WEEK 5: CH. 10 WORKER STRESS, NEGATIVE EMPLOYEE ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIORS

WORK ROLE STRESSORS: JOB AMBIGUITY/ LACK OF CONTROL/ PHYSICAL WORK CONDITIONS/ INTERPERSONAL STRESS/ HARASSMENT/ ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE/ WORK-FAMILY CONFLICT 253-257

(JOB AMBIGUITY) A potential source of work role stress is JOB AMBIGUITY, which occurs when aspects of a job, such as tasks and requirements, are NOT CLEARLY OUTLINED. When WORKERS are UNSURE of their responsibilities and duties, stress can result. Job ambiguity is also sometimes referred to as "JOB UNCERTAINTY." However, job uncertainty may better refer to the uncertainty caused by a lack of regular performance feedback concerning how well or poorly workers are doing in their job. RESEARCH SUGGESTS that SUPERVISORS can play an important part in REDUCING JOB UNCERTAINTY for subordinates by CLARIFYING job roles and duties. CONFLICT BETWEEN ROLES can also occur and can become an additional source of stress, or having to play DIFFERENT ROLES at work simultaneously can cause stress. (LACK OF CONTROL) STRESS resulting from this FEELING of LACK of CONTROL is particularly COMMON in LOWER-LEVEL JOBS or in highly structured organizations. Jobs that are so CONSTRAINED and RULE-DRVIEN that employees are UNABLE to HAVE any sort of INPUT in WORK DECISIONS and PROCEDURES are likely to be stress inducing, particularly for those workers who want to have some input. RESEARCH INDICATES that PROVIDING WORKERS with a sense of CONTROL over their work ENVIRONMENT, through techniques such as giving them a voice in decision-making processes or allowing them to plan their own work tasks, REDUCES WORK STRESS and FATIGUE and increases job satisfaction. RESEARCH has found that CERTAIN PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS may DETERMINE whether or not an individual is STRESSED by a perceived LACK of job CONTROL. (PHYSICAL WORK CONDITIONS) Jobs performed under EXTREME OR DANGEROUS CONDITIONS can be a source of stress. Similarly, WORKING LATE NIGHT ("GRAVEYARD") shifts can DISRUPT NATURAL SLEEP and waking cycles and MAY LEAD to problems such as high stress, fatigue, job dissatisfaction, and perfor- mance errors. (INTERPERSONAL STRESS) Interpersonal stress STEMS from DIFFICULTIES in developing and MAINTAINING RELATIONSHIPS with other PEOPLE in the WORK SETTING. Interpersonal stress can also RESULT when COWORKERS are PLACED in some sort of CONFLICT SITUATION. There is also evidence that ORGANIZATIONAL POLITICS and STRUGGLES over POWER can be important SOURCES of STRESS in the WORKPLACE. Another form of interpersonal stress OCCURS frequently in SERVICE organizations and involves the stress of PROVIDING good CUSTOMER services. RESEARCHERS have EXAMINED this EMOTIONAL LABOR—the DEMANDS of REGULATING and controlling EMOTIONS and EMOTIONAL DISPLAYS as part of a JOB REQUIREMENT. (HARASSMENT) All forms of harassment, including sexual harassment, harassment DUE to GROUP MEMBERSHIP (e.g., gender, race, sexual orientation), and being singled out by an abusive supervisor or colleague, are all extremely stressful. Moreover, there is EVIDENCE that sexual and other forms of HARASSMENT tended to DO-OCCUR in certain ORGANIZATIONS, along with generally UNCIVIL BEHAVIOR. (ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE) Some common CHANGE SITUATIONS that LEAD to WORKER STRESS INCLUDE company reorganizations, mergers of one company with another or acquisitions of one organization by another, changes in work systems and work technology, changes in company policy, and managerial or personnel changes. RESEARCH has shown that PHYSIOLOGICAL STRESS RESPONSES are STRONGER in novel or UNFAMILIAR CIRCUMSTANCES that involve a threat or challenge. An EVENT like a company-wide REORGANIZATION, or a MERGER or acquisition, would certainly be PERCEIVED as threatening and STRESSFUL by many employees. (WORK-FAMILY CONFLICT) A very important source of stress, one that EXTENDS BEYOND the BOUNDARIES of the ORGANIZATION, is WORK-FAMILY CONFLICT, which RESULTS from efforts to BALANCE the often competing demands of WORK roles and requirements and those of family and NONWORKING LIFE.

