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Tell me about a complicated man. Muse, tell me how he wandered and was lost when he had wrecked the holy town of Troy,and where he went, and who he met, the pain he suffered on the sea, and how he worked To save his life and bring his men back home. He failed, and for their own mistakes, they died. They ate the Sun God's cattle, and the god kept them from home. Now goddess, child of Zeus, Tell the old story for our modern times. Find the beginning.

These are the first lines of Homer's Epic: The Odyssey. They are found at the beginning of the novel and represent the invocation of the Muse. The lines also serve to set up the story, or the idea of plot that Aristotle refers to, as the lines refer to the action that will take place: Odysseus' quest to get home. The quote also highlights another aspect of the genre of the Epic Poem that Aristotle discusses - the need to have a beginning, middle, and end. Furthermore, the notion of suffering is introduced as we are made to wonder if he will in fact complete is journey home.

"And he said, "My son shall not go down with you; for his brother is dead, and he is left alone: if mischief befall him by the way in which ye go ..." "Ye known that my wife bare me two sons: And the one went out from me, and I said, surely he is torn in pieces; and I saw him not since ..."

These passages are from the Bible Book of Genesis 42 where we see Jacob as very diminished in his old age. The idea that he has been largely abandoned and is discussing dying of grief after being abandoned by his two sons. This conveys the notion that a person chosen by God does not necessarily become more protected over the course of their life, but rather they become more individualized. Again we see the notion that domestic problems can be interweaved with the religious. Auerbach's idea that these ideas must be interpreted from the background given.

"All this is scrupulously externalized and narrated in leisurely fashion."

Auerbach, Mimesis, discussion of the Odyssey Book 19. Combine the quotes about suspense and the externalization of what is happening (very detailed).

"the finest kind of tragedy [...] should also be a representation of terrible and piteous events (that being the special mark of this type of imitation) [...]" "... Tragedy is an imitation of an action that is serious, complete, and possessing magnitude; ... and effecting through pity and fear [what we call] the catharsis of such emotions."

Aristotle poetics: discussion of the main aspects of tragedy. The idea that there should be representation of events that create a sense of catharsis. The idea that people find pleasure in the imitation of things they would usually be terrified of in real life -- not necessarily like imitation because they have not experienced it themselves. Seen in Oedipus, him gouging out his eyes after becoming aware of his true identity. This creates pity and gives the plot magnitude.

"Reversal (Peripety) is [...] a change from one state of affairs to its exact opposite." "Recognition [...] is a change from ignorance to knowledge, leading either to friendship or to hostility on the part of those persons who are marked for good fortune or bad." "The best form of recognition is that which is accompanied by a reversal [...]" "the principal means by which tragedy exerts its fascination are parts of the plot, that is to say reversals and recognitions." (p. 51).

Aristotle's poetics discussion of the 3 parts of the plot that should be present in tragedy. Reversal relating to a change in fortune, recognition to gaining knowledge from ignorance. Discusses how these pertain to the creation of a complete and serious plot that effectively presents an imitation of human action, stirring catharsis. Exemplified in Oedipus where we see things go from good to bad for Oedipus after his own recognition of his identity. He falls from a position of power as he learns the truth about where (or who) he came from.

"For tragedy is not an imitation of men but of actions and of life." (51)

Aristotle's poetics, discussion of the form of tragedy. The importance of action in tragedy, specifically human action, as through the imitation it seems as though something about human action in general is revealed. Aristotle claims that the action is the soul of the tragedy as through it a person's habit of moral choice can be revealed. Can be tied to theme of moral in Odysseus - the question of hospitality, glory over family. The notion that poetry can convey universals that other mediums like history cannot. Perhaps can even tie into the final action of life discussed in Plato's myth of er, the morality in choosing a new life.

"... Tragedy is an imitation of an action that is serious, complete, and possessing magnitude..." (p. 50) "Now a thing is a whole if it has a beginning, a middle, and an end."

Aristotle's poetics, discussion of the form of tragedy. The requirements of tragedy as noted by him: it must be serious (relating to catharsis - having an effect on the reader/audience), complete (beginning, middle, and end), and possess magnitude = not too long while still allowing for the transition from good to bad (or vice versa). Tie to the tragedy of Oedipus, how these things allow the story to have the effect it does, creating suspense while inspiring pity and telling a full story. The quest to find Laios' killer that transitions to a revelation of identity.

"... for the forms of those things that are distressful to see in reality - for example, the basest animals and corpses - we contemplate with pleasure when we find them represented with perfect realism in images. For this again the reason is that the experience of learning things is highly enjoyable [...]"

Aristotle's poetics, the discussion of imitation, specifically of anguish and terror in forms of rep. He specifically ties this to the idea that we derive pleasure from this because it enables us to learn about these things, or experience them through the imitation of their essence. This learning is enjoyable because it allows us to become better acquainted with things that usually we would avoid in reality. It won't necessarily seem like imitation if we have never seen it before. Seems to contrast Plato's theory that we cannot strive for knowledge through imitation, but rather it only caters to the appetites (pleasure). Relates to the idea of catharsis in tragedy.

"The Homeric Style knows only a foreground, only a uniformly illuminated, uniformly objective present."

Auerbach, Mimesis, discussion of the Odyssey Book 19. Combine the quotes about suspense and the externalization of what is happening (very detailed). No sense of a background that is left somewhat ambiguous, must be interpreted by the reader.

For the beginnings of poetry in general, there appear to have been two causes, both rooted in human nature." "Thus from childhood it is instinctive in human beings to imitate...""... and by instinct also all human beings take pleasure in imitations."

Aristotle's poetics: discussion of poetry. Here he is referring to the imitative nature of poetry that is also discussed by Plato in the Republic. The idea that it is like a painting with words, using words to represent the essential forms. He takes it a step further though, claiming that it is "instinctive" for humans to imitate and to take pleasure in such imitations. Unlike Plato he doesn't necessarily see this as a bad thing (relation to the three desires and catering to the weak part of the soul), but as something that is natural. Therefore the notion that it is natural for us to find pleasure in such forms of representation.

"...we shall refer to the two events as figure and fulfillment." "For the law was given by Moses, but grace and truth came by Jesus Christ."

Auerbach, Figura, Scenes, new and old testament. Can use the example of Jesus going against the law figured by Moses (no work on the Sabbath day) to heal the blind man. Though both events are historical, the law being valid in its time, Jesus' word fulfills this communication in a spiritual form. The law of the Old Testament is not needed when you have grace and truth, though the New Testament does need the mantel of truth provided by the Old Testament.

"Figura is something real and historical which announces something else that is real and historical." "the heavenly fulfillment is not complete, and consequently, as in certain earlier writers but more definitely in Augustine, the confrontation of two poles, figure and fulfillment ..."

Auerbach Figura, Scenes, discussing the connection between the figure and the fulfillment as it relates to the Bible (New Testament). He is referring to the idea that both the figure and the fulfillment have a basis in history. Connects to the idea that it is a fulfilment that exists in history and foretells the end of history (the idea that there is still fulfillment to come in the 'Last Judgement'). Also can be linked to the significance of the New Testament to Christianity, as it is supposed to be a fulfillment of what was figured in the Old Testament.

"...the aim of this sort of interpretation was to show that the persons and events of the Old Testament were prefigurations of the New Testament and its history of salvation." "For the law was given by Moses, but grace and truth came by Jesus Christ."

Auerbach's Figura - Scenes, discussion of the Old and New Testaments in the Bible. Connect to last quote and the idea of figure and fulfillment. This passage specifically refers to the idea of people acting as figure and fulfillment as well which can be seen in the figure of Moses and his fulfillment in Jesus. Moses is said to be leading the people from slavery to freedom, an act that is fulfilled in Jesus' action of freeing the people from their enslavement to sin through his own sacrifice. Both are leaders, Moses giving the people law through the 10 commandments and Jesus giving the people grace and truth. This notion of figure and fulfillment as it relates to religion can also be seen in other forms of rep. (second quote is from the biblical passage that illustrates this idea).

"the multilayeredness' [of individual characters in the Hebrew Bible] ... is hardly to be met with in Homer, or at most in the form of a conscious hesitation between two courses of action ..."

Auerbach's mimesis, discussion of the differences between the narrative styles of the Hebreic Epic vs the Homeric one. Can be exemplified through the characters of Abraham and Jacob. Jacob's trickiness for example. Idea that the Bible leaves more up to interpretation. We don't get as much insight into what the characters are doing, or what they are thinking.

Get out! You nasty creature, leave my island! Now! It is not right for me to help convey a man so deeply hated by the gods.You godforsaken thing, how dare you come here! Get out!

Book 10 of Homer's Odyssey. Guardians of the winds, Aeolus, gives Odysseus the bag of winds which has now been opened by his crew, sending him and his men back to his island. Upon their return Aeolus no longer follows the rules of hospitality. Idea of the favour of the gods, not wanting to help O and his men because they seem to be "hated," by the gods. Relates to the idea of reversal in terms of the treatment of O. Also tied to the 3 desires, the greed of his men in appetites vs O's focus on the spiritual desire for honour, rather than on the rational desires for knowledge and truth, how their appetites led them down the wrong path. Played on the weaknesses of the soul (in this case greed) as Plato would say.

