, political independence or security of any of the Parties is threatened. Article 5: Core article of the North Atlantic Treaty that says that any attack on a NATO member state is an attack against the alliance and therefore each member state will assist the party or parties being attacked. Article 6: defines the areas in which an armed attack can invoke Article 5: on the territory of any of the Parties in Europe or North America, on the Algerian Departments of France (2), on the territory of or on the Islands under the jurisdiction of any of the Parties in the North Atlantic area north of the Tropic of Cancer; (3) on the forces, vessels, or aircraft of any of the Parties, when in or over these territories or any other area in Europe.

Realism

Dominant IR paradigm in the post-WWII era that rests on the assumption that international relations is driven by the constant pursuit of power by sovereign states in an effort to secure national interests. Human nature realists, or classical realists, contend that state decisions are driven by humans that are inherently violent and power-hungry beings (want power). Focused on power. On the other hand, structural realists (or neo-realists) argue that states behave the way they do because of the essential characteristics (anarchy aka want to be secure) of international system. Focused on security.

Empire, Unipolar moment, Indispensable nation

Empire: The large amount of political, economic, and military influence a state holds. In this case, the U.S is considered an empire. Other characteristics of empire include possessing a large amount of territory under one government, usually acquired through expansionist tendencies. Unipolar moment: After the end of the Cold War, the U.S has been in a unipolar moment in which it is the regional/global hegemon because of the fall of the other powers in the bipolar cold war system: the Soviet Union. Indispensible nation: This stems from the hegemonic stability theory in which the hegemon maintains a stable liberal economic (free trade) and political system.

Engagement and Enlargement

Engagement: Interactions between to entities/actors including public diplomacy, communication, and deployment of international aid Enlargement: policy of expanding a group by including other members who fit the criteria. Used by the EU to enlarge the union. Engagement and enlargement = Clinton's liberal economic strategies

National Security Council (NSC)

Established by the National Security Act of 1947, this is the principal forum used by the president to address issues of national security and foreign policy. The council is part of the executive branch and is comprised of national security advisers and cabinet members; gives the president much more power over foreign policy. Main members: POTUS, VP, SoS, SoD, Chairman-JCS, DNI, D-CIA.

Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)

FDI is a controlling ownership in a business enterprise in one country by an entity based in another country. The investment of funds into a foreign country. It is used as a foreign policy tool to strengthen relationships, and aid other countries by means of funds. (For example in times of war.) It is argued that it can be mutually beneficial, but others argue that the U.S. is using its role as the largest economy in the world to take advantage of weak and developing economies. E.g. Kazakhstan.

Bay of Pigs

Failed April 1961 invasion of Cuba by CIA-sponsored cuban exile counter-revolutionary group Brigade 2506, which aimed to overthrow Castro. Launched from Guatemala and was defeated in 3 days. Started by Eisenhower, carried out by JFK. Severely embarrassed USA, leading to Cuban Missile Crisis. Significance: Strengthened relationship between USSR and Cuba. It made Cuba more open to having nuclear missiles from USSR for protection, which led to the Cuban Missile Crisis. U.S. had to regain trust with allies.

Fixed and Flexible Exchange Rates, Reserve currency, Gold Standard

Fixed exchange rates: currency's value is fixed against the value of another single currency or to a basket of other currencies, or to another measure of value, such as gold. Floating exchange rates: currency's value is allowed to fluctuate according to the foreign exchange market. (After 1971) Reserve currency: currency that is held in significant quantities by many governments and institutions as part of their foreign exchange reserves. It also tends to be the international pricing currency for products traded on a global market, and commodities such as oil, gold, etc. Gold standard: a monetary system in which the standard economic unit of account is a fixed weight of gold. Came into effect because of Bretton Woods. Nixon took the US dollar off of the gold standard in 1971. Relevance: Affects global economy. US dominance because of countries' currencies pegged to the dollar.

Funnel of causality and relative potency

Funnel of causality: A way of thinking about relative potency and causality (how influential one is in foreign policy decision making). A theory used to explain decision making for large groups. The principle is that ideas come from the top of a funnel (larger groups, like the public which are the least important) and go down through the groups of people in government eventually getting to most narrow section (individuals, e.g. the president, most important). The policy is created here and goes back to affect the people which it affects. One can see how all of these sections changes the decision. Relative potency: How important each decision maker is in the formulation of foreign policy. AKA national character is least important, president is most important.