MEASUREMENT OF WORKER STRESS PHYSIOLOGICAL MEASURES/ SELF-REPORT ASSESSMENTS/ MEASUREMENT OF STRESSFUL LIFE EVENTS/ MEASUREMENT OF PERSON-ENVIRONMENT FIT 260-263

(PHYSIOLOGICAL MEASURES) one STRATEGY for MEASURING STRESS has FOCUSED on MEASURING signs of PHYSIOLOGICAL arousal and STRAIN that accompany stress. This INCLUDES blood pressure monitoring, electrocardiogram (EKG) for monitoring heart rate, or blood tests for monitoring levels of certain hormones, such as the stress-linked hormone, cortisol, and cholesterol in the bloodstream. One PROBLEM with USING such physiological INDICATORS of stress is the amount of VARIATION that can OCCUR from hour to hour, day to day, or person to person (Herd, 1988). Another DRAWBACK to the USE of such stress tests is the REQUIREMENT for TRAINED MEDICAL PERSONNEL, as well as the ASSOCIATED COSTS for EQUIPMENT and analysis procedures. (Self-report assessment) An approach that is favored by psychologists is self reporting. Self-reporting can fall into one of two MAJOR CATEGORIES: REPORTS about ORGANIZATIONAL CONDITIONS or reports about PSYCHOLOGICAL and/or PHYSICAL STATES. REPORTS on ORGANIZATIONAL CONDITIONS typically CONTAIN ITEMS that ASK about FACETS of the JOB such as autonomy, feedback, task identity, task significance, skill variety, complexity, dealing with others, ambiguity, and workload (like: Number of projects/assignments you have, Amount of time spent in meetings, Amount of time spent at work, Number of phone calls and visitors you have during the day). There are SEVERAL STANDARDIZED SELF-REPORT MEASURES of PSYCHOLOGICAL and PHYSIOLOGICAL STRESS and strain, such as the STRESS DIAGNOSTIC SURVEY (SDS; Ivancevich & Matteson, 1980), the OCCUPATIONAL STRESS INDICATOR (OSI; Cooper, Sloan, & Williams, 1988), and the JOB STRESS SURVEY (JSS). The JSS is a 30-item instrument that MEASURES the SEVERITY and FREQUENCY with which workers experience certain stressful working conditions. (MEASUREMENT OF STRESSFUL LIFE EVENTS) Particularly important is the worker's EXPERIENCE of TRAUMATIC or STRESSFUL LIFE EVENTS. Particularly important is the worker's experience of traumatic or stressful life events. This approach to MEASURING STRESS ASSUMES that such events can BRING on STRESS-related illness and may impair job performance. One MEASURE is a CHECKLIST where INDIVIDUALS TOTAL the NUMERICAL "STRESS SEVERITY" SCORES ASSOCIATED with the significant LIFE EVENTS that they have expe- rienced in the past year. This provides a PERSONAL LIFE EVENTS STRESS INDEX. Research suggests that PERSONS with HIGH PERSONAL STRESS indexes tend to PERFORM more POORLY, have higher absenteeism, and change jobs more frequently than persons who experience fewer stressful life events. Moreover, there is some EVIDENCE that STRESSFUL LIFE EVENTS have a GREATER STRESS IMPACT on YOUNGER as OPPOSED to OLDER persons based on the notion that young people do not have as well-developed coping mechanisms. Criticism of this approach: too general, assessment of stressful life events may not reveal the impact of day-to- day stressors influencing the individual. (MEASUREMENT OF PERSON-ENVIRONMENT FIT) PERSON-ENVIRONMENT (P-E) fit REFERS to the MATCH between a WORKERS ABILITIES, needs, and values, and organizational demands, rewards, and values. P-E fit has been FOUND to have a POSITIVE CORRELATION with ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT, well-being, and a negative correlation with turnover. According to the P-E fit approach, a MISMATCH between the WORKER and the WORK ORGANIZATION/ENVIRONMENT is BELIEVED to be a PRIMARY CAUSE of WORKER STRESS. Typically, MEASUREMENT of PERSON-ENVIRONMENT fit INVOLVES MEASURING some CHARACTERISTICS of the WORKER, such as worker skills and/or abilities, and ASSESSING the WORK ENVIRONMENT and job DEMANDS. The DISCREPANCY between these TWO SETS of MEASURES is then CALCULATED as an INDEX of fit. It can be argued, however, that the CONCEPT of PE FIT is overly BROAD, and that measures that specifically look at "SUBCATEGORIES" of P-E fit—such as person-organization fit, person-job fit, and the extent to which a particular job fits an individual's motivational needs.