Fools! Why would you go up there? Why would you choose to take on so much danger, to enter Circe's house, where she will turn us to pigs or wolves or lions, all of us,forced to protect her mighty house for her? Remember what the Cyclops did? Our friends went to his home with this rash lord of ours. Because of his bad choices, they all died.

Book 10 of Homer's Odyssey. Tied to the question of whether Odysseus is a good leader of his men. How the desire/search for honour can cause him to ignore questions of safety at the detriment of his men. Using his past decisions as evidence of his poor judgement and perhaps the fact that he values himself over the well-being of his men. Plato's notion of the three desires and Aristotle's idea of fall from glory due to a mistake.

"Odysseus, you must not comfort me for death. I would prefer to be a workman, hired by a poor man on a peasant farm, than rule as king of all the dead. But come, tell me about my son.

Book 11 of Homer's Odyssey, when Odysseus is in the underworld, an action that seems to set him apart as an Epic Hero. Achilles speaking to Odysseus in the underworld, contrasts the glory usually associated with the gods as he wishes for a different life (reversal). Relation to Plato's desires and discussion of the immortal soul in the myth of er, as Achilles seems to be advising O to focus on returning home to his family over his quest for glory. Pity for Achilles.

So the poet sang. Odysseus was melting into tears;his cheeks were wet with weeping, as a woman weeps, as she falls to wrap her arms around her husband, fallen fighting for his home and children. She is watching as he gasps and dies. She shrieks, a clear high wail, collapsing upon his corpse. The men are right behind. They hit her shoulders with their spears and lead her to slavery, hard labor, and a life of pain. Her face is marked with her despair. In that same desperate way, Odysseus was crying.

Book 8 of the Odyssey, Homer, occurs while Odysseus is at and the poet sings. Uses an Epic simile to justify and describe his pain, as he feels in this one moment how this women has felt during a lifetime of pain - as though his whole life has been turned upside down, pain through reversal. Underscores the presence of catharsis or pity that Aristotle discusses, shown in King Alcinous eventually seeing O's pain and treating him with respect. Catharsis through structure and spectacle - the epic simile.

"I am Odysseus, Laertes' son, known for my many clever tricks and lies."..."my Ithaca is set apart, most distant, facing the dark. It is a rugged land, but good at raising children. To my eyes no country could be sweeter."

Book 9 Homer's the Odyssey, when Odysseus is recognized and presents himself by his name and home. Therefore helps establish his character, his mental strength, while also presenting his love for his homeland. Though it is not necessarily glorious, it seems that way to him. Gives meaning to the action of the poem (the serious action that Aristotle discusses) and inspires pity in the fact that it is facing the dark without him.

"Grant that Odysseus, the city-sacker, will never go back home. Or if it is fated that he will see his family, then let him get there late and with no honor, in pain and lacking ships, and having caused the death of all his men, and let him find more trouble in his own house."

Book 9 of Homer's Odyssey, said by Polyphemus in response to Odysseus's actions. Contrasts the notion of hospitality, host wanting to get revenge on the guest. Underscores Odysseus's' desire for glory vs his quest to go home, he can have one or the other. Conflict with Odysseus. A preview of his homecoming, gives suspense to the result of his quest when he will see what has become of his home - notion of Aristotle's plot. Idea of the beginning, middle, and end.

"It is a poem about the lover's mind in the act of constructing desire for itself. Sappho's subject is eros as it appears to her; she makes no claim beyond that. A single consciousness represents itself [...]"

Carson in Eros the bittersweet, referencing Sappho fragment 31. The idea of eros being subjective and the poem representing Sappho's view of it. The idea of the discussion of space in the poem and the sensory imagery as a way of conveying the overwhelming emotion and longing Saphos relates to it. Connect to Plato's discussion of imitation, the idea that this only produces subjective versions of the essence, in this case, of Eros. The idea that lyric poetry can be used to express more subjective ideas or emotions,

Sullen Telemachus said, "Mother, no, you must not criticize the loyal bard for singing as it pleases him to sing.[...]"Go in and do your work. Stick to the loom and distaff. Tell your slaves to do their chores as well. It is for men to talk, especially me. I am the master."

From Book one of the Odyssey (part of the Telemachia), Homer. Represents Telemachus trying to assert his place as the master of the house in the absence of Odysseus. Also can be tied to a greater discussion of the division of roles between men and women where they are confined to the domestic sphere, and have a man to speak and act for them. The idea that poetry can express universal ideas (Aristotle), while also breaking from the imitation of these universals in the character of Athena.

There lived a massive man who shepherded his flocks all by himself. He did not go to visit other people, but kept apart, and did not know the ways of custom. In his build he was a wonder, a giant, not like men who live on bread,but like a wooded peak in airy mountains.rising alone above the rest.

From book 9 of the Odyssey, Homer. A description of Polyphemus that separates him from the rest of the characters in the story: he does not know the ways of custom. It also adds to the suspense in the interaction between him and Odysseus as it highlights his physical strength that will be put to the test against O's mental strength. Imitation of the other. The creation of pity or fear through spectacle.

When this is done,consider deeply how you might be able to kill the suitors in your halls - by tricks or openly. You must not stick to childhood;you are no longer just a little boy."

From book one of Homer's Odyssey. Is said by Athena to Telemachus concerning how to get rid of the suitors. Relates to his struggle to take Odysseus' place as the man in the household due to his immaturity. This relates to the commentary on hospitality present throughout the Epic, in this case the general rules being undermined by Athena as she encourages Telemachus to kill their guests. Tie to poetry's attempt to imitate the notion of hospitality (Plato). Could also tie to the idea of unity - presenting the situation at home, the impact of O'd absence.

SOCRATES: You know that there are many other things about our city that make me think we were entirely right in founding it as we did, but I am particularly thinking of poetry when I say that. GLAUCON: What about it? SOCRATES: Our refusal to admit any of it that is imitative.

Here Socrates in Plato's republic is referencing the idea of Mimesis in relation to poetry. He believes that poetry is only an imitation of the true forms or essences as it imitates the appearances of things with words. He believes that poetry's ability to enthral people is dangerous as it feeds into appetites and diverts from the fact that it is only a representation of superficial knowledge of appearances. Plays on the appetite desire, where we are distracted from the upward path towards truth and knowledge. Thus says that forms of poetry like the Epic simply take advantage of the weaker parts of our souls. Works like Oedipus force us to focus on another's anguish, something we would not do in reality.

"... there is an ancient quarrel between poetry and philosophy."

In Plato's the Republic, Socrates says this to Glaucon. Refers to the idea that poetry presents human concerns that are not of the highest realm. Related to his notion of the three desires, poetry falling under the lowest -- appetites -- and philosophy under the highest -- the rational desires for knowledge and truth. Also connects to what he says about poetry playing on the weaknesses of the soul. In relation to a specific poem -- the Odyssey -- Homer presents an imitation of human mortal life in order to present an appreciation for it, inspiring catharsis in the audience as a result.

So I gave him another cup of wine, and then two more. He drank them all, unwisely. With the wine gone to his head, I told him, all politeness. 'Cyclops, you asked my name. I will reveal it; then you must give the gift you promised me,of hospitality. My name is Noman. My family and friends all call me Noman.' He answered with no pity in his heart, 'I will eat Noman last; first I will eat the other men. That is my gift to you.'

In book 9 of Homer's Odyssey, Odysseus discussing how he outsmarted Polyphemus. Also relates to the discussion of hospitality as he asks P to give him the gift of hospitality. The contrast between P's physical strength and O's mental strength is shown in his ability to trick P by calling himself Noman and giving him wine. Notion of reversal as O turns Polyphemus against himself, and soon after has a moment of recognition as he realizes what Odysseus has done.

"No man, no place, nothing will escape my gaze. I will not stop / until I know it all, all, until everything is clear. ... I will expose the killer, I will reveal him / to the light." (363) [ca. 265]

Oedipus the King, Sophocles, Oedipus again discussing his ability to discover the identity of the killer and save Thebes in the process. Irony of him saying that nothing will escape his gaze in relation to the blindness he has regarding his identity and parentage. Saying that he will reveal the killer to the light -- connection between light and knowledge/truth. Tie to Plato's idea of this quest for knowledge - light - that does not end well in Oedipus' case. Idea that only through unnatural acts can one force nature to give up its truths/secrets (Nietzche). Shows his confidence in his ability to find the killer and save Thebes, later works to make his fall (reversal) and moment of recognition have a greater impact.

LIGHT LIGHT LIGHT never again flood these eyes with your white radiance, ohgods, my eyes. All, all the oracles have proven true. I, Oedipus, I am the child of parents who should never have been mine - doomed, doomed!Now everything is clear - I lived with a woman, she was my mother, I slept in my mother's bed, and I murdered, murdered my father, the man whose blood flows in these veins of mine, whose blood stains these two hands red.

