U.S. History 1790 to 1898

Dred Scott Decision

- Abolitionist factions came together around the case of Dred Scott, using this case to test the country's laws regarding slavery. -Scott, a slave, had been taken by his owner from Missouri, which was a slave state. -He traveled to Illinois, a free state, then on to the Minnesota Territory, also free based on the Missouri Compromise. -After several years, he returned to Missouri, and his owner subsequently died. -Abolitionists took Scott's case to court stating that Scott was no longer a slave but free, since he lived in free territory. The case went to the Supreme court. -The Supreme Court stated that because Scott, as a slave, was not a U.S. citizen, his time in free states did not change his status. -He also did not have the right to sue. In addition, the Court determined that the Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional, stating that congress had overstepped its bounds by outlawing slavery in the territories.

Gadsden Purchase/ Post-War Treaty

- After the Mexican-American war, a second treaty in 1853 determined hundreds of miles of America's southwest borders. - In 1854, the Gadsden Purchase was finalized, providing even more territory to aid in the building of the transcontinental railroad. -The purchase added what would eventually become the southernmost regions of Arizona and New Mexico to the growing nation. -The modern outline of the U.S. was by this time nearly complete.

Native Americans at the end of the 19th Century

- America's westward expansion led to conflict and violent confrontations with Native Americans such as the Battle of Little Bighorn. -In 1876, the American government ordered all Indians to relocate to reservations. -Lack of compliance led to the Dawes Act in 1887, which ordered assimilation rather than separation. - Native Americans were offered American citizenship and a piece of their tribal land if they would accept the lot chosen by the government and live on it separately from the tribe. -This act remained in effect until 1934. Reformers also forced Indian children to attend Indian Boarding Schools, where they were not allowed to speak their native language and were immersed into a Euro-American culture and language. -Children were often abused in these schools and were indoctrinated to abandon their identity as Native Americans. -In 1890, the massacre at Wounded Knee, accompanied by Geronimo's surrender, led the Native Americans to work to preserve their culture rather than fight for their lands.

Developments in Transportation

- As America expanded its borders, it also developed new technology to travel the rapidly growing country. -Roads and railroads traversed the nation, with the Transcontinental Railroad eventually allowing travel from one coast to the other. -Canals and steamboats simplified water travel and made shipping easier and less expensive. -The Erie Canal (1825) connected the Great Lakes to the Hudson River. -Other canals connected other major waterways, further facilitating transportation and the shipment of goods. -With growing numbers of settlers moving into the West, wagon trails developed, including the Oregon Trail, California Trail, and the Santa Fe Trail. -The most common vehicles seen along these westbound trails were covered wagons, also known as prairie schooners.

Leaders in Women's Rights Movement

- Began in the 1840s, with leaders including Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Sojourner Truth, Ernestine Rose, and Lucretia Mott. -In 1869, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony formed the National Woman Suffrage Association, fighting for women's right to vote. -In 1848, in Seneca Falls, the first women's rights convention was held, with about 300 attendees. -The two day Seneca Falls Convention discussed the rights of women to vote (suffrage) as well as equal treatment in careers, legal proceedings, etc. -The convention produced a "Declaration of Sentiments," which outlined a plan for women to attain the rights they deserved. -Frederick Douglass supported the women's rights movement, as well as the abolition movement. -In fact, women's rights and abolition movements often went hand in hand during this time.

Missouri Compromise/ Tension Between North and South

- By 1819, the U.S. had a weak balance between slave and free states, with 22 senators in Congress from each fraction. - However, Missouri was ready to join the union. -As a slave state, it would ti the balance in Congress. -To prevent this imbalance, the Missouri Compromise brought the northern part of Massachusetts into the union as Maine, establishing it as a free state to balance the admission of Missouri as a slave state. - In addition, the remaining portion of the Louisiana Purchase was to remain free north of latitude 36'30'. - Since cotton did not grow well this far north, this limitation was acceptable to congressmen representing the slave states. -However, the proposed Missouri constitution presented a problem, as it outlined immigration of free blacks into the state. -Another compromise was in order, this time proposed by Henry Clay. -According to this new compromise, Missouri would never pass a law that prevented anyone from entering the state. -Through this, Clay earned the title of the "Great Compromiser."