WORK TASK STRESSORS: WORK OVERLOAD AND UNDERUTILIZATION 253

A common work task source of stress is WORK OVERLOAD, AKA ROLE OVERLOAD, which RESULTS when the JOB REQUIRES EXCESSIVE work speed, output, or concentration. Work overload is widely BELIEVED to be ONE of the GREATEST SOURCES of WORK STRESS. Work overload can cause stress, but having TOO LITTLE to do—UNDERUTILIZATION— can also be stressful. UNDERUTILIZATION may also OCCUR when WORKERS FEEL that the JOB does NOT USE their work-related KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS, or abilities, or when JOBS are BORING and MONOTONOUS.

COPING WITH WORKER STRESS: INDIVIDUAL STRATEGIES AND ORGANIZATIONAL STRATEGIES 267-273

The techniques designed to cope with stress can be categorized into two general approaches: INDIVIDUAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL strategies. INDIVIDUAL is used by INDIVIDUAL employees to try to reduce or ELIMINATE PERSONAL STRESS. ORG. strategies are techniques and programs that organizations can implement to try to REDUCE STRESS levels for GROUPS of workers or for the organization AS A WHOLE. (INDIVIDUAL COPING STRATEGIES): Individual coping strategies are behavioral or cognitive efforts made in an attempt to MANAGE INTERNAL DEMANDS and conflicts that have exceeded an individual's usual coping resources. The most obvious of such techniques are programs DEVELOPED to IMPROVE the INDIVIDUAL'S PHYSICAL CONDITION, such as exercise and diet plans. The primary RATIONALE behind such health programs is to MAKE THE BODY more RESISTANT to STRESS-related illnesses. Another individual coping strategy is the inducement of states of relaxation to reduce the negative arousal and strain that accompany stress. A variety of techniques have been used to achieve this, including SYSTEMATIC RELAXATION TRAINING, MEDITATION, AND BIOFEEDBACK. In SYSTEMATIC relaxation training, individuals are taught how to relax all the muscles of the body systematically, from the feet to the face. MEDITATION is a deep relaxed state that is usually brought on by intense concentration on a single word, idea, or object. BIOFEEDBACK uses some measure of PHYSIOLOGICAL activity, typically BRAIN WAVES or muscle tension, that is associated with relaxed states. When the person is in the state of relaxation, the measurement machinery provides some sort of feedback, such as a tone. ONE possible REASON why SYSTEMATIC RELAXATION coping strategies may NOT be EFFECTIVE is that most of the relaxation techniques require quite a bit of dedication and practice to be used effectively. THE TIMING of RELAXATION TECHNIQUES is another PROBLEM, same applies to exercise. COURSES in TIME MANAGEMENT are often advertised as methods of REDUCING STRESS caused by overwork and inefficiency, although these strategies DEPEND on the individual's COMMITMENT to the TECHNIQUE and willingness and ability to use it REGULARLY. Individuals may also try to COPE with STRESS by REMOVING THEMSELVES, TEMPORARILY or permanently, from the STRESSFUL WORK SITUATION. RESEARCH indicates that although VACATIONS do indeed reduce work stress and feelings of burnout, the EFFECTS are TEMPORARY. Workers might also use voluntary days off as a coping strategy. Finally, COGNITIVE EFFORTS to COPE may include COGNITIVE RESTRUCTURING, which entails CHANGING the WAY one THINKS about STRESSORS (it changes perception of stress). RESEARCH shows that SELF-EFFICACY can help COPE with work demands, such as work overload, but ONLY if the person has the resources to help reduce the job demands. (ORGANIZATIONAL COPING