Oedipus the King, Sophocles, after Oedipus' moment of recognition, realizes his true parentage and wrongdoings. Connect light to this recognition and reversal, idea of him discovering the truth and experiencing anguish as a result of it. Repetition of his name, light, "doom," murdered, mother, father, blood, used to underscore the significance and extent of his pain. Relation to Aristotle's idea of the elements of tragedy, catharsis, recognition, reversal. Also can be connected to Plato's discussion of the cowardice that comes with a focus on pain and suffering - Oedipus not being able to accept what he has learned.

Let it break! Let everything break! I must discover who I am, know the secret of my birth, No matter how humble, how vile. Perhaps Jocasta is ashamed of my low birth, ashamed to be my wife.

Oedipus the King, Sophocles, shows Oedipus' desire to discover his identity no matter the consequences. Further establishes his character, his rashness and disregard for consequence. At this point Oedipus does not know/realize the truth of his birth, he believes Jocasta to be upset because she is married to someone of low birth. Again this is an instance of irony as the truth is much worse. Tied to Aristotle's notion of recognition, Oedipus left in ignorance of something the other characters are aware of. Could also tie to pity in his innocence, does not realize the true magnitude of what will be revealed.

Telemachus was brooding on her words, and said, "Dear guest, you were so kind to give me this fatherly advice. I will remember. I know that you are eager to be off, but please enjoy a bath before you go,and take a gift with you. I want to give you a precious, pretty treasure as a keepsake to mark our special friendship."

Part of the Telemachia, Book one of Homer's Odyssey. Said by Telemachus in response to Athena and represents the relationship between her and T. It also highlights the theme of hospitality in the poem where he tells her to take a bath, and provides her with a gift even though he does not yet know that she is a god. Can be tied into Aristotle's discussion of revelation in epics as at this point T does not know Athena's identity yet, but realizes it as he watches her walk away.

[...] "Telemachus,you stuck-up, wilful little boy! How dare you try to embarrass us and put the blame on us? We suitors have not done you wrong. Go blame your precious mother! She is cunning."

Part of the Telemachia, book 2 of Homer's Odyssey. Provides more insight into Telemachus' character in terms of his difficulty in presenting himself as the master of the house. Relates to the idea of the hostile situation at home that Odysseus is returning to. Shows the idea of pity discussed by Aristotle in Telemachus' suffering at the hands of the suitors (they mock him and refuse to admit their faults). Also can be tied to Aristotle's discussion of having a sense of unity in the plot.

"She came up with a special trick: she fixed a mighty loom inside the palace hall. Weaving her fine long cloth, she said to us, 'Young men, you are my suitors. Since my husband, the brave Odysseus, is dead, I know you want to marry me. You must be patient; I have worked hard to weave this winding-sheet to bury good Laertes when he dies.He gained such wealth, the women would reproach me if he were buried with no shroud. Please let me finish it!'"

Part of the Telemachia, book 2 of the Odyssey. Involves the suitors telling Telemachus how Penelope has tricked them. Here Penelope is shown to be using one social obligation as an excuse to put off another. In terms of gender commentary it also shows the suitors anger that she is able to continually trick them. Ties into the overall action of the story as it creates a sense of urgency around O's return, where he must return to save her from the suitors. Thus relates to the unity that must be present in epic poems - according to Aristotle. Can also tie into the idea that epic poetry has an advantage in its ability to rep multiple parts of the story at once as a means of furthering the plot.

"He seems to me equal to gods..."

Sappho fragment 31. Idea of the triangulation of desire made up of the speaker, the man, and the woman. The idea that there is something that comes between the speaker and the woman, something that stops them from being together. This focus on the space between them is also reflected in the structure of the poem. The idea of the interplay between something lacking and possibility: "even a person of poverty." The idea overall can perhaps be tied to the form of representation itself, with the text, the reader and the translator, always something that keeps you from getting to the truth. Plato's notion of forms, and connection to the ability of lyric poetry to present a more subjective, personal view of reality.

"not one girl I think..."

Sappho fragment 56, employs a negative comparison that creates a space for the powerful positive. Comparison to the every day woman - "who looks on the light of the sun." The fragmented form draws the readers imagination to ask the question of what kind of wisdom or skill is being discussed. The negative space in Carson's translation also lends itself to this idea. Perhaps can be tied to the idea of an essence that we are never quite able to grasp, but instead must guess at through imitations created (Plato).

"But if we are persuaded by me, we will believe that the soul is immortal and able to endure every evil and also every good, and always hold to the upward path, practicing justice with wisdom every way we can, so that we will be friends to ourselves and to the gods...".

See last two quotes. Connection to the gods and their supposed place above us, connection to the notion of fate and immortality of the soul discussed in the Myth of Er, or their role in the world that is mentioned in the Odyssey and Aristotle's poetics.

SOCRATES: ... this same handicraftsman is able to make not only every manufactured item, but he also makes all the plants that grow from the earth, and produces all the animals, including himself; and, in addition, he produces earth and sky and gods and everything in Hades beneath the earth. GLAUCON: You are talking about a wholly amazing sophist!

Socrates in Plato's Republic describing the creator -- God -- it seems like. He speaks of the being who creates the forms themselves and therefore has knowledge of the essences, the knowledge that he thinks we should be striving to achieve. Can perhaps be tied to the idea of recognition that Aristotle later discusses, where one of the figures has knowledge the other does not, in this case the situation highlights the relationship between Glaucon and Socrates -- pupil and teacher.

On the basis of all that [rational calculation] he will be able, by considering the nature of the soul, to reason out which life is better and which worse [...] Holding this belief with adamantine determination, he must go down to Hades, so that even there he won't be dazzled by wealth and other such evils... but instead will know to choose the middle life in such circumstances, and avoid either of the extremes, both in this life, so far as is possible, and in the whole of the life to come....

Similar to previous quote. In this case Socrates is referring to the idea that we should be able to use the most basic knowledge of truth and what is good to decide which life is better. Allowing us not to be tempted by those things relating to appetites. Relates to the discussion between Odysseus and Achilles in the underworld. The idea that we should put the search for truth and knowledge above all else. Above glory, as specifically hinted to in the Odyssey Book 11.

And there, in the middle of the light, they saw stretching from the heavens the ends of its bonds [...] From those ends hangs the spindle of Necessity, by means of which all the revolving things are turned. Its shaft and hook were adamant, while its whorl was adamant mixed with materials of other kinds..."

Socrates in R B 10, discussing the myth surrounding his notion of following the upward path, pursuing rational desires so that we can reap the benefits of what comes afterwards. The concept of the immortality of the soul. Again can be tied to his discussion of poetry as a form of representation (one that does not lend itself to this following of the upward path). The word adamant is important as it refers to a mythical element that is lustrous and unbreakable, seeming to symbolize this notion of having a unshakeable desire to pursue truth and wisdom.

we will say that the poet uses words and phrases to paint coloured pictures of each of the crafts, even though he knows only how to imitate them; so that others like himself, who look at things in terms of words, will think he speaks extremely well about shoe-making or generalship or anything else, provided he speaks with meter, rhythm, and harmony. That is how great a natural spell these things cast."

Socrates says this to Glaucon in Plato's Republic Book 10. He uses this to underscore the idea that poets specifically use the imitation to allow the crowd to recognize the description and find pleasure in it. The idea of this being like a spell that is put on the audience, a trick of sorts where tricks like "meter," "rhythm" etc are used to distract from the fact that he only knows how to imitate the things, not of their actual essences. The worry that if we are misled by appearances then we may have a skewed view of the thing itself. Relates to the notion of creating characters in epics that are not too evil that they seem deserving of their suffering, the character is made to be relatable or at least inspire pity despite only being an imitation of human life.

SOCRATES: Do you want us to begin our investigation with the following point, then, in accordance with our usual procedure? I mean, as you know, we usually posit some one particular form in connection with each set of many things to which we apply the same name. Or don't you understand? GLAUCON: I do. SOCRATES: Then in the present case, too, let's take any set of many things you like. For example, there are, if you like, many couches and tables. GLAUCON: Of course. SOCRATES: But the forms connected to these manufactured items are surely just two, one of a couch and one of a table.

Socrates to Glaucon in Plato's Republic. Discussion of the manufactured item, the second degree of removal from the form. The couch is simply a manufactured image of the essence of couch. He later relates to the idea of a painter, where the painting has three degrees of removal, a subjective rep of the manufactured rep. He also says the poetry is like painting with words, therefore also imitative in essence. Thus he does not think the form of epic, or lyrical poetry is worth our time because it is simply a bad mirror image of the truth.