North and South Conflict

- Conflict centered around the issue of slavery, but other elements contributed. -Most farmers in the South worked small farms with little to no slave labor, but the huge plantations run by the South's rich depended on slaves to remain profitable. - The also became more dependent on cotton, with slave populations growing and a rapid increase in cotton production. - In the North, a more diverse agricultural economy and the growth of industry made slaves rarer. -The abolitionist movement grew steadily, with Harriet Beecher Stowe's, (Uncle Tom's Cabin) giving many an idea to rally around. -A collection of anti-slavery organizations formed, with many actively working to free slaves in the South, often bringing them to the northern states or Canada.

Industrial Activity Before and After 1800

- During the 18th century, goods were often manufactured in houses or small shops. -With increased technology allowing for the use of machines, factories began to develop. -In factories, a large volume of salable goods could be produced in a much shorter amount of time. -Many Americans, including increasing numbers of immigrants, found jobs in these factories, which were in constant need of labor. -Another major invention was the cotton gin, which significantly decreased the processing time of cotton and was a major factor in the rapid expansion of cotton production in the South.

Agriculture in the 19th Century

- During the mid 1800s, irrigation techniques improved significantly. -Advances occurred in cultivation and breeding, as well as fertilizer used and crop rotation. -In the Great Plains, also known as the Great American Desert, the dense soil was finally cultivated with steel plows. -In 1892, gasoline-powered tractors arrived, and they were widely used by 1900. -Other advancements in agricultures toolset included barbed wire fences, combines, silos, deep-water wells, and the cream separator.

1860 Election

- Four different parties, each with a different opinion on slavery. -1. John Breckinridge: representing the Southern Democrats, was pro-slavery but urged compromise to preserve the Union. -2. Abraham Lincoln: of the Republican Party, was anti-slavery. -3. Stephen Douglas: of the Northern Democrats, felt that the issue should be determined locally, on a state-by-state basis. -4. John Bell: of the Constitutional Union Party, focused primarily on keeping the Union intact. - In the end, Abraham Lincoln won both the popular and electoral election. -Southern states, who had sworn to secede from the Union if Lincoln was elected, did so, led by South Carolina. -Shortly thereafter, the Civil War began when Confederate shots were fired on Fort Sumter in Charleston.

Education in the Early 19th Century

- Horace Mann, among others, felt that schools could help children become better citizens, keep them away from crime, prevent poverty, and help American society become more unified. - His (Common School Journal) brought his ideas of the importance of education into the public consciousness and proposed his suggestions for an improved American education system. -Increased literacy led to increased awareness of current events, Western expansion, and other major developments of the time period. -Public interest and participation in the arts and literature also increased. -By the end of the 19th century, all children had access to a free public elementary education.

Labor Movements in the 1800s

- In 1751, a group of bakers held a protest in which they stopped baking bread. -This was technically the first American labor strike. -In the 1830s and 1840s, labor movements began -Boston's masons, carpenters, and stoneworkers protested the length of the workday, fighting to reduce it to ten hours. -In 1844, a group of women in the textile industry also fought to reduce their workday to 10 hours, forming the Lowell Female Labor Reform Association. -Many other protests occurred and organizations developed through this time period with the same goal in mind.

Monroe Doctrine

- In 1823, President Monroe delivered a message to Congress in which he introduced the Monroe Doctrine. -He stated that any attempts by European powers to establish new colonies on the North American continent would be considered interference in American politics. -The U.S. would stay out of European matters and expected Europe to offer America the same courtesy.

Transcontinental Railroad

- In 1869, the Union Pacific Railroad completed the first section of a planned transcontinental railroad. -This section went from Omaha, Nebraska to Sacramento, California. -90% of the workers were Chinese, working in very dangerous conditions for very low pay. -With the rise of the railroad, products were much more easily transported across the country. -While this was positive overall for industry throughout the country, it was often damaging to family farmers, who found themselves paying high shipping costs for smaller supply orders while larger companies received major discounts.

Limiting Immigration in the 19th Century

- In 1870, the Naturalization Act put limits on U.S. citizenship, allowing full citizenship only to whites and those of African descent. -The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 put limits on Chinese immigration. -The Immigration Act of 1882 taxed immigrants, charging 50 cents per person. -These funds helped pay administrative costs for regulating immigration. -Ellis Island opened in 1892 as a processing center for those arriving in New York. -The year 1921 saw the Emergency Quota Act passed, know as the Johnson Quota Act, which severely limited the number of immigrants allowed into the country.