STRATEGIES): ORG. COPING STRATEGIES are STEPS that ORGS. can take to try to REDUCE STRESS LEVELS in the organization for all, or most, employees. THESE STRATEGIES INCLUDE: (1) IMPROVE THE PERSON JOB FIT—We have already seen that work stress commonly arises when workers are in jobs they dislike or jobs for which they are ill suited. A MISMATCH between a worker's interests or skills and job requirements can be very stressful. By MAXIMIZING the person-job fit through the careful screening, selection, and placement of employees, organizations can alleviate a great deal of this stress. (2) IMPROVE EMPLOYEE TRAINING AND ORIENTATION PROGRAMS —Perhaps the most stressed groups of workers in any organization are NEW EMPLOYEES. Although they are usually HIGHLY MOTIVATED and want to make a good impression on their new bosses by showing that they are hardworking and competent, their LACK of certain job-related SKILS and knowledge means that new employees are often UNABLE to perform their jobs as well as they would like. This MISMATCH between EXPECTATION and OUTCOMES can be very STRESSFUL for NEW WORKERS. COMPANIES can help ELIMINATE some of this stress by ENSURING that new workers receive PROPER JOB TRAINING and orientation to the organization. (3) INCREASE EMPLOYEE'S SENSE OF CONTROL—We have seen that the lack of a sense of control over one's job can be very stressful. By giving workers a greater feeling of control through participation in work-related decisions, more responsibility, or increased autonomy and independence, organizations can alleviate some of this stress. Programs such as JOB ENRICHMENT, participative decision making, and systems of delegating authority all help increase employees' SENSE OF CONTROL over their jobs and the work environment. (4) ELIMINATE PUNITIVE MANAGEMENT—It is well known that humans react strongly when they are punished or harassed, particularly if the punishment or harassment is believed to be unfair and undeserved. The very act of being THREATENED or PUNISHED at work can be very STRESSFUL. If organizations take steps to ELIMINATE company POLICIES that are perceived to be THREATENING or punitive, a major source of work stress will also be eliminated. (5) REMOVE HAZARDOUS OR DANGEROUS WORK CONDITIONS —In some occupations stress results from exposure to hazardous work conditions, such as mechanical danger of loss of limb or life, health-harming chemicals, excessive fatigue, or extreme temperatures. The ELIMINATION or REDUCTION of these situations is another way of coping with organizational stress. (6) PROVIDE A SUPPORTIVE, TEAM ORIENTED WORK ENVIRONMENT —There is considerable research evidence that having SUPPORTIVE COLLEAGUES—people who can help deal with stressful work situations—can help reduce worker stress. Meta-analyses suggest that SOCIAL SUPPORT in the workplace REDUCES PERCEPTIONS of THREAT, lessens the perceived strength of the stressors, and helps in coping with work-related stress. The more organizations can foster good interpersonal relationships among coworkers and an integrated, highly functioning work team, the more likely that workers will be able to provide support for one another in times of stress. (7) IMPROVE COMMUNICATION—Much of the stress at work derives from DIFFICULTIES in INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS with supervisors and coworkers. The BETTER the COMMUNICATION among workers, the lower the stress created because of misunderstandings. In addition, stress occurs when workers feel cut off from or uninformed about organizational processes and operations.