Geoeconomics, Geopolitics, and Geostrategy

Geoeconomics: The study of the relationship between economics and politics and its influence on a specific region or territory. Associated with President Clinton, who invested in America's "base" (schools, economic development) and notably stimulated exports to expand the American economy. Geopolitics: The relationship between politics and the geographical makeup of territories. Attempts to explain why events occur in certain areas based on geographical makeup. Ex: The United States has never experienced a full invasion after its independence due to its isolation from the major powers. Geostrategy: Utilization of geopolitics and geography in military planning. Generally concerned with the execution of a geopolitical strategy and how geographical or regional features could affect the ways and means of the strategy. For example: Mackinder advocated stronger U.S. influence in Eastern Europe, which he saw as a geostrategic "heartland" in Europe which would increase influence on the entire continent.

Civil Society

NGOs, institutions, the family, lobbies, think tanks, etc. Sometimes referred to as the "third sector" of society, apart from government and business. Civil society organizations are instrumental in granting power to many people who are poor, voiceless, and powerless. These organizations have become outlets of power for the poorest and a medium through which they can express opinions, views, and possible strategic concerns. Examples of the positive role of civil society include fostering gender equality, demanding the respect and defending the existence of indigenous peoples and their cultures, and tackling a number of unacceptable forms of behavior, such as lack of transparency and accountability, corruption, favoritism, and violations of ethnic freedom.

Nation-Building, Failed States

Nation-building: refers to peacekeeping and state-building operations (infrastructure, elections, and civil society connection), such as Philippines, Haiti, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Haiti, Kosovo, Afghanistan, Iraq, etc. Other than postwar Germany and Japan, the US has had little success. More nation-building in post-Cold War era. Tries to unite the people so that a country remains politically stable in the long run. Nation building has been one of the dominant reason for US intervention. Iraq and Afghanistan are most current nation-building initiative. Failed states: Failed in the basic conditions of a sovereign government (i.e. loss of territory, legitimate authority, ability to provide public services, or ability to interact with other states). Somalia. Indicate that US has had problems with nation building and failed states—failures outnumber successes.

National Interest, National Security

National interest: The objectives and needs that drive state behavior in the international system. Realists see the national interest as independent of the multiple special interests that exist within a state. Critics of realism say that the national interest results from the struggle among those various domestic interests. The US usually identifies its national interests as the defense of homeland security, economic growth, favorable world order, promotion of values. Although national interest emphasizes the country's interest as a whole, different departments may favor different/ competing interests (bureaucratic model). National security: The use of economic, diplomatic, political, and military power to maintain the state. Often in preserving national security the state's interest (national interest) is protected and preserved. Threats to the national security can occur from other states or non-state actors. Since the early 1900s/Pearl Harbor, national security has been a key determining factor in American Foreign Policy. Together national interest and national security shape USFP!

NAFTA

North American Free Trade Agreement: A 1994 agreement between Canada, Mexico and the U.S. which instituted a schedule for phasing out tariffs and fees in an effort to encourage free trade. Clinton administration- liberalism, represents a shift in the Democratic party towards liberal free trade; further the development of Canada and exploited underdeveloped Mexico; free trade zone.

Cuban Missile Crisis (October Crisis)

October 1962, 2 week tense negotiations between US and USSR when the USSR placed nuclear missiles in Cuba facing towards the U.S. Kennedy enforced an embargo on Cuba and stated that the U.S. was prepared to use military force, if necessary, to neutralize threat to national security. In return for removing missiles from Cuba, U.S. removed missiles from Turkey and Southern Italy and agreed to not invade Cuba. Significance: Closest the world came to nuclear war. Example of brinkmanship. Resolved through 2 weeks of negotiations.