Socrates: Listen and consider. When even the best of us hear Homer, or some other tragic poet, imitating one of the heroes in a state of grief and making a long speech of lamentation, or even chanting and beating his breast, you know we enjoy it and give ourselves over to it. We suffer along with the hero and take his sufferings seriously. And we praise the one who affects us most in this way as a good poet. Glaucon: Of course I know. Socrates: But when one of us suffers a personal loss, you also realize we do the opposite: we pride ourselves if we are able to keep quiet and endure it, in the belief that that is what a man does, whereas what we praised before is what a woman does.

Socrates to Glaucon in the Republic Book 10. He is discussing the power of the epic and tragic poets to create a sense catharsis in the works. This is an aspect of the form that is discussed by Aristotle where he notes that it can be created with spectacle or structure as evidenced here as well. Socrates however does not see this as a good thing as he notes that this form of imitation uses the inferior parts of our soul as it plays on our weaknesses and vulnerabilities. We see and respond to the imitation differently than we do reality.

"My power is absolute in Thebes, my rule reaches everywhere, / my words will drive the guilty man, the man who knows, / out of this city, away from Thebes, forever." (313ff.) [ca. 235-]

Sophocles, Oedipus the King, Oedipus says this towards the beginning of the play in relation to his position in Thebes and his ability to save Thebes as he once did. The idea that the one who killed Laios will be driven from the town, forced into isolation. Again Ironic as he will reveal the guilty man, but the guilty man will be himself. The guilty man, who is said to know, does, in fact, not know, and is instead unaware of his vulnerable position. Tied to the idea of recognition and reversal in tragedy.

"This day is your mother and father - this day will give you Your birth, It will destroy you too."

Sophocles, Oedipus the King, Teiresias says this in reference to magnitude of the significance of this day for Oedipus. Though Oedipus does not know it yet it will precipitate a new form of existence for him, but will also destroy him (reversal in a sense). He will experience a form of recognition in that he will find out more about his own identity (where he comes from), but in what is revealed destroy his position in society. Compression of tragedy (as Aristotle discusses), idea of a tragic day that presents both the beginning and the end. In this day Oedipus will experience a full reversal - he will fall from his position of greatness.

"That day will come. And then what scoured, homeless plain, what leafless tree, What place on Kithairon, Where no other humans are or ever will be, Where the wind is the only thing that moves, What raw track of thorns and stones, what rock, gulley, Or blind hill won't echo your screams, your howls of anguish When you find out that the marriage song, Sung when you came to Thebes, heard in your house, Guided you to this shore, this wilderness You thought was home, your home?"

Sophocles, Oedipus the King, Teiresias the godlike prophet who speaks to Oedipus. Prophesying Oedipus' downfall and the pain and anguish he will experience upon the recognition he will have -- that he will be cut off from the rest of human society. Presents the theme of home or homecoming, specifically in Oedipus' case the quest to find knowledge that will evict him from his home (though he thinks it will help him save the home he found). Sets up Aristotle's notions of recognition and reversal and the resulting suffering -- the idea that Oedipus will eventually realize the truth behind this prophecy. Imitation of the human quest for true knowledge.

Now I am here. I will begin the search again, I will reveal the truth, expose everything, let it all be seen.Apollo and you were right to make us wonder about the dead man. Like Apollo, I am your ally...

Sophocles, Oedipus the King, sets up Oedipus' character at the beginning of the play. Shows his initial confidence, as he compares himself to Apollo and the idea of possessing divine knowledge. Serves as a classic example of dramatic irony -- asserts the fact that he has the ability to know everything when really the play is centred on his recognition of what he is ignorant of. Really, he is still human and is not at the same level as a god. Relates to Aristotle's notion of reversal, Oedipus falls from this position of confidence and power.

"one of Our servants -- a man to whom We had granted Our mercy and whom We had given knowledge of Our own."

The Qur'an Sura 18 The Cave, illustrated the central question of 18, asking who Khidr is, and what it means to be a good servant of him. The servant seen with Moses is meant to be Khidr and acts as a prototype of future voyagers who are led by the guidance of a mystic figure or spiritual guide. This is seen in the Inferno where Virgil is divinely appointed to guide Dante and possesses knowledge that Dante does not which enables him to fulfill his role. Each of these instances work to again illustrate the limitations of even a righteous man's knowledge, as they do not possess the same knowledge as God, or those who serve him.

"And ye shall know the truth, and the truth shall make you free." "it was a good thing that pious Muslims felt injured because being hurt by criticism might provoke people to reexamine their beliefs -- something vital for democratic debate and for enlightened ethics." "The criticism of questionable (religious) beliefs is presented as an obligation of free speech."

These quotes are from the Bible New Testament Book of John 8, and Asad's "Free Speech, Blasphemy, and Secular Criticism" respectively. Here we can see how the notion of blasphemy can be tied to Christianity where it seems to exist because of the place it had in Christianity. Specifically there seems to be a connection to Jesus as seen here in his comment, where he discusses himself as God, something that was seen as blasphemous at the time. Thus, in this way it seems as though Christianity was founded on Blasphemy. Asad then, in his passage addresses the connection between Blasphemy and Islam. In particular he comments on the idea that some people in the West thought that by putting the Muslims in an uncomfortable position they may start to question their beliefs (perhaps similar to what happened with Judaism -- Christianity). Therefore from a secular ideology the blasphemy is seen as necessary and good. Idea that juxtaposition of traditions can deepen our understanding of them.

"Love, quick to kindle in the gentle heart/seized this man with the fair form taken from me./ The way of it afflicts me still. [...]" "And when I heard those two afflicted souls I bowed my head and held it low [...]"

These quotes are from the fifth Canto of Dante's Inferno and refer to Dante's meeting with Francesca and Paolo when he is circle 2 of hell - lust. The first quote shows the moving speech Francesca gives that seems to invoke the power of love, or something higher than love, as she tries to make it seem as though they have no agency in what happened (that it was not necessarily them, but rather, their love). The second quote shows Dante's reaction which is one of catharsis or pity (like that discussed by Aristotle, as he eventually faints, overcome by emotion. However their placement in the overall structure of the novel -- within the circle of lust seems to suggest that they are not as pitiable as they may first seem since the feelings they are having are not actually love. Dante's pity is perhaps not justified as she has been justly judged (minos condemning her). Though love is a key term of Dante's theology, this is not the right kind -- does not have a basis in Christianity.

"Homeric epithets (adjectives and adjectival phrases), are related to the "need for an externalization of phenomena in terms perceptible to the senses." Phenomena are represented "in a fully externalized form, visible and palpable in all their parts, and completely fixed in their spatial and temporal relations."

This is a passage from Auerbach's Mimesis where he discusses the style of the Odyssey. Specifically he discusses the scene of recognition in Book 19, which he notes as being not only very emotional, but also very physical. Here Auerbach describes this physicality saying it is represented in full externalized form, which he later notes, contrasts the Bible. He argues that this physicality results in the reader being removed from what is happening in the present as they become rooted in the past. Removes any element of suspense.

"In fact, political and economic dependence is massively present in our secular world, transcending the subject of agent's ability to know and to act."

This is from Asad's "Free Speech, Blasphemy, and Secular Criticism," and addresses the relationship between free speech and religion, specifically Islam. He writes of how many would view free speech as arguably unavailable in Muslim Countries because there is a Liberal association between freedom and what one owns (their body for example). However much of this is contradictory (the Liberal Idea of Freedom) -- notion that in order for a ballot cast to be free it must be made in secrecy. The idea of there being economic and political power that we may not be aware of but are still dependent on (these forces that embody seduction -- and that this is essentially approved in the Western tradition, though it is not elsewhere).

"She planned black death for us, and tricked us too. She set a mighty loom up in the hall, and wove a wide fine cloth [...]"

This is from Homer's Odyssey Book 24 and recounts the actions Penelope undertook while her husband was gone in an effort to remain loyal to him. It discusses how she would weave the cloth during the day only to unravel it, telling the suitors she would marry one when the cloth was complete. Here we can see a contrast between Penelope and Agamemnon's wife as though she too was cunning she was a faithful wife who provided her husband with a happy homecoming. Thus the quote underscores the significance of the end of Odysseus' journey as he was able to return to his loyal wife.

"The old slave woman, holding his leg and rubbing with flat palms came to that place, and recognized the scar. She let his leg fall down into the basin. It clattered, tilted over, and the water spilled out across the floor [...]"

This is from Homer's Odyssey and is from Book 19 when Odysseus is recognized by his servant for who he truly is by his scar. Here we see a form of recognition and reversal that is more of a happy moment than a tragic one as it symbolizes Odysseus' return home where he is recognized for and known through his past. This idea of homecoming may be highlighted in the slave calling him her child. In this way we can see the connection between past and future preset throughout the work, as it is ultimately Odysseus' past that allows him to be recognized in the future. The scene is also very physical and emotional as it represents a culmination of the anguish they have been feeling and sense of relief at the reunion.

"He had a premonition in his heart that when she touched him, she would feel his scar and all would be revealed."