Popular Sovereignty/ Compromise of 1850

- In addition to pro-slavery and anti-slavery, a third group rose, who felt that each individual state should decide whether to allow or permit slavery within its borders. -The idea that a state could make its own choices was referred to as popular sovereignty. -When California applied to join the union in 1849, the balance of congressional power was again threatened. -The Compromise of 1850 introduced a group of laws meant to bring an end to the conflict: 1. California's admittance as a free state. 2. The outlaw of the slave trade in Washington, DC. 3. An increase in efforts to capture escaped slaves. 4. The right of New Mexico and Utah territories to decide individually whether to allow slavery. -Despite these measures, debate raged each time a new state prepared to enter the union.

Goals of Reconstruction

- In the aftermath of the Civil War, the South was left in chaos. -From 1865 to 1877, government on all levels worked to help restore order to the South, ensure civil rights to free slaves, and bring the Confederate states back into the Union. -This became known as the Reconstruction period. -In 1866, Congress passed the Reconstruction Acts, placing former Confederate states under military rule and stating the grounds from readmission into the Union.

Development of Economic Trends

- In the northeast, economy mostly depended on manufacturing, industry, and industrial development. -This led to disagreements between rich business owners/ industrial leaders and poorer workers who supported their businesses. -The south continued to depend on agriculture, especially large scale farms or plantations worked mostly by slaves/ indentured servants. -In the West, new settlements began to develop and the land was largely wild. -Depended on agriculture and livestock. -Differences between regions led each to support different interests both politically and economically.

Whig, Democratic, and Republican Parties

- Jefferson was elected president in 1800 and again in 1804. -The Federalist Party began to decline and Hamilton died in a duel with Aaron Burr in 1804. By 1816, the Federalist Party had virtually disappeared. - New parties sprang up to take its place. After 1824 the Democratic-Republican Party suffered a split. -The Whigs rose up, backing John Quincy Adams and industrial growth -The new Democratic party formed in opposition of the Whigs, and their candidate, Andrew Jackson, was elected president in 1828. -By 1850s issues involving slavery led to the formation of the Republican Party, which was anti-slavery, while the Democratic Party, with a larger interest in the South, favored slavery. -This Republican/ Democrat division formed the basis of today's two-party system.

Harper's Ferry/ John Brown's Role

- John Brown, an abolitionist, had participated in several anti-slavery activities, including killing five pro-slavery men in retaliation, after the sacking of Lawrence, Kansas, an anti-slavery town. -He and other abolitionists also banded together to pool their funds and build a runaway slave colony. - In 1859, Brown seized a federal arsenal in Harper's Ferry, located in what is now West Virginia. -Brown intended to seize guns and ammunition and lead a slave rebellion. -Robert E. Lee captured Brown and 21 followers, who were subsequently tried and hanged. -While Northerners took the executions as an indication that the government supported slavery, southerners believed most of the North supported Brown and were in general, anti-slavery.

Second Great Awakening

- Led by Protestant evangelical leaders, the Second Great Awakening occurred between 1800 and 1830. -Several missionary groups grew out of the movement, including the American Home Missionary Society, which formed in 1826. - The ideas behind the Second Great Awakening focused on personal responsibility, both as an individual and in response to injustice and suffering. -The American Bible Society and the American Tract Society provided literature, while various traveling preachers spread the word. -New denominations arose, including the Latter-Day Saints and Seventh-day Adventists -Another movement associated with the Second Great Awakening was the temperance movement, focused on ending the production and use of alcohol. -A major organization behind this was the Society for the Promotion of Temperance.

Growth of Labor Movement in 19th Century

- One of the first large, well-organized strikes occurred in 1892, Called the Homestead Strike. -It occurred when the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers struck against the Carnegie Steel Company. -Gunfire ensued, and Carnegie was able to eliminate the plant's union. -In 1894, workers in the American Railway Union, led by Eugene Debs, initiated the Pullman Strike after the Pullman Palace Car Co. cut their wages by 28 percent. -President Grover Cleveland called in troops to break up the strike on the grounds this it interfered with mail delivery. -Mary Harris "Mother" Jones organized the Children's Crusade to protest child labor. -A protest march proceeded to the home of President Theodore Roosevelt in 1903. -Jones also worked with the United Mine Workers of America and helped found the Industrial Workers of the World.

