vce english language formal language
Uses of nominalisation (4):
- shifts focus to *action* rather than actor - higher degree of abstraction + technicality - introduce technical terms - can simplify but may obfuscate if overly used (lexically dense)
Features of jargon (3):
- subject-verb inversion (postponing player's name until known for sure) - present tense for dramatic force + lively sequence rather than for strictly present time - ellipsis for certain registers, e.g. when commentating: avoid supplying a lot of additional main verbs, subjects
Lexical markers of jargon (2):
- vocabulary specialised for use in a particular domain - idioms and abbreviations [eg. NP = Noun Phrase (linguistics)]
Referencing basic functions of clause structure, how can legal language obfuscate? (1)
- when adverbials in a cleft structure separate the dummy and the delayed subjects, the relationship between them can be difficult to understand
Modal verbs expressing Logical possibility (strongest to weakest) (7):
- will - would - should - may - can / could / might
Slang
-
Clause(s) in a *simple sentence*?
- 1 independent clause
Legal language often contains very little punctuation. Why? Give an example. (2)
- can cause ambiguity (think: oxford comma) - commas omitted in lists + parenthetical clauses
Features of information flow (11):
- clefting, - front focus and end focus, - anaphoric and cataphoric reference, - deictics, - repetition, - synonymy, antonymy and hyponymy, - collocation, - ellipses, - substitution, - conjunctions, - adverbials.
Why jargon must be retained (2):
- connotation of the message changes - censoring jargon =>> communicatively inefficient
Reasons to use PC language:
- derogatory / unfavourable denotation / connotation within language expressions will dominate the interpretation of immediate context - speakers won't risk using a taboo term when no offense intended - respectful; history changing social mores - ensures a balanced and fair representation of what is being discussed
Uses of Agentless Passive (5):
- don't know who performed the action - divert responsibility (avoid mentioning who did the action) - to sound objective / avoid using "I" / to generalise - context is obvious; no need to mention agent - report an event succinctly (newspapers)
Syntactic markers of jargon (5):
- imperatives in recipes and knitting patterns - lots of impersonal passives in reports of scientific experiments - full noun phrases instead of pronouns in legal documents - long, grammatically-complex sentences - nominalisations
Modals expressing permission (strongest to weakest) (3):
- may - can (not technically but very common) - could (not technically but common enough)
Syntactic patterning (3)
- parallelism - antithesis - listing
Presentational markers of jargon (3):
- prosodic, paralinguistic and kinesic (gaze, gesture,) conventions within a spoken medium - format of the text - typographical conventions in a written medium
Referencing a social purpose, how does nominalisation detract from coherence? (4)
SP: OBFUSCATES - *abstractions* named - complex *noun groups* - *relating verbs* (contains, are, involved) - *actor removal*
How does legal language achieve *coherence*? (6)
*CONSISTENT VIEWPOINT THROUGH FORMATTING* - capitalisation - underlining - different print styles - numbered lists - paragraphs
Uses of Ellipses (3):
*ECONOMY OF EXPRESSION* - avoid repeating identical / equivalent items to reduce lexical density (occurs in parallel clauses, generally formal) - obvious through surrounding contextual factors (complement omitted, generally informal)
True or False: Generally, post-modifiers draw more emphasis to its noun than pre-modifiers
*FALSE FALSE FALSE* NEVER GET THIS WRONG
What is the information flow of standard English and why is it so? (3)
*PRINCIPLE OF END-WEIGHT* - given info has lower communicative value so comes before new info - new info more important, so is subject to *end-focus*-- delays mention of subject
Uses of co-ordination and sub-ordination (3): *NOTE* relative clauses are NOT part of the independent clause
- *BASIC EFFICIENCY OF LANGUAGE*, elements recycled to make more *COMPLEX units* - Co-ordination: *equal* attention; *FANBOYS* - Sub-ordination: *less attention to one clause* so the other (independent clause) has emphasis
Clause(s) in a *complex sentence*?
- 1 independent clause - 1 or more dependent clauses
General features of formal language TEND to be (5):
- less ambiguous - more cohesive - edited, drafted and revised (written) - rehearsed (spoken) - more likely to make context specific
Situational factors affecting use of jargon (4):
- relationship between speaker and audience - setting - mode - subject matter / field
Syntactic features (6):
- *PHRASES, CLAUSES* and *SENTENCES* - *SENTENCE STRUCTURES*: sentence fragments; simple, compound, complex and compound-complex sentences; ellipses; nominalisation; and coordination and subordination - *SENTENCE TYPES* and their communicative function in texts: declarative, imperative, interrogative, exclamative - basic functions in *CLAUSE STRUCTURE*: subject, object, complement, adverbial - active and passive *VOICE*, including agentless passives - *SYNTACTIC PATTERNING* in texts: antithesis, listing, parallelism
How does information flow contribute to coherence? (2)
- *topic before comment* - new info becomes old, etc. : pattern of chaining effect makes it cohesive ==>> coherent
Clause(s) in a *compound sentence*?