Manifest Destiny/U.S. Exceptionalism

Polk's 19th century belief that the US had the divine right to expand its territory across the continent to the Pacific Ocean. This was a term that was used to justify westward expansion into native territory and also led to the Mexican American War in 1846. This is an example of American imperialism. The term is most often associated with the period from 1812 (right after the War of 1812) to 1860. As settlers moved westward, the idea was that the government would back them. US exceptionalism includes the beliefs that there are special qualities that the United States possesses that distinguishes it from other nations in the world. The term is based on certain ideologies, that, combined, make America unique, namely laissez faire economics, individualism, liberty, democracy, and republicanism. US superiority, often a justification for USFP abroad (interventions). MAIN RATIONAL BEHIND FP.

Powell Doctrine, Weinberger Doctrine

Powell Doctrine: coined in the period leading up to the 1990-91 Gulf War. Colin Powell maintained that the US must first exhaust all political, economic, and diplomatic means, and if those are not successful than military means may be used. During war, every resources and tool should be used in order to end the conflict as quickly as possible and minimize the number of US casualties. More explicit in an exit strategy, helped to get US public support for use of military. Weinberger Doctrine: coined in 1984 in a speech called "The Uses of Military Power" by Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger. This was considered an effect of the Vietnam War and desire of the US government to avoid such mistakes. Weinberger outlined 6 conditions that the US had to meet before using military power to deal with an international situation. These are: 1) vital national interests must be involved, 2) war must be fought with the intention of winning, 3) clear definition of military and political objectives, 4) objective and necessary forces must be continuously monitored and reassessed, 5) public support must be high, and 6) force must be used as a last resort when all other diplomatic means have failed. Precursor to the Powell Doctrine.

Roman Predicament

Powerful states -- Rome, Britain, the United States -- have created rules that are necessary for the functioning of a stable and open international economic system but that the imperial exercise of power (i.e. ignoring your own rules) undermines these rules and threatens the stability of markets. This is the "Roman predicament" -- a logic that James finds articulated in the great works of Adam Smith and Edward Gibbon. The only way for the USA to survive is to avoid committing the same mistakes that both Britain and Rome had made in the past (aka being a brutal imperial force). James encourages the USA to embrace a "values based system" and refrain from the usage of brute force for protection.

Pre-emptive and Preventative War

Pre-emptive War: A pre-emptive war is a war that begins due to a perceived attack that is sure to happen in the immediate future. It is a war that is inevitable and the strategy behind a pre-emptive war is to attack the enemy while it is at his weakest, for example, during transport or troop mobilization. When a pre-emptive war begins, the actor that initiated the attacks claims that in order to defend itself, the attack (which would have occurred anyway) had to take place. Under the UN charter, a pre-emptive strike is considered justifiable as self-defense when the state or other actor truly believes the threat is real, as opposed to only perceived, and, if the force used for self-defense coincides with the size of the threat. The most notable example of a pre-emptive war is the 1967 Six-Day War, when Israel began by successfully attacking Egypt. Preventative War: A preventive war is a war launched against a potential threat, when an attack is not known to be planned for the foreseeable future. According to the UN Charter, unprovoked war against a potential adversary, unless authorized by the UN Security Council, is a violation of international law. In hindsight, a contemporary example of a preventive war is the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Because Saddam Hussein was determined to not be connected with the Sept. 11th attacks on the United States and no weapons of mass destruction were found in Iraq prior to the start of the invasion, some think this war can be considered preventive. Overall, both pre-emptive and preventive war are considered controversial. Between the two, preventive war is viewed as more controversial and illegitimate because it greatly resembles aggression as opposed to self-defense. This is significant to USFP because the distinction might be the difference between obtaining international/UN backing and not obtaining it.

Domino Theory

Prominent from 1950s-1980s; idea that if one state fell under communism, so would surrounding states. Justified US intervention in Vietnam under Eisenhower, then continued with JFK/Johnson. This can also be applied to present US action in the middle east; in theory, the US intervention in Iraq was supposed to create a successful democracy, and this democracy would have a domino effect of democratization in the MEast. Relevance: This fed into the decisions by the United States to fight various proxy wars against the Soviets, such as in Afghanistan and much of Latin America and VIETNAM.