This is from Homer's Odyssey and is from Book 19 when Odysseus is recognized by his servant for who he truly is by his scar. The passage indicates the premonition that Odysseus has that there will be a moment of recognition where his identity is revealed. Thus we see a link to Aristotle's discussion of recognition and reversal in the Epic poem, as people obtain knowledge, in this case through the help of signs that make Odysseus' identity clear.

"On seeing them, he spoke abusively, In brash, offensive language that enraged Odysseus. 'One scoundrel leads another! Makes sense: gods join like things with like. You fool Pig-man, where are taking this old swine? A scrounger, who will rub on many doors, demanding scraps, not gifts for warriors."

This is from Homer's Odyssey, Book 17 and shows Melanthius addressing Odysseus and (). The quote gives the men a low appearance, while also making Melanthius seem lower in his appearance and vulgar as well. The words "makes sense" projects into the future offering a justification of sorts where he assumes he knows what this person is and what they are going to do. It also underscores the idea that after this comment Odysseus is furious with him and will eventually take revenge on him.

"but Abraham stood yet before the Lord. And he asked, "Wilt though also destroy the righteous with the wicked? Peradventure there be fifty righteous within the city ..."

This is from the Bible book of Genesis 18 when Abraham is speaking to God about his decision to destroy the city of (). Here we see Abraham essentially negotiating with God to ensure that he does not destroy the city, based on the fact that there are a certain amount of righteous people in the city. The passage highlights the significance of certain numbers to Judaism (such as 10). Auerbach's idea of the lack of explicit detail in the Hebreic Epic is also seen here as we do not receive any specificity in their movements, but simply know they came together to make this negotiation, then went their separate ways. Again there is a sense of background, where the reader must interpret what is going on. Conveys the notion that humans can contest, and help to co-create the justice in the world.

"As long as I am in the world, I am the light of the world."

This is from the Bible book of John 9 and highlights an association between sight and light. In other words, we see a continuation of the association between divinity and light, and knowledge and truth, Jesus as a fulfillment of this. However in the Bible, where seeing is always good, it is not always this way in another work where this connection exists -- Oedipus. There we see the idea of light and truth causing suffering, which is largely not the case in the Bible (save for the association between it and the suffering Jesus undertakes for himself). This can also be tied to Auerbach's argument that it is the Bible where we can interpret regular earthly things as having a spiritual significance.

"And Jesus said unto them, 'I am the bread of life: he that cometh to me shall never hunger; and he that believeth on me shall never thirst."

This is from the Bible, New Testament, Book of John 6, where John is discussing the manna given to the people in the desert. Jesus responds to this saying that he is only doing what he is told to by God, and that he is the fulfillment of this figure from the Old Testament (figure and fulfillment with Auerbach). Where this food provided temporary sustenance, Jesus provides everlasting. Connection between where they both came down from the heavens to provide the people with sustenance. Connection to the act of communion.

"And it came to pass after these things, that God did tempt Abraham, and said unto him, 'Abraham': and he said, 'Behold, here I am."

This is from the Bible, book of Genesis 25 and the story of Abraham's sacrifice. This quote conveys the lack of specificity in location and what is going on in the character's heads that is intrinsic to the Hebreic Epic. We don't know where God is, why he would tempt Abraham to kill his only son because we are unable to know what he is thinking. Therefore this passage underscores the difference between this and the Homeric Epic where we know where the character's are, where they were before, etc. This quote thus underscores Auerbach's argument that the Bible leaves more unexpressed than the Odyssey, and more up to the interpretation of the reader.

"Jesus answered and said unto her, "Whosoever drinketh of this water shall thirst again: But whosoever drinketh of the water that I shall give him shall never thirst; but the water that I shall give him shall be a well of water springing up into everlasting life." "If thou knewest the gift of God, and who it is that saith to thee 'Give me to drink,' thou wouldest have asked of him, and he would have given thee living water." "Art thee greater than our father Jacob ..."

This is from the Bible, the New Testament, Book of John 4 where we see the story of the woman at the well, where Jesus offers his teachings to the women there. Here we see another instance of Auerbach's concept of figure and fulfillment where the figure is Jacob's well in the Old Testament, a literal well that is fulfilled in the water Jesus gives that provides spiritual rebirth and eternal life. The two are linked through the metaphor of "water" for the thirsty. Again the idea of the physical detail being different from that in the Homeric Epic is made apparent in how the passage is more dependent on the the spiritual implications of their dialogue. Also presents the idea of Jesus being a fulfillment of the historical figures seen in the Old Testament who were once worshipped.

"Say [Prophet], 'My Lord knows best how many there were.' Only a few have real knowledge about them, so do not argue [...]"

This is from the Qur'an Sura 18 The Cave and relates to the story of the men who were sleeping in the cave. This is treated as historical event though we do not get much explanation or detail of it (unlike that of the Homeric Epic). The story is designed this way to set up the proper attitude surrounding what is religious or unknown, or is in line with the moral didactic purpose of the stories. By not providing much information, the reader is forced to trust in God and recognize the limits of worldly knowledge. This can perhaps be linked to Dante and role of knowledge being given through the figure of Virgil who he can put his trust in.

"Many secularization narratives presented religion as an illusory solution to problems that could be met in modernity by more realistic and efficacious methods."

This passage is from () Rethinking Secularism and represents the relationship between secularism and modernity. Essentially it is noting the belief that religion is not needed in the modern world as there are other ways of solving the problems that it does. However () also presents the notion that Secularism is not without its own problems. The relationship between secularism and religion can perhaps be outlined by Auerbach's notion of figure and fulfillment. Religion is the historical figure of the past, and Secularism is its fulfillment or replacement. (Specifically Christianity as a figure of Modern Liberalism). However this subtraction story (involving religion) doesn't seem without problems, as the functions fulfilled by religion (like marking life events) must be fulfilled in another way.

"Where is he? We do not know. He says, indeed: Here I am -- but the Hebrew word means only something like 'behold me,' and in any case is not meant to indicate the actual [physical, external] place where Abraham is, but a moral position in respect to God, who has called to him -- Here I am awaiting thy command."

This passage is from Auerbach's Mimesis and discusses the Hebreic Epic, specifically the story of Abraham's sacrifice. It is used to highlight the characteristic of the Bible where much is left unexpressed, leaving questions like the location of the speaker unanswered. Much of the physical layout of things is left unclear resulting in the reader being pulled in and wanting to know if God really wants the sacrifice to happen. Auerbach notes that this is very different from the physicality and externalized detail given in an Epic poem like the Odyssey.

"Doctrine and promise are incarnate in them and inseparable from them [Biblical stories]; for that very reason they are fraught with 'background' and mysterious, containing a second, concealed meaning."

This passage is from Auerbach's Mimesis and his discussion of the Hebreic Epic. Here he underscores the significant role of background in the Bible (by drawing attention to the way narrative is constructed, as due to its lack of outward physical description, there is much left unclear that people must interpret. This kind of psychology is not present in the Homeric stories, which Auerbach notes is instead concerned with the foreground. In the case of the Bible Auerbach relates this quality to the authoritative pull of the stories.

"the most striking piece of interpretation of this sort occurred in the first century of the Christian era, in consequence of Paul's mission to the Gentiles: Paul and the Church Fathers reinterpreted the entire Jewish tradition as a succession of figures prognosticating the appearance of Christ."

This passage is from Auerbach's Mimesis and his discussion of the figure and fulfillment seen in the Bible. Jesus is said to fulfill the prophecies that were seen in the Hebrew Bible. This can perhaps be exemplified through the story of the manna in the desert in the Hebrew Bible and the notion that Jesus later becomes the Bread of Life. In this way we seen an interpretation of ordinary things, like bread, where they are converted into something with spiritual significance. The idea that the physicality is not always expressed, and more is left up to the interpretation of the readers.

"... the element of suspense is very slight in the Homeric poems; nothing in their entire style is calculated to keep the reader or hearer breathless. The digressions are not meant to keep the reader in suspense, but rather to relax the tension."

This passage is from Auerbach's Mimesis and refers to the digression following the old slave woman's discovery of Odysseus' scar. Auerbach uses this discussion of the departure from the main action to highlight the lack of suspense in the Homeric Epic, as such digressions are said to allow the reader a break from the tension. Specifically, this passage shows that this narrative structure in the poem does not allow the reader to be reminded of the reveal, but instead it blocks out any recognition of the characters associated with the suspense. There is no foreground and background in this form of rep, but rather, as the narrator intervenes the reader becomes solely aware of the character's past, separate from Odysseus in the present.

"the irrepressible politico-religious spontaneity of the people."

This passage is from Auerbach's Mimesis and relates to his discussion of the narrative style seen in the Bible. It relates to the idea that every day people can be meaningful actors in the world. This contrasts the Homeric Epic, which mainly focuses on the actions of the nobility. Shows how the Hebreic Epic, as Auerbach says, is able to teach through interpretation, showing that religious significance can be found even in domestic circumstances. Universality in the epic.