Radical and Moderate Republicans

- Radical Republicans wished to treat the South quite harshly after the war. -Thaddeus Stevens, the House Leader, suggested that the Confederate states be treated as if they were territories again, with ten years of military rule and territorial government before they would be readmitted. -He also wanted to give all black men the right to vote. -Former Confederate soldiers would be required to swear they had never supported the Confederacy in order to be granted full rights as American citizens. -In contrast, the moderate Republicans wanted only black men who were literate or who had served as Union troops to be able to vote. -All Confederate soldiers except troop leaders would also be able to vote. -Before his death, Lincoln had favored a more moderate approach to Reconstruction, hoping this approach might bring some states back into the Union before the end of the war.

Pre Spanish-American War

- Spain had controlled Cuba since the 15th century. -Over centuries, the Spanish had quashed a variety of revolts. In 1886, slavery ended in Cuba, and another revolt was rising. -In the meantime, the US had expressed interest in Cuba, offering Spain $130 Million for the island in 1853, during Franklin Pierce's presidency. -In 1889, the Cuban revolt was underway. In spite of various factions supporting the Cubans, the US President, William McKinley, refused to recognize the rebellion, preferring negotiation over involvement in war. -Then, the Maine, a US battleship in Havana Harbor, was blown up, killing 266 crew members. -The US declared war two months later, and the war ended with a Spanish surrender in less than four months.

Mexican-American War

- Spain held colonial interests in America since the 1540s, earlier even than Great Britain. -In 1810, Mexico revolted against Spain, becoming a free nation in 1821. -Texas followed suit, declaring its independence after an 1836 revolution. -In 1844, Democrats pressed President Tyler to annex Texas and in 1845, Texas became a state. -During Mexico's war for independence, they incurred $4.5 million in war debts to the U.S. -Polk offered to forgive the debts in return for New Mexico and Upper California, but Mexico refused. - In 1846, the war was declared in response to a Mexican attack on American troops along the southern border of Texas. -Wilmont Proviso: stated that slavery was prohibited in any territory the U.S. acquired from Mexico as a result of the Mexican-American War.

Influence of American System on American Economics

- The American System was spurred by trade conflict of the War of 1812 and supported by Henry Clay among others. -It set up tariffs to help protect American interests from competition with overseas products. -Reducing competition led to growth in employment and an overall increase in American industry. -The higher tariffs also provided funds for the government to pay for various improvements. -Congress passed high tariffs in 1816 and also charted a federal bank. -The second Bank of America was given the job of regulating America's money supply.

Black Code and the Civil Rights Bill

- The Black Codes were proposed to control freed slaves. - They would not be allowed to bear arms, assemble, serve on juries, or testify against whites. -Schools would be segregated, and unemployed blacks could be arrested and forced to work. -The Civil Rights Act countered these codes, providing much wider rights for freed slaves. Andrew Johnson, who became president after Lincoln's death, supported the Black Codes and vetoed the Civil Rights Act in 1865 and again in 1866. -The second time, Congress overrode his veto, and it became law. -Two years later, Congress voted to impeach Johnson, the culmination of tension between Congress and the president. -He was tried and came within a single vote of being convicted, but ultimately was acquitted and finished his term in office.

Improvement of Agriculture

- The Department of Agriculture came into being in 1862, working for the interests of farmers and ranchers across the country. -The Morrill Land-Grant Acts were a series of acts passed between 1862 and 1890, allowing land-grant colleges. -In conjunction with land-grant colleges, the Hatch Act of 1887 brought agriculture experiment stations into the picture, helping discover new farming techniques. -In 1914, the Smith-Lever Act provided cooperative programs to help educate people about food, home economics, community development, and agriculture. -Related agriculture extension programs helped farmers increase crop production to feed the rapidly growing nation.

Carpetbaggers/ Scalawags

- The chaos in the South attracted a number of people seeking to fill the power vacuums and take advantage of the economic disruption. - Scalawags were southern whites who aligned with freedmen to take over local governments. -Many in the South who could have filled political offices refused to take the necessary oath required to grant them the right to vote, leaving many opportunities for Scalawags and others. -Carpetbaggers were Northerners who traveled to the South for various reasons. -Some provided assistance, while others sought to make money or to acquire political power during this chaotic period.