NSC-68 and Paul Nitze

Proposed by Paul Nitze and signed by Truman in 1950. One of the most significant statements of American policy in the Cold War, because it said the only way to fight the Soviet was through a buildup of nuclear and conventional arms. That triggered increased DoD spending and an arms race. NSC-68 largely shaped U.S. foreign policy in the Cold War for the next 20 years, and involved a decision to make Containment against Communist expansion a high priority. The strategy outlined in NSC-68 arguably achieved ultimate victory with the collapse of the Soviet Union and the subsequent emergence of a "new world order" centered on American liberal-capitalist values alone.

Marshall Plan

Proposed by US Secretary of State George Marshall in 1947 (operational in 1948), it was the economic recovery plan to provide aids to European countries to rebuild their economies after WWII (especially infrastructure), lift trade barriers, and industrialize. It provided $13 billion in loans, most aid to UK, followed by France and West Germany, 16 countries total. Not accepted by the Soviet bloc (was offered aid but refused, and did not permit Poland and East Germany to receive aid, since this would give US financial control over Kist countries), thus fitting with the policy of containment and strengthening the ties of Western European nations to the US. It was one of the events that led to the Cold War. Led to the origins of the early European Union. Way for U.S. to exert economic power over European countries and fight against communism (political agenda). Realization of two European spheres.

Goldwater-Nichols Act

Reworked the structure of the US military in 1986 by increasing the powers of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, streamlining the military chain of command, and giving responsibility for training and equipping personnel to the service chiefs; implemented the most sweeping changes in the Department of Defense since the National Security Act of 1947.

SDI/Star Wars

Ronald Reagan proposed Strategic Defense Initiative in 1983 to use ground and space-based defense systems to protect the United States from nuclear attack. Ultimately unsuccessful, many feared that SDI would spark another arms race, as it would give the United States the capability to attack the USSR without fear of nuclear retaliation, thus opposing the deterrence logic of Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD). Another critique of SDI is that it would violate provisions in certain ratified treaties, including the Outer Space Treaty of 1967 (no nuclear systems in outer space), the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (limits on defense systems), and the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. Significance: led to arms race with USSR. Could have led to collapse of USSR due to inability to afford an arms race.

Brezhnev Doctrine

Soviet foreign policy outlined in 1968 by Brezhnev stating that when forces that are hostile to socialism try to influence socialist countries from moving away from communism, it becomes not only a problem of the country concerned, but a common problem and concern of all socialist countries, especially the USSR. Any threat of capitalism in the Eastern Bloc, was a threat to Soviet power and influence, thus action must be taken. Justifies Soviet troops in Czechoslovakia. Means that no country could leave the Warsaw Pact. Also justified Afghanistan war.

Clinton Doctrine

States that the United States would forcefully intervene to prevent human rights abuses when it can do so without suffering substantial casualties, without the authority of the UN Security Council. In effect, the doctrine undermines international law and treaty obligations. Some have argued that the Clinton Doctrine really mandates that the U.S. only intervenes when there is no vital national security interest, particularly if a domestic special-interest group supports it and the risk of casualties is low. Our policy of engagement and enlargement leads to helping/doing peacekeeping type missions in Somalia, Yugoslavia, other interventions (and lack thereof in e.g. Rwanda). What it means for USFP: engages in lots of peacekeeping-type missions and strives to get back our good standing among nations.

Tiananmen Square

The square in Beijing was occupied from 15 April 1989 to 4 June by peaceful student protesters after liberal reformer Hu Yaobang was disposed of by the Party; on 3-4 June, hundreds (possibly thousands) were massacred by the army. The massacre showed how hardliners in the Chinese Communist Party would prevent full liberalization and democratization of China. It also showed how democratization in Eastern Europe could have gone if Gorbachev (who was in China during the protest) had not renounced the Brezhnev doctrine (use of force against opposition movements). The U.S. responded by placing military and economic sanctions on China. Although the military embargo remains today, most of these restrictions were quietly lifted in the following years as business interest voiced their opposition to these sanctions. China represented a great disappointment, as China was thought to be liberalizing since the Shanghai Communique with Nixon. In the aftermath of the Tiananmen Square incident the international community heavily criticized China's actions. Western media outlets labeled the June 4th incident a massacre. The United States, as well as many of its allies, instituted economic and diplomatic sanctions against China. The World Bank and the Asian Development Bank stopped lending to China.