- 2 or more independent clauses
Clause(s) in a *compound-complex sentence*?
- 2 or more independent clauses - 1 or more dependent clauses
What is front-focus + types and what are their effects? (3)
- INITIAL position for more FOCUS - e.g. *passive* (end-focus on agent), *there-cleft and it-cleft* (end-focus on delayed subject), *fronting* (true front-focus on adverbial) - greater prominence on what would normally come last-- gains attention
Main functions of modal verbs (4):
- Logical possibility - Ability - Necessity - Permission
Morphological markers of jargon:
- agent suffix '-er' with patient suffix '-ee'
Examples of politeness (5):
- appropriate terms of address - appropriate speech according to your social relationship with them - appropriate degree of formality - understanding the conventions of a situation - understanding the convention of turn taking
Modal verbs expressing *permission* (strongest to weakest)(3):
- can - could - may
Discriminatory language:
- creates or reinforces a hierarchy of difference between people - normally in the provision of irrelevant info that draws attention to physical characteristics
Formal Social Purposes (6):
- meet / challenge + / - face needs - reinforce social distance + authority - reinforce / establish expertise - promote social harmony + negotiate social taboos (euphemism, non-discriminatory language, political correctness) - clarify, manipulate and obfuscate - build rapport
Modal verbs expressing Necessity (strongest to weakest) (4):
- must - shall (future tense) - ought (moral obligation, quite infrequent) - should
Taboo language (2):
- deals with topics and behaviour which are viewed as negative in a given culture - potentially offensive terms / expressions, including expletives, blasphemy, bodily functions and abuse of minorities
Legal language is often consistent and precise, using unambiguous language to avoid creating loopholes. Nothing is left implicit; it tends to clarify. What *salient* features supports this purpose? (5)
- doublets (e.g. the site and receptacle) - retaining traditional lexis and syntax - complex grammatical structures - technical lexis - archaic expressions - limited punctuation
Lexical features of jargon (4):
- esoteric, cabalistic, sibylline vocabulary (obscure, secret) - multiple embeddings (between a subject and predicate) - multiple negatives - avoiding pronouns to ensure clear unambiguous identification
Uses of Passive Voice when agent is known (4):
- establish authority on a subject - elevate register - increase social distance (impersonal / authoritative tone) - keep focus on same subject through several sentences
Uses of antithesis (2.5):
- expresses existence of semantic relationship of antonymy between sentence elements - strengthens argument by using exact opposites / contrasting ideas ==>> more memorable through balance and emphasis of the words.
Function of jargon (8):
- inclusive and exclusive; the 'in-group' is created between members as they know what the other is talking about - general population does not always understand the jargon (informal: slang) - groups needs it to converse and write in detail about their interests or subject area - gives doctors a language to talk about a serious topic without causing disquiet to their patient (face needs, euphemistic) - includes eponyms (e.g. diseases); may be euphemistic - adds legitimacy and credibility (overt norms and prestige) - social expectation (competence in a particular field) - provides brevity by explaining something more simply (within in-group)
How does legal language's *manner* contribute to the formal *register*? (4)
- no contractions for auxiliary verbs - retains archaic features (traditional language) - formulaic utterances ==>> ceremonial tone - intended audience:: legal experts
Why is there resistance to PC language? (5)
- politically-driven, so attracts more attention than other types of linguistic censoring - assumption that it reflects and seeks to enforce social change - taken as a way to manipulate thinking + often driven by media - steals away from language-- what takes it place? - who gets to decides what's okay / not okay to say? who holds cultural authority on how cultural sensitivities change?
Uses of parallelism (4):
- repetition of a series of grammatical structures that underline the text's semantic structure - can emphasise similarities / differences between each grammatical sequence in overall construction - succeeding clauses likely to be more easily-processed if parallel to the first - aesthetic + emphasises and extends topic of sentence
Political correctness (2):
- words and phrases that encourage tolerant / accepting attitudes of life experiences, formerly considered less acceptable
What are adverbials + what types are there? (4)
describe the verb phrase - manner (how) - place (where) - time (how often) - probability (certainty)