France Selling the Louisiana Purchase

- With tensions still high between France and Britain, Napoleon was in need of money to support his continuing war efforts. -To secure necessary funds, he decided to sell the Louisiana Territory to the U.S. President Thomas Jefferson, who wanted to buy New Orleans. -Instead, Napoleon sold him the entire territory for the bargain of $15 million. -The Louisiana Territory was larger than all the rest of the United States put together, and eventually became 15 extra states. -Federalists were opposed to the purchase. They feared it would extend slavery and further growth would weaken the power of the northern states.

Kansas-Nebraska Act

- With the creation of the Kansas and Nebraska territories in 1854, another debate began. - Congress allowed popular sovereignty in these territories, but slavery opponents argued that the Missouri Compromise had already made slavery illegal in this region. -In Kansas, two separate governments arose, one pro-slavery and one anti-slavery. -Conflict between the two factions rose to violence, leading Kansas to gain the nickname of "Bleeding Kansas."

13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments

-1. 13th Amendment: ratified in 1865, prohibited slavery in the United States -2. 14th Amendment: overturned the Dred Scott decision and was ratified in 1868. American citizenship was redefined, a citizen was any person born or naturalized in the U.S, with all citizens guaranteed equal legal protection by all states. It also guaranteed citizens of any race the right to file a lawsuit or serve on a jury. -3. 15th Amendment: ratified in 1870, states that no citizen of the U.S. can be denied the right to vote based on race, color, or previous status as a slave.

Anti-Slavery Organizations

-1. American Colonization Society: Protestant churches formed this group, aimed at returning black slaves to Africa. Former slaves formed Liberia, but the colony did not do well, as the region was not well-suited for agriculture. -2. American Anti-Slavery Society: William Lloyd Garrison, a Quaker, was the major force behind this group and its newspaper, (The Liberator). -3. Philadelphia Female Anti-Slavery Society: this woman-only group was formed by Margaretta Forten because women were not allowed to join the Anti-Slavery Society formed by her father. -4. Anti-Slavery Convention of American Women: this group continued meeting even after pro-slavery factions burned down their original meeting place. -5. Female Vigilant Society: this organization raised funds to help the Underground Railroad, as well as slave refugees.

Marbury v. Madison

-Main duty of the Supreme Court today is judicial review which was largely established by Marbury v. Madison. -John Adams worked to appoint Federalist judges to the Supreme court in his final days in office knowing Jefferson opposed his views. -The day before Jefferson was to take office, Adams made last minute appointments known as "Midnight Judges." -One of the late appointments was William Marbury. -The next day Jefferson ordered his Secretary of State, James Madison not to deliver Marbury's commission. -Chief Justice Marshall, determined that the Judiciary Act of 1789, which granted power to deliver commissions, was illegal in that it gave the Judicial Branch powers not granted in the Constitution. -This case set precedent for the Supreme Court to nullify laws it found to be unconstitutional.

Events of the Civil War

-1. Battle of Bull Run: first major land battle of the war. Observers set up picnics to enjoy the entertainment but ended up watching a bloodbath. Union forces were defeated, and the battle set the course of the Civil War as long, bloody, and costly. -2. Capture of Fort Henry: by Ulysses S. Grant, this battle in 1862 marked the Union's first major victory. -3. Battle of Gettysburg: in 1863, often seen as the turning point of the war. Saw the largest number of casualties of the war, with over 50,000 dead, wounded, or missing. Robert E. Lee was defeated, and the Confederate army, significantly crippled, withdrew. -4. Overland Campaign: 1864, Grant, now in command of all the Union armies, led this high casualty campaign that eventually positioned the Union for victory. -5. Shermans March to the Sea: William Tecumseh Sherman, in 1864, conquered Atlanta. He then continued to Savannah, destroying vast amounts of property as he went. -6. Following Lee's defeat at the Appomattox Courthouse, General Grant accepted Lee's surrender in the home of Wilmer McLean in Appomattox, Virginia in 1865.

Phases of Reconstruction

-1. Presidential Reconstruction: largely driven by President Andrew Johnson's policies, the presidential phase of Reconstruction was lenient on the South and allowed continued discrimination against and control over blacks. -2. Congressional Reconstruction: Congress, controlled largely by Radical Republicans, took a different stance, providing a wider range of civil rights for blacks and greater control over Southern government. Marked by military control of the former Confederate States. -3. Redemption: gradually, the Confederate states were readmitted into the Union. During this time, white Democrats took over the government of most of the South. In 1877, President Rutherford Hayes withdrew the last federal troops from the South.