"The old man, of whom we know how he has become what he is, is more of an individual than the young man,"

This passage is from Auerbach's Mimesis, specifically his discussion of the Bible and the story of Joseph/Jacob. He makes reference to Joseph's rise from humiliation to greatness. How the domestic can be made into something great is terms of religion. He is a man very much conditioned by his loss who does not know that his family will go down into Egypt and be redeemed there. Auerbach's idea that through the information given in the Bible we are able to interpret God's greatness from it.

"there is no choice between historical and hidden meaning; both are present. The figural structure preserves the historical event while interpreting it as revelation; and must preserve it in order to interpret it."

This passage is from Auerbach's figura and relates to Auerbach's discussion of the relationship between figure and fulfillment in the Inferno. He uses the example of a character like Beatrice, who despite existing in the historical reality is given a new spiritual meaning in the poem that results in her becoming a fulfilled version of herself. This connection between history and the spiritual meaning within the poem can perhaps reflect the journey Dante is on, where he represents the possibility of gaining truth from God's judgement of those who are dead, and sharing it with those who are still alive. Therefore allowing a connection to exist between historical reality and the spiritual world.

"...here in the story of Abraham's sacrifice, the overwhelming suspense is present; what Schiller makes the goal of the tragic poet -- to rob us of our emotional freedom, to turn our intellectual and spiritual powers ... in one direction, to concentrate them there is effected in this Biblical narrative, which certainly deserves the epithet epic."

This passage is from Auerbach's mimesis where he discusses the difference between the Hebreic Epic and the Homeric Epic. He uses this to relate the two, showing them both to be of the Epic form in how they both exhibit "the goal of the tragic poet." He underscores the difference between them here, where the Bible is suspenseful because so much goes unexpressed, and thus creates unbearable tension, and an emotional pull that "rob[s] us of our emotional freedom." This passage conveys that the goal of the Bible is to grab the reader's attention, similar to the Homeric Epic, but to do so in a different way.

"And the thing was very grievous in Abraham's sight because of his son. And God said unto Abraham, "Let it not be grievous in thy sight because of the lad ..."

This quote is from the Bible book of Genesis 21 and relates to the story of Abraham and Isaac. In particular it refers to God's assurance that another nation will be made through Ishmael. Again we see here the idea that these significant religious events are unfolding within the domestic sphere, highlighting the significance of domestic disputes. It is also here that we see the multilayeredness of Abraham's character though it is not explicitly described as in the Homeric Epic. Instead we see the more tender side of his character through his reaction to God's demands.

"'O brothers,'" I said who in the course/ of a hundred thousand perils, at last/ have reached the west ... /Consider how your souls were sown: you were not made to live like brutes or beasts/ but to pursue virtue and knowledge."

This passage is from Canto 26 of Dante's Inferno and is again connected to Dante's interaction with Odysseus. Here O is discussing his ardent ability to infect his men with the desire to accompany him on his quest. His sin in the other world is related to the fact that he led them on a quest that was not good for them (though he made them believe otherwise), resulting in him essentially using his men. He is shown to have no actual regard for them as people, beyond their ability to help him on his quest for "virtue and knowlegde" (though this is not the kind of righteous knowledge he should be seeking out). Thus Dante is perhaps shown to be a fulfillment of the figure of Odysseus, where he too wants to learn the vices and worth of humans, but will do so in the right way (without taking advantage of people -- only has a divinely appointed guide). Unlike O he will not be a false councillor.

"Midway through the journey of our life/ I came to myself in a dark wood,/ for the straight way was lost."

This passage is from Dante's Inferno, the opening lines of the novel, sets the tone for the rest of it, where we are introduced to the journey that will encompass the rest. The quote introduces the reader to Dante's position as being lost -- which we later learn can be thought of as both physically and mentally/spiritually lost. Furthermore the notion of the "dark wood" can be linked to the darkness of Dante's wayward life, where he is facing confusion, and a lack of clarity and meaning. We also start to learn about his character now, connecting the character to biographical, historical details from his life. In particular, Dante is said to be midway through his life, which seems to be an attempt on Dante the poet's part to bring his own life into the story. Aristotle's notion of the Epic -- connection beginning to end, introduction of a journey or transformation the character must undergo.

"Woman! Your words have cut my heart! Who moved my bed? It would be difficult for even a master craftsman -- though a god could do it with ease [...]"

This passage is from Homer's Odyssey Book 23 when Penelope tests Odysseus in order to confirm that it is truly him. The idea of Odysseus telling of the "trick" provides indication that this allows another sign of his identity to be confirmed, allowing Penelope to trust in the recognition. The anger seen here by Odysseus at the prospect of being tested by his own wife also underscores the idea of change in his absence, or, the significance of his journey and return (bed connected to the idea of coming home after being away for some time). We see evidence that their relationship must be mended, but that like the sign of the tree trunk in the bed she has been loyal to him, and thus their relationship still has good roots. In this way it joins the past of their relationship to their future, suggesting notions of life and death in the process.

"But he does not want work. He likes to traipse around the town and beg for chow to stuff his greedy belly."

This passage is from Homer's Odyssey book 18 and refers to (). It can be closely connected to a similar passage from Book 17 where the characters are connected to their rash assumptions about others and the events going on around them. The quote relates to the formulaic nature of the standards and norms of the time, as we can see how quickly contrasting behaviour stands out. Specifically the passage underscores a class difference, where poor people are thought to be that way because they are lazy. The passage also underlines the power or influence of the gods as it shows Athena's ability to make people seem more god-like, or in this case less-imposing than they really are. The idea of this trick of sorts sets up a later reversal characteristic of the epic tragedy.

"Wife, we have both endured our share of trouble: you wept here as you longed for my return, while Zeus and the other gods were keeping me away from home, although I longed to come. But now we have returned to our own bed, as we both longed to do."

This passage is from Homer's Odyssey, specifically close to the conclusion in Book 23 when Odysseus and Penelope have been reunited. This quote works to underline the importance of the bed as symbol, first of their relationship as they are able to return to it together to tell each other of what has happened in their separation. It also represents the homecoming itself as the end to the journey being recounted (Aristotle's notion of end), and shows the lovers as a a part of a joined life that will continue now that he has returned.

"At last Odysseus with calm composure, took it and strung it easily, and shot all through the iron axes. Then he stood astride the threshold with a fearsome scowl, and started shooting fast [...]"

This passage is from book 24 of the Odyssey, close to the conclusion where Odysseus has revealed (recognition) his identity and is now working to defeat the suitors. The quote directly connects Odysseus to the gods as he is said to be helped by a god in his efforts, thus showing that some god wills him to defeat the suitors. Therefore, it presents how fate and the will of the gods manifested. It is at this climatic point of the story that we also see Aristotle's notions of recognition and reversal in tragedy represented as the wandering Odysseus becomes King again, while the suitors fall from high status to a bloody death.

"not tenderness for a son, nor filial duty/ toward my aged father, nor the love I owed Penelope that would have made her glad,/ could overcome the fervor that was mine/ to gain experience of the world/ and learn about man's vices, and his worth."

This passage is from the 26th Canto of Dante's Inferno, when Dante meets Ulysses. Virgil had discussed Ulysses in his own poetry, calling him the inventor of crimes, which is the access that Dante the poet has to his character. The idea of him being forever enveloped in a flame (as his punishment) seems to both evoke ideas of the burning of Troy, as well as the fervor he characterizes himself as having (that contributed to his downfall). Similar to Dante 'Odysseus' was also on a kind of quest for knowledge (as noted here), but similar to how Francesca's values may be likened to his own, but are not truly equal, Dante's are a little different. Where Odysseus was more focused on his own glory (resulting in the deaths of many of his men), Dante's journey is largely didactic and will allow him to spread the his spiritual knowledge. Can perhaps connect this to Plato's discussion of the different desires.

"If the contagion of every hospital/ in Valdichiana, from July until September,/ and in the Maremma and Sardegna, were amassed/ in one malarial ditch, just such suffering,/ was in that place. And from it rose the stench of festering limbs."

This passage is from the 29th Canto of Dante's Inferno and uses explicit physical detail to convey the pity and fear Dante feels at this point in the poem. Here we see both visual and olfactory imagery, where though Dante may be able to close his eyes he is unable to close his nose from the stench. The quote illustrates the spiritual significance of their sin, as the extent of its grusome quality may be directly linked to the extremity of their sin. Dante's fear and pity here is again seen as a negative thing (separate from the Catharsis Aristotle discusses) as being a pilgrim he is supposed to learn past, or through these emotions. Essentially, like the poem itself, he must use these gruesome sights in a didactic way to correct his own life.

"And the servant abideth not in the house for ever: but the Son abideth ever. If the Son therefore shall make you free, ye shall be free indeed." "the next day John seeth Jesus coming unto him, and saith, "Behold the Lamb of God, which taketh away the sin of the world."