Democratic Peace

The theory that democracies tend not to engage in wars with one another, based on the Kantian triangle, as observed by Doyle, Russert and others. However, the causal mechanism is disputed. Why it works: mutual restraint for elections, institutional restraints (checks and balances, democratic culture, economic interdependence, respect for international law), normative restraints. Why it doesn't work: War of 1812, Russian-Georgian War in 2008. It is also worth noting that democracies in transition can cause wars, and that democracies are prone to go on crusade against autocracies. Significance: Why have we not fought a war against a democracy? (Why have we fought so many huge wars against non-democracy?) We intervene a LOT into developing countries to develop democracy--a result of this theory?

Deterrence

The threat of retaliation that dissuades a state from taking action. A good deterrent, therefore, is a credible threat of harm but is never used. State A will use nuclear weapons against State B if it does something it would not normally be tempted to do. To be effective at deterrence, State A must be able to react and to convince B that it will indeed react. Is nuclear deterrence/MAD effective? According to Kenneth Waltz, yes. According to Schulz, Perry, Kissinger, and Nunn in Deterrence in the Age of Nuclear Proliferation, no, because normal war could still occur and today with many nuclear powers, we cannot rely on a bipolar balance. Robert Art's 4 functions of force: coercion, deterrence, swaggering, defense. Relevance to USFP: Significant part of FP during the Cold War that many presidents embraced to prevent outright conflict, or to test the limits of conflict e.g. via proxy wars. Ex of bad deterrence: Iran's nuclear program.

Clash of Civilizations

Theory created by Samuel Huntington in the post-Cold War era. World politics is entering a new phase. Conflict will no longer be based on ideology or economics, rather culture. Nation-states will remain the most powerful in world affairs, but principal conflicts of global politics will occur between nations/groups with different cultures. His theory stated that: 1. Politics is multipolar and multi-civilizational. 2. The balance of power among civilizations is shifting away from the West. 3. States will align themselves along broad cultural outlines. 4. Modern conflicts will be between cultures/civilizations, not states, with an emphasis on religion. Significance: Relations with China/Russia (conflict inevitable?), Islamophobia.

Democratization/Third Wave

Third Wave: Third major surge of democracy in history. 1) 1800s, 2) Post-WWII, 3) started in 1974 starting in Portugal, then Latin America, Asia-Pacific, and Eastern Europe. Samuel Huntington. Third wave countries can be subject to backsliding. Democratization: The transition to a democratic regime. This process is influenced by various factors including economic development, history and civil society. Examples: Iraq War, U.S. intervention in Latin America during the Cold War.

Washington Consensus

This term was created in 1989 by the economist John Williamson to describe a set of ten specific economic policy prescriptions that constituted a template reform package for developing countries. Adherence to the WC was the condition imposed by the IMF in exchange for monetary aid with BOP. It was widely adopted in the early 1990s, but eventually disproved when it failed to produce the expected economic growth. States were willing to experiment with other economic models. This contributed to a decline in U.S. economic soft power. Ten items: o Fiscal policy: avoid large fiscal deficit o Redirection of public spending from subsidies toward broad-based provision of pro-growth, pro-poor services like primary education, primary health care and infrastructure investment o Tax reform: broadening tax base and adopting moderate marginal tax rates o Interest rates: should be market determined and positive o Competitive exchange rate o Trade Liberalization o Liberation of inward foreign direct investment o Privatization of state enterprise o Deregulation o Legal security for property rights

Elite Theories of FP determinacy

This theory acknowledges how elites shape foreign policy in countries. The political power is held by a small, wealthy group of people who share similar values and interests. This "hegemon" has an influence in their political making process and in who gets elected, making it difficult for others to enter the political arena and have an influence. (Corporate interest influencing foreign policy). See LBJ's cabinet.