Treaty of Paris, Native Americans

-After the Revolutionary War, the Treaty of Paris outlined the terms of surrender of the British to the Americans. -It also granted large parcels of land to the U.S. that were occupied by Native Americans. -The new government tried to claim the land, treating the natives as a conquered people, this was proved unenforceable. -Next, the gov. tried purchasing the land from the Indians via a series of treaties as the country expanded westward. -The treaties were not honored, and Native Americans were simply dislocated and forced to move farther and farther west, often with military action.

Inventors from the 1800s

-Alexander Graham Bell.......Telephone -Orville and Wilbur Wright........Airplane -Richard Gatling...............Machine Gun -Walter Hunt, Elias Howe, and Issac Singer................Sewing machine -Nikola Tesla..............Alternating current motor -George Eastman..............Kodak camera -Thomas Edison.............light bulbs, motion pictures, the phonograph -Samuel Morse............Telegraph -Charles Goodyear..........vulcanized rubber -Cyrus McCormick............the reaper -George Westinghouse........Transformer, Air Brake

Panic of 1893

-Far from a US-centric event, the Panic of 1893 was an economic crisis that affected most of the globe. -As a response, President Grover Cleveland repealed the Sherman Silver Purchase Act, afraid it had caused the downturn rather than boosting the economy as intended. -The Panic led to bankruptcies, with banks and railroads going under and factory unemployment rising as high as 25%. -In the end, the Republican Party regained power due to the economic crisis.

Progressive Era

-From the 1890s to the end of the First World War, Progressives set forth an ideology that drove many levels of society and politics. -Progressives were in favor of workers' rights and safety and wanted measures taken against waste and corruption. -They felt science could help improve society and that the government could and should provide answers to a variety of social problems. -Progressives came from a wide variety of backgrounds but were united in their desire to improve society.

Effects of Manifest Destiny

-In the 1800s, many believed America was destined by God to expand west, bringing as much of North American continent as possible under the umbrella of the U.S. government. -With the Northwest Ordinance (government for Northwest Territory, new states would be created equal) and the Louisiana Purchase, over half of the continent became American. -Rapid expansion created conflict with Native Americans, Great Britain, Mexico, and Spain. -One result of Manifest Destiny was the Mexican-American War from 1846 to 1848. -By the end of the war, Texas, California, and a large portion of what is now the American Southwest joined the growing nation. -Conflict also arose over the Oregon Territory, shared by the U.S. and Britain. -In 1846, President James Polk resolved this problem by compromising with Britain, establishing a U.S. boundary south of the 49th parallel.

Jacksonian Democracy vs. Preceding Political Climate

-Jacksonian Democracy is largely seen as a shift from politics favoring the wealthy to politics favoring the common man. -The right to vote was given to all free white males, not just property owners. - Jackson's approach favored the patronage system, laissez-faire economics, and relocation of the Indian tribes from the Southeast portion of the country. -Jackson opposed the formation of a federal bank and allowed the Second Bank of the U.S. to collapse by vetoing a bill to renew the charter. -Jackson also faced the challenge of the Nullification Crisis when South Carolina claimed that it could ignore or nullify any federal law it considered unconstitutional. - Jackson sent troops to the state to enforce the protested tariff laws, and a compromise engineered by Henry Clay in 1833 settled the matter for the time being.

Factors Leading to Populist Party

-Major recession struck the U.S. during the 1890s, with crop prices falling dramatically. -Drought compounded the problems, leaving many American farmers in crippling debt. -The Farmers' Alliance formed in 1875, drawing the rural poor into a single political entity. -Recession also affected the more industrial parts of the country. -The Knights of Labor, formed in 1869 by Uriah Stephens, was able to unite workers into a union to protect their rights. -Dissatisfied by views espoused by industrialists, the Farmers Alliance and the Knights of Labor, joined to form the Populist Party, aka the People's Party, in 1892. -Some elements of the Party were national currency, graduated income tax, government ownership of railroads as well as telegraph and telephone systems, secret ballots for voting, immigration restriction, and single-term limits for president and vice president. -Populist Party was in favor of decreasing elitism and making the voice of the common man more easily heard in the political process.

Political Parties in Early U.S. Gov.