This passage is from the Bible New Testament Book of John 8 and makes reference to Jesus' ability to free sinners. Specifically it creates a connection between freedom and bondage and a spiritual significance. In this passage Jesus is shown to understand that they are enslaved to sin and he has the ability to free them, specifically through his own sacrifice as he will abide there "ever." This relates to Auerbach's comparison of the Homeric Epic to the Hebraic one, where the Homeric Epic needs a noble hero who will fall from power/rise to power, and the Hebraic Epic has a greater social flexibility that allows it to call into question the social structure of society. Jesus is simply presented as a revolutionary figure who fulfills what was figured in the Old Testament. Second quote has a similar message, Jesus being this fulfilled figure who take away their sins.

"For had ye believed Moses, ye would have believed me; for he wrote of me. But if ye believe not his writings, how shall ye believe my words?"

This passage is from the New Testament of the Bible, Book of John 5 and sees Jesus questioning those who do not believe in him. Here the figural relationship between Jesus and Moses that Auerbach discusses is underscored, as the idea that belief in Moses precedes belief in Jesus is conveyed. We see the idea that before believing in Moses and his writings was enough, but now that his figure has been fulfilled in Jesus, they must also believe in Christ. If they (the Jews) refuse to believe in Jesus now they are shown to encourage violence towards Jesus and are called blind. Thus, there is the idea that they do not grasp the figural relationship that must be interpreted.

"they will have the Gardens of lasting bliss graced with flowing streams. There they will be adorned with bracelets of gold. There they will wear green garments of fine silk and brocade [...]"

This passage is from the Qur'an Sura 18 The Cave and represents a reward for those who follow God/do good deeds. It is here that we see more physical and sensuous detail than what is seen in the Hebraic Epic (the Bible). In a way it is more similar to how Auerbach describes the Homeric Epic to be, but the details are not only there to delight and enchant, instead they are still related to a moral didactic function. This passage can also be connected to the Bible in the sense that the idea of a "garden" can be connected to that of the Garden of Eden which precedes all worldly things. Like this Garden, it becomes meaningful because it has spiritual connections and is not transitory like the gardens on Earth. The people who have the chance to go there will have everlasting comfort and happiness.

"Now sighs, loud wailing, lamentation/ resounded through the starless air,/ so that I too began to weep."

This passage is from the third Canto of Dante's Inferno and refers to what Dante sees in the other world. Specifically this quote seems to highlight the use of auditory imagery as part of the physical detail given throughout the poem. This kind of imagery is perhaps prominent because of the darkness if the other world, where sound would be highlighted. Furthermore, the "wailing" that resounds through the air is accompanied by the sound of Dante's own weeping which gives an emotional aspect to this passage. The visual imagery though, of the air being starless also shows that in the other world, Dante is now cut off from the heavens and God which makes the journey more fearsome and suspenseful. Gives it significance as being separate from Earth, Dante undertaking a journey that others would not be able to. The idea of it being starless may be a further link between light and knowledge as well, showing that Dante has descended to a world that is devoid of certain learned info (especially spiritual truth).

"Delight in physical existence is everything to them, and their highest aim is to make that delight perceptible to us...And thus they bewitch us and ingratiate themselves to us until we live with them in the reality of their lives; so long as we are reading or hearing the poems."

This quote is from Auerbach's Mimesis and his discussion of the influence of the Odyssey on the audience. In particular, this quote underscores the function of the epic poem to delight the audience. Furthermore the word "bewitch" can be connected to Plato's discussion of the poem and the idea that it casts a spell of sorts on its readers, distracting them from the search for truth. In regards to the Odyssey this can also be exemplified through the bard in Alcinuous' court, who is able to enchant the audience as the poem is able to. This example in particular works to put the effect in a more positive light.

"the sublime, tragic, and problematic take shape precisely in the domestic and commonplace."

This quote is from Auerbach's Mimesis where he discusses the narrative role of the Bible as a Hebreic Epic. Specifically the passage illustrates its ability to convey the idea that the grandiose of God can be found even in the most common place, domestic circumstances. The idea that stories in the Genesis largely focus on familial relationships, like that between Abraham and Sarah and their struggle to have a child. How religion is involved in these common experiences, allowing the stories to be interpreted and related to universal messages.

Quote about Esau and his brother, tricking his father

This quote is from the Bible book of Genesis 27 and relates to the story of Esau and Jacob and their desire to inherit the convenant with God that passed on to Isaac. Specifically, it is in this passage that we see Jacob's trickery, as though Isaac does not recognize that it should be him and not Esau who is chosen, he is able to trick him into thinking otherwise. Thus we see the concept of blindness, and the idea that we must be attentive in order to figure out what God's will is. It also here that we see more explicit physical detail then is normally seen in the Bible (as discussed by Auerbach), though it seems that much of this detail has moral implications.

"the Divine Comedy. But I shall now attempt to show that basically it is the figural forms [...] predominate and determine the whole structure of the poem."

This quote is from Auerbach's figura and relates to his discussion of figure and fulfillment, specifically, as it relates to Dante's Inferno. Here he is noting the figural as the most important aspect of the poem because it becomes a structuring principle, something that Dante's journey, in a sense, becomes based upon. In particular, Dante's journey to the underworld may be said to serve the function of prophecy -- specifically in relation to divine knowledge. Where his journey acts as kind of figure of the journey that others should undertake, seeing him as an example of the journey towards spiritual fulfillment. Similar to Plato and the Bible it is a story that is not simply meant to be entertaining, but that is supposed to be instructed to the reader and have a deeper spiritual meaning.

"[...] it is in their full development, which they reached in early times, that the two styles exercised their determining influence upon the representation of reality in European literature."

This quote is from Auerbach's mimesis and is written in reference to the Homeric Epic -- the Odyssey -- and the Hebreic Epic -- the Bible. The passage underscores his notion that though both are influential on the development of literature, they are, at their core, very different. He notes the 'two styles' of the works that he later outlines. Each of these styles can be tied to the intentional influence each form of representation is meant to have on the audience.

"I do not weep only for him. The gods have given me so many other troubles. All the chiefs of Same, Zacynthus, Dulichium,and local lords from rocky Ithaca, are courting Mother, wasting our whole house. She does not turn these awful suitors down,nor can she end the courting. They keep eating, spoiling my house - and soon, they will kill me!"

This quote is from Book 1 of the Odyssey, and is said by Telemachus in reference to the dangers of the suitors that have come to court his mother in the absence of Odysseus. In this way it underscores the suffering that he and his mother are experiencing because of Odysseus, inspiring pity for him. It also creates a sense of suspense or urgency in relation to the larger plot as he notes that they will soon kill him. Because of this the quote can be tied to Aristotle's notion of unity as by showing the situation at home Homer is able to put further emphasis on the action of the story -- O's journey home.

"Now come along behind me, and be sure/ you do not set your feet upon the burning sand/ but keep your steps close to the forest's edge."

This quote is from Canto 14 of Dante's Inferno and can be used to highlight the physical exertion involved in Dante's journey (at this point in ()). Through this representation, here of the pain he would experience if he touched the "burning sand" we can note Dante's vulnerability, which though here is physical, can also be extended to one that results from his lack of understanding (that Virgil must remedy). As in the Homeric (as discussed by Auerbach) the geography we see is very physical and relatively realistic. These descriptions allow us insight into Dante's character and his reaction to the underworld -- such as this one of his vulnerability -- that help us to understand his progression as a pilgrim throughout the poem.

"And after had put his hand on mine/ with a reassuring look that gave me comfort/ he led me toward things unknown to man."

This quote is from Dante's Inferno, the third Canto where Dante and Virgil are in ----. This passage illustrates the portrayal of the pilgrim being led by a guide (Dante being led by Virgil). The idea of him being led "toward things unknown to man" conveys the notion of Dante doing something that mortals cannot, doing this so that he can be an example for them. He is an everyday man that becomes the heroic quester over the course of his journey -- allowing us to see the influence of the knowledge he acquires. Thus we see the idea of Dante acquiring knowledge from an guide that alters who he is as a person. Can be related to the journeys undertaken in other Epics like the Odyssey and the Qur'an.

"... all the others reproached Antinous insistently.'You ought not to have hit a poor old beggar! If he turns out to be a god from heaven it will end badly! Gods disguise themselves as foreigners and strangers to a town, to see who violates their holy laws, and who is good."

This quote is from Homer's Odyssey Book 17 and refers to the disguised Odysseus, showcasing the suitors in a somewhat better light than usual, though not good enough to allow them to escape their fate. It highlights a notion of self-preservation where a god can be disguised, or in Odysseus' case, someone with the favour of the gods can be disguised. Again this highlights the power or influence of the gods, where people are scared to treat strangers badly because they may be gods. Through this it also seems linked to the standards of hospitality. The quote also gives rise to ideas of moral standards that must be followed, and the idea of testing people to see if they are following that is common in religions like Christianity.

"You silly girl, why are you mad at me? Because I am all dirty, dressed in rags and begging through the town? I have no choice, that is how homeless people have to live. I used to have a house, and I was rich, respectable, and often gave to beggars; [...] Zeus ruined it. He must have wanted to."