Just War Theory

This theory seeks to justify certain wars in terms of specific moral, philosophical, and religious criteria. There is a distinction between Jus ad bellum (rules dictating under what moral conditions a state could go to war) and Jus in bello (how a state should act once already engaging in a war). The Iraq War (2003-2011), in particular, has been criticized as moving away from the Just War Theory, because the U.S. is seen as an aggressor -- not having appropriate justifications for going to war, defying jus ad bellum. On the other hand, during the Gulf War (1990-1), the US is seen as having appropriate justifications for going to war (Jus ad bellum: liberating Kuwait from an aggressive Iraq.)

Allison's Three Models

Three models of decision-making that Allison explained in his 1971 book re: Cuban Missile Crisis. Each could work, depending on how one analyzes the situation. Allison wanted to make the point that MAD was not actually a sufficient guarantor of the impossibility of nuclear war. Explains that using rational actor models is dangerous, because sometimes people do things for irrational reasons. The Cuban Missile Crisis case-study asked three questions which differentiated the models: 1. Why did the Soviet Union decide to place offensive missiles in Cuba? 2. Why did the United States respond to the missile deployment with a blockade? 3. Why did the Soviet Union withdraw the missiles? The 3 models are: Rational Actor Model: Governments are the main decision makers and will take into account all options and choose the best one. Ex) The U.S.S.R placed missiles in Cuba to bridge the "missile gap" which existed between itself and the United States. Kennedy chose to blockade Cuba only after reviewing several options, including invasion, because it wouldn't escalate into war. The Soviets then had to back down to avoid the risk of nuclear war. This marked a shift in US foreign policy in the Cold War. Organizational Process Model: Government leaders don't look at the problem as a whole rather they delegate different responsibilities to different government departments . These departments/organizations will make the best decision for their assigned piece of the problem. Ex) The U.S.S.R assigned responsibility of setting up a foreign military base to existing departments as they had never done this before and as such mistakes were made which tipped-off the U.S. Kennedy chose to blockade Cuba instead of responding with force because unlike the U.S. Air Force, the U.S. Navy was able to provide a non-lethal option. The Soviets had no organized back-up plan and so had to back down. Governmental Politics Model: Government decisions are a result of negotiations between different political factions and interests. In order to maintain power, the President must gain approval and consensus among competing interests. In short, politics affect government decision-making because the President wants to maintain power/approval post-problem Ex) Khrushchev felt his power base was being threatened by the military and so used this aggressive move to pacify his military generals and reassert control. Kennedy responded so forcefully in order to stem criticism from Republicans who were making Cuba a policy priority after the Bay of Pigs incident. Khrushchev agreed to remove nukes after getting Kennedy to publicly promise that he would never invade Cuba. Whereas in the organizational process model outcomes are the OUTPUT of standard operating procedures, in the governmental or bureaucratic politics model, they are the outcome of bargaining among different interest groups within government. Relation to FP: Discuss

National Security Act of 1947

Truman. Established the National Security Council, reorganized/combined the armed forces under the NME (later DoD) controlled by the SoD and combining the Dept. of War and Dept. of the Navy, and set up the CIA and the intelligence agency structure (the 1st peacetime intelligence agency in USA). Gave much more power to DoD than to DoS. Partly a reflection of Truman's desire to make some kind of big, splashy policy after FDR. May have led to overmilitarization of policy (aka use the military to solve all of our problems).

UN, General Assembly, Security Council

UN: An IGO founded in 1945 after WWII to replace the League of Nations. Its aims include: to facilitate cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and world peace. The UN has 6 bodies: the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Secretariat, the International Court of Justice, and the United Nations Trusteeship Council (currently inactive). UN General Assembly: The policymaking branch of the United Nations, headed by the UN Secretary General. All member states have one representative and one vote. General Assembly must reach a 2/3 majority vote of all countries present and participating. Most resolutions are not binding and cannot be enforced (if need be binding, can be sent to UN Security Council). Its responsibilities are: 1. debate all issues 2. decide whether new states should be admitted 3. elect states to other positions within the UN Why you should care: it does matter because it's the largest institutional body in the world and it gives states an equal voice. But it does not really achieve much because resolutions are typically nonbinding. UN Security Council: Promotes and maintains global peace; only entity that can authorize force. US, UK, China, France, Russia are permanent; 10 others serve 2-year terms. Can only act unanimously... veto powers.