-Many were against political parties after seeing how they functioned in Britain. -The parties in Britain were more interested in personal profit than overall good of the country. -Differences of opinions between Jefferson and Hamilton led to the formation of political parties. -Hamilton favored a stronger central government, while Jefferson felt that more power should remain with the states. -Jefferson believed in a more strict Constitutional interpretation, while Hamilton believed in a more flexible approach. -Hamilton backers began to call themselves the Federalists, and Jefferson's supporters became the Democratic-Republicans.

Muckrakers and Progressive Movement

-Muckrakers was a term to identify aggressive investigative journalists who exposed scandals, corruption, and many other wrongs in the late 19th century. -1. Ida Tarbell: she exposed John D. Rockefeller's Standard Oil Trust. -2. Jacob Riis: a photographer, brought the living conditions of the poor in New York to the public's attention. -3. Lincoln Steffens: worked to expose political corruption in municipal government. -4. Upton Sinclair: his book (The Jungle) led to reforms in the meat-packing industry. - Through the work of these journalists, many new policies came into being, including workmen's compensation, child labor laws, and trust-busting.

North v. South in Civil War

-Northern states had significant advantages including: -1. Larger populations: the North consisted of 24 states, while the South had 11. -2. Better transportation and finances: with railroads primarily in the North, supply chains were much more dependable, as was overseas trade. -3. Raw materials: the North held the majority of America's gold, as well as iron, copper, and other minerals vital to wartime. The South's advantages included the following: -1. Better-trained military officers: many of the Southern officers were West point trained and had commanded in the Mexican and Indian wars. -2. Familiarity with weapons: the climate and lifestyle of the South meant most of the people were experienced with both guns and horses. The industrial North had less extensive experience. -3. Defensive Position: the South felt that victory was guaranteed, since they were protecting their own lands while the North would be invading. -4. Well-defined goals: the South fought an ideological war to be allowed to govern themselves and preserve their way of life. The North originally fought to preserve the Union and later to free the slaves.

Lincoln's Assassination

-The Civil War ended with the surrender of the South in 1865. -Five days later, Lincoln and his wife went to the play (Our American Cousin) at the Ford Theater. -John Wilkes Booth, who did not know that the war was over, did his part in a plot to help the Confederacy by shooting Lincoln. -He was carried from the theater to a nearby house, where he died the next morning. -Booth was tracked down and killed by Union soldiers twelve days later.

Native Americans in Beginning of 20th Century

-The Spanish-American War (1898) saw a number of Native Americans serving with Teddy Roosevelt in the Rough Riders. -Apache scouts accompanied General John J. Pershing to Mexico, hoping to find Pancho Villa. -More than 17,000 Native Americans were drafted into service for World War I, though at the time, they were not considered legal citizens. -In 1924, Indians were finally granted official citizenship by the Indian Citizenship Act. -After decades of relocation, forced assimilation, and genocide, the number of Native Americans in the US has greatly declined. -Though many Native Americans have chosen or have been forced to assimilate, about 300 reservations exist today, with most of their inhabitants living in abject poverty.

Lewis and Clark Expedition

-The purchase of the Louisiana Territory from France in 1803 more than doubled the size of the U.S. -Jefferson wanted to have the area mapped and explored, since much of the territory was wilderness. -He chose Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to head an expedition into the Louisiana Territory. -After two years, Lewis and Clark returned, having traveled all the way to the Pacific Ocean. -They brought maps, detailed journals, and a multitude of information about the wide expanse of land they had traversed.

Gilded Age

-Time period from the end of the Civil War to the beginning of the First World War is often referred as the Gilded Age, or the Second Industrial Revolution. -The U.S. was changing from an agricultural based economy to an industrial economy, with rapid growth accompanying the shift. -In addition, the country itself was expanding, spreading into the seemingly unlimited west. -This time period saw the beginning of banks, department stores, chain stores, and trusts - all familiar features of the modern-day. -Cities also grew rapidly, and large numbers of immigrants arrived in the country, swelling the urban ranks.

Military Events of the War of 1812

-Two major naval battles at Lake Erie and Lake Champlain kept British from invading the U.S. via Canada. -British invaded Washington DC and burned the White House in 1814. -The Treaty of Ghent officially ended the war. -However, Andrew Jackson was unaware the war had ended and managed another victory at New Orleans in 1815. -This victory improved American morale and led to a new wave of national pride and support known as the Era of Good Feelings.