This quote is from Homer's Odyssey Book 19 and us said by the disguised Odysseus in response to a girl who asks about his condition (?). The passage highlights the power and influence the gods have over mortals as Odysseus essentially says that the gods wanted to change his fate (for the worse) and they did. Thus we see the idea that humans must simply accept the will of the gods, as they "have no choice." The short declarative sentences "Zeus ruined it. He must have wanted to," underscores this idea. In this way the passage can perhaps be tied to traditional religious texts that depict a similar need to trust in God and accept his will.

"After that he poureth water into a bason, and began to wash the disciples' feet ..."

This quote is from the Bible New Testament Book of John 13, and discusses Jesus washing the feet of his disciples. It is here that we see a direct connection between the Hebraic and Homeric Epics with the act of washing feet. This comparison makes clear the differences Auerbach was referring to as where the physical details are explicitly expressed, here the emotion is largely under the surface and must be interpreted. Any physical details seem to have spiritual significance relating to the cleanliness of the heart or spirit. Furthermore, it is from this passage that we can interpret the relationship between Jesus and servant, which he seems to be conveying as flexible, putting himself in a humble position for his disciples who will become teachers after he is gone. Ultimate Master is always God, Jesus does not elevate himself to this level.

"Jesus answered and said unto him, 'Verily, verily, I say unto thee, except a man be born again, he cannot see the kingdom of God."

This quote is from the Bible book of John 3 and works to convey Jesus as a speaker of truth, or someone who can speak God's will. The idea that he is God's son and is going to tell you what the truth is, or that you can't get to the truth without first listening to him. This is different from the interpretation in Genesis, where God's word is largely given by God himself. In this way we begin to see the New testament as the fulfillment of the Figure of the Old Testament, where Jesus is now able to directly speak the word of God. It is also here that we again see associations between light and darkness and vision and blindness that are found in tragedies like Oedipus.

"If you are really my own son Odysseus come home, show me a sign; let me be sure of it."

This quote is from the Odyssey, book 24 when Odysseus is reunited with his father upon the end of his journey. Again, this passage highlights the idea of there being signs that are used to bring about Aristotle's notion of recognition. In this case Odysseus' father is close to death himself due to his grief at the prospect of his son being gone. This, coupled with the fact that Odysseus does not reveal himself right away, makes the reveal, and moment of recognition more dramatic. Ultimately Odysseus uses the sign of the tress promised to him to bring about the moment of recognition, again connecting his past relationship with his father to that in the present (the idea of there being a stable relationship between the past and the future where things are passed from generation to generation).

"How could you be patient in matters beyond your knowledge?"

This quote is from the Qur'an Sura 18 The Cave, and sees God's servant addressing Moses concerning his questions about what he is doing as they go along. Moses is shown to be lacking something (knowledge, patience in a sense), and is here being warned of the limits of his knowledge by God's servant. The servant is questioning his ability to remain patient, and thus trust in God, suggesting that he is too sure of himself and lacks the humility the servant will show him. In the end, when the reasons behind the servant's actions are shown to be God's own, the reader is able to interpret the notion that things will happen in the world that we may not understand but that ultimately have justification in God. In this way we see a presentation of the divine that involves complete trust in them, similar to what is seen with Jesus in the Book of John.

"But [Prophet] are you going to worry yourself to death over them if they do not believe in this message? We have adorned the earth with attractive things so that We may test people to find out which of them do best, but We shall reduce all to this barren dust."

This quote is from the Qur'an Sura 18 the Cave, and sees God(?) addressing the prophet and questioning his worry over the disbelief of the people. It is in this passage that we see the motif of testing people that is common in other religions like Judaism or Christianity. It is said that they are going to "test the people to find [...] which of them do best," an idea that seems linked to the tests seen in the Bible such as that with Abraham and Isaac. The notion of everything being reduced to "barren dust" also seems linked to the temporal nature of the Earth where God's reality supersedes Earthly reality. This can perhaps be linked to the idea of eventual fulfillment through religion, as there is talk of an end to come (God's judgement and eschatology). Islam sees itself as a final revelation after those of J + C. Despite these similarities to the Bible though we can also see rhetorical differences where "We" is used to rep God.

"There stands Minos, snarling, terrible./ He examines each offender at the entrance,/ judges and dispatches as he encoils himself./ I mean that when the ill-begotten soul stands there before him it confesses all [...]"

This quote is from the fifth Canto of Dante's Inferno and refers to the role of Minos in the other world. The passage works to create a sense of suspense as it establishes the idea of having to wait to see how many times the tail will go around, something that is underscored further by the fact that the quote is written in the present tense. Here we also see the idea that Dante is combining multiple myths in his poem, the figure of Minos being tied to notions of Christianity establishes a kind of figural interpretation where the myths are taken and shown in a fulfilled Christian function. This relates to the idea of there being a historical reality behind the fulfillment where there is always something that precedes it. The notion of Minos carrying out this judgement with his tail rather than his head also adds a mechanical aspect to it where he is acting as a servant whose duty is to fulfill part of God's plan. Can also be linked to Catholicism in general as a parody of confession.

"This swamp, which belches forth such noxious stench/ hems in the woeful city, circling it."

This quote is from the ninth canto of Dante's Inferno and refers to Dante's reaction to (). Here we can see another aspect of how physical detail is created in the poem, this time through the use of olfactory imagery. The use of olfactory imagery seems to underscore the scenery as being all-encompassing and unescapable. Furthermore, the fact that there is a "noxious stench" surrounding the city works to symbolize the moral degeneracy that it can be associated with. This can also be connected to a spiritual idea of God in the Hebraic Bible, where there are mentions of him having a nose. Thus the scene may be rooted in Christian tradition as the punishment/outward depiction of the sin can be tied to God.

"Set out, and with your polished words/ and whatever else is needed for his safety, go to his aid, that I may be consoled [...]"

This quote is from the second Canto of Dante's Inferno and gives insight into the role of the character of Beatrice. In particular she is shown here to be someone who, after seeing Dante lost, and in distress, sends Virgil to guide him. She is both a historical figure and someone associated with the idea of divine love, where she cares for Dante like a child who is leaving her. This connects to Auerbach's idea of taking figures rooted in history and fulfilling them with a spiritual meaning. Thus the characters are shown to have both a historical and spiritual significance.

"Day was departing and the darkened air/ released the creatures of the earth/ from their labor, and I, alone,/ prepared to face the struggle--/ of the way and of the pity of it --/ which memory, unerring, shall retrace."

This quote is from the second Canto of Dante's Inferno and refers to Dante's descent into hell. Dante is going into the underworld which has both a concrete meaning, and exists as a sort of spiritual reality. The idea of the day (or light) departing seems to indicate the fact that Dante is travelling into a place that is fearsome and largely unenlightened (connection to Oedipus, the Bible where we also see a connection between knowledge and light). Through all the physical detail and emotion given in passages like these we are able to relate to Dante (similar to the Homeric Epic in that sense). The mention of creatures seems to present Dante as something more than animal but less than God, someone who still has the ability to explore and create (even when the other creatures are sleeping). The narrative structure of the poem, as something remembered is also seen here "which memory," allowing the reader to suspend their belief and see it as reality.

"O Muses, O lofty genius aid me now!/ O memory, that set down what I saw, here shall your worth be shown."

This quote is from the second Canto of Dante's Inferno and sees Dante the poet addressing the readers. In this passage he is shown to be invoking his own memory, as well as the gods and goddesses in order to relate his journey (though this might be out of the ordinary for a Christian story). First, his mention of memory refers to the human capacity to record experiences, highlighting the idea that this is supposed to be an experience he had that he is now relating for didactic purposes. The idea of him invoking the "muses" though seems to be linked to the fact that he has learned much of what he knows of the poetic crafts from the ancient greeks -- thus here he is making reference to the fact that they have helped him to accomplish what he is going to (the link between the ancients and Christianity that Auerbach also references). On the other hand, the idea of "lofty genius" seems directly linked to God which conveys the Christian notion that Dante's genius can only be good insofar as it conveys something about God's genius (is still rooted in Christianity).

...] there was once A time when this house here was doing well, Our future bright, when he was still at home.But now the gods have changed their plans and cursed us, And cast my father into utter darkness. If he had died it would not be this bad - If he had fallen with his friends at Troy, Or in his loved ones' arms, when he had wound The threads of war to end.

This quote occurs in the first book of Homer's Odyssey, and is said by Telemachus as he explains the situation at his home to Athena. It highlights the relationship between him and Athena, where she is something like a mentor to him, as he turns to her with what is troubling him. It also serves to make the reader aware of how Odysseus' family has suffered in his absence as he compares how their life was before to how it is now. His discussion of his father's fall from glory relates to Aristotle's discussion of the use of a character who has fallen from prosperity to misfortune in tragedy. Here this is also tied to the role of the gods in such falls, or the notion of fate.