Containment

US policy to prevent spread of USSR ideology: communism. Contain communism in the USSR. Started with Kennan's "long telegram" from Riga and his X-Article, published with Forestal in 1946. Most associated with Truman, Eisenhower. LBJ also used it, as did Carter in later years. Truman Doctrine—support free people who are resisting subjugation by armed minorities or outside pressures everywhere. Alternatives were isolationism, détente (FDR), and rollback (aggressive military action). Kennan wanted more of a Marshall Plan approach; Truman bought into it very enthusiastically and created NATO etc. USFP Significance: Relates/explains to our involvement in Latin America, Nam, Korea, Afghanistan, etc.

Iran-Contra Affair

US political scandal under the Reagan administration (1985-87). Senior administration officials secretly facilitated the sale of arms to Iran via Israel. The funds from the arm sales would be channeled to the Contras. Not in U.S. hands after weapons got to Israel. Officials hoped that the arms sales would allow US intelligence agencies to fund the anti-communist Contras in their fight against the communist Sandinistas in Nicaragua (since funding by the US government itself had been prohibited by Congress). It deteriorated into an arms-for-hostages scheme, where the US directly sold weapons to Iran in exchange for the release of 7 American hostages (Iranian Hostage Crisis) being held by an Iranian group connected to the Army of the Guardians of the Islamic Revolution. The funds received were diverted to the Contra group.

Foreign aid, USAID and Millennium Challenge Corporation

USAID is the United States Agency for International Development and was created under JFK in the Foreign Assistance Act in 1961. It worked to establish long-term aid goals such as promoting economic prosperity, strengthen democracy, protecting human rights and preventing conflicts. 1% of annual federal budget goes to foreign aid. US foreign aid came in the forms of bilateral development assistance, economic aid to support security interests, humanitarian assistance, multilateral assistance, and military and civilian security assistance. The Millennium Challenge Corporation is an agency established in 2004 by Bush II. It is a non-political mechanism that revised the U.S. foreign aid process to include more accountability. It focuses on aid solutions and implementation led by the receiving country.

Unilateralism/Multilateralism

Unilateralism: one-sided action or decision made by one state, usually the most powerful, without much consultation with other states. After WWII and especially after the Cold War, the US has risen as a dominant political and economic power in the world, leading to many of its unilateral actions, such as the Bush administration's decisions to withdraw from the Kyoto Protocol or to invade Iraq in 2003 without UN approval. Multilateralism action or decision-making process in foreign policy based on agreements and cooperations between multiple countries. The challenge to multilateralism is that it is a complicated process to reach consensus through discussions among different parties. Example of this is countries working together in international organizations such as the UN or WTO to promote international institution and the economic cooperation, or regional military pacts such as NATO.

Asymmetrical Warfare

War between states/actors whose relative power differs significantly. Often involves unconventional warfare; can refer to guerilla tactics, insurgencies, terrorism, etc. The victory of the "weak" over the strong may be explained by strategic interaction, willingness of the weak to bear higher costs, external support of weak actors, reluctance to escalate policies on the part of strong actors, internal group dynamics, and inflated goals for the strong actor in the war. Since 1950 weak actors have won a majority of asymmetric conflicts. Examples include the Boer War, the Winter War, Israel/Palestine, the Sri Lankan Civil War, Iraq, and Syria. US relevance: we face many new threats. Related to Iraq, Afghanistan, general threat of terrorism. Creating counterterrorism strategies.

Wars of Choice, Wars of Necessity

War of choice: Vital nat'l interests are not at stake. Fought for reasons of principle, ideology, geopolitics, or humanitarianism. E.g. Vietnam and Kosovo, first Iraq war. Wars of Necessity: Vital nat'l interests ARE at stake. Fought because the security and safety of the homeland are being threatened. E.g. WWII, War on Terror. Some argue the second Iraq war was one of choice, the most significant discretionary war undertaken by the United States since Vietnam. Haass argues that it was unwarranted, as the United States had other viable policy options. Significance: U.S. has fought both types of wars, wars of choice are harder to sell and usually decline in approval (Vietnam). U.S. policy makers need to evaluate how going to war corresponds to nat'l interest vs nat'l security.