McCulloch v. Maryland

-When Congress chartered the Second Bank of the U.S., Maryland voted to tax any bank business dealing with banks outside of the state, including the federally chartered bank. -Andrew McCulloch, an employee of the Second Bank in Baltimore, refused to pay the tax. The lawsuit from Maryland went to the Supreme Court. -Chief Justice, John Marshall, stated that congress was within its rights to charter another national bank, and Maryland did not have the power to levy a tax on the federal bank or federal gov. in general. -In cases where state and federal gov. collided, precedent was set for the federal gov. to prevail.

Alien and Sedition Acts

-When John Adams was president, a war was raging between Britian and France. -John Adams and Federalists supported the British, Thomas Jefferson and the Republicans supported the French. -U.S. almost went to war with France at this time, as France was working to spread its international standing and influence under leadership of Napoleon Bonaparte. -Alien and Sedition Acts made it illegal to speak in a hostile fashion against the existing government. -They also allowed the president to deport anyone who was not a citizen and suspected of treason or treasonous activity. -When Jefferson became the third president, he repealed these laws and pardoned anyone who had been convicted under them.

No Entangling Alliances

-both George Washington and Thomas Jefferson were opposed to forming any permanent alliances with other countries or becoming involved in other countries' internal issues.

Isolationism

-early U.S. government did not intend to establish colonies, though they did plan to grow larger within the bounds of North America.

Freedmen's Bureau

-formed to help freedmen both with basic necessities like food and clothing and also with employment and finding of family members who had been separated during the war. -Many in the South felt the Freedmen's Bureau worked to set freed slaves against their former owners. -The Bureau was intended to help former slaves become self-sufficient, and to keep them from falling prey to those who would take advantage of them. -It eventually closed due to lack of funding and to violence from the Ku Klux Klan.

Indian Removal Act of 1830

-gave the new American government power to form treaties with Native Americans. -In theory, America would claim land east of the Mississippi in exchange for land west of the Mississippi, to which natives would relocate voluntarily. -Many tribal leaders were forced into signing the treaties, and relocation at times occurred by force. -The Treaty of New Echota in 1835 was supposedly a treaty between the US government and Cherokee tribes in Georgia. -The treaty was not signed by tribal leaders but rather by a portion of the represented people. -Leaders protested and refused to leave, but President Martin Van Buren enforced the treaty by sending soldiers. -During their forced relocation, more than 4,000 Cherokee Indians died on what became known as the Trail of Tears.

Cause and Result of the War of 1812

-grew out of continuing tension between France and Great Britain. -Napoleon continued striving to conquer Britain, while U.S. continued trade with both countries but favored France. -Britain saw an alliance between the U.S. and France and became determined to end trade between the two nations. -With the nations preventing trade, James Madison's presidency introduced acts to regulate international trade. -If Britain or France removed their restrictions, America would not trade with other countries. -Napoleon acted first and Madison prohibited trade with England. Britain saw this as U.S. formally siding with France and war ensued in 1812. -War of 1812 has also been called the Second American Revolution. It established superiority of U.S. naval forces and reestablished U.S. independence from Britain and Europe. -Britain saw the U.S. as helping France's war efforts by providing supplies and goods. Second, the U.S. had taken trade and money away from British ships and tradesmen. -In an attempt to end the U.S. and France from trading, they put the Orders in Council into effect which made any and all French owned ports off-limits to American ships. They also began to seize American ships and conscript their crews.

Emancipation Proclamation

-issued by President Lincoln on January 1, 1863, freed all slaves in Confederate states that were still in rebellion against the Union. -While the original proclamation did not free any slaves in states actually under Union control, it did set a precedent for the emancipation of slaves as the war progressed. -worked in the Union's favor, as many freed slaves and other black troops joined the Union Army. -Almost 200,000 blacks fought in the Union army, and over 10,000 served in the navy. -By the end of the war, over 4 million slaves had been freed, and in 1865 slavery was abolished in the 13th amendment to the Constitution.

Nationalism

-positive patriotic feeling about the United States blossomed quickly among citizens, particularly after the War of 1812, when the U.S. defeated Britain again.. -Industrial Revolution also sparked increased nationalism by allowing even most far-flung areas of the U.S. to communicate with each other via telegraph and the expanding railroad.