ON THE CUTTING EDGE: WORKPLACE BULLYING: AN INVISIBLE EPIDEMIC? 257

A 2007 survey of U.S. workers found that more than one third of them reported that they had been bullying at work, including such behaviors as threats, aggression, ridiculing, sabotage of their work, and giving them the silent treatment. TARGETS bullies REPORT anxiety, fear, depres- sion, and in extreme cases suffer a post-traumatic stress disorder. The COST of WORKPLACE bullying to organizations, in terms of REDUCED PRODUCTIVITY and INCREASED ABSENTEEISM and TURNOVER, likely runs into the BILLIONS of DOLLARS. Because many of the targets of workplace bullies are not members of protected groups, there is often no legal recourse, and many witnesses of workplace bullying don't speak up for fear they will be targeted themselves. Some countries have begun to enact legislation to com- bat workplace bullying, including Australia, Canada, and several European nations. In the United States there is a movement to enact the Healthy Workplace bill, but anti- bullying legislation has not reached the federal level, but is being considered by several states.

APPLYING I/O PSYCH: Stress Levels and Stress Sources of Executives Around the World 272

ARE EXECUTIVES HIGHLY STRESSED? many executives constantly work under such stressful conditions as work overload, high levels of responsibility, and inter-role conflict (e.g., being required to travel extensively on business, which interferes with family and personal commitments). The FINDING that EXECUTIVES have a HIGH RATE of certain types of ulcers than certain blue-collar workers attests to the existence of executive stress. On the other hand, EXECUTIVES have the BENEFITS of some WORKING CONDITIONS that are believed to moderate stress, such as control over the job.The answer to the question of whether executives WORLDWIDE experience similar stressors is also not completely clear. There is some indication, however, that EXECUTIVES in DIFFERENT NATIONS EXPERIENCE different types or sources of stress. For example, executives in less-developed countries such as Nigeria and Egypt seem to experience a great deal of stress due to LACK of AUTONOMY, whereas those from more developed countries, such as the United States, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and Japan, experience greater stress from WORK OVERLOAD. Workers in INDIA rated lack of job structure, not workload, as their greatest source of stress. One study found that executives in New Zealand experience less job-related stress than executives in nine other countries. These researchers mention that this may be due to the more relaxed lifestyle in New Zealand and the fact that many of these executives worked for rather small organizations. OVERALL, such studies seem to indicate that although EXECUTIVE JOB STRESS is UNIVERSAL, the amount of stress experienced, and the sources of the stress, may vary depending on country or culture.

ALCOHOL AND DRUG USE IN THE WORKPLACE 275-276

DRUG/ALCOHOL abuse is directly responsible for DECREASED PRODUCTIVITY and INCREASED ABSENTEEISM and turnover, not to mention all the problems that it can cause in the home lives of workers. The COST of all of this are staggering. A conservative estimate is that substance abuse costs U.S. employers more than $100 billion dollars a year, and substance abuse is a worldwide problem. A study of YOUNG WORKERS found that workers who reported problems with alcohol and drugs had GREATER JOB INSTABILITY and reduced job satisfaction in comparison to their peers who did not abuse drugs. Moreover, this is likely a CYCLICAL PROCESS. Studies suggest that workers who are under severe stress, such as heavy job demands or the stress of job loss, may turn to alcohol or drugs. There is some EVIDENCE that ORG. POLICIES that BAN SUBSTANCE ABUSE in the workplace and advocate against illicit drug use reduce employees' use of drugs both on and off the job. In an effort to combat substance abuse, many companies have EMPLOYEE ASSISTANCE PROGRAMS (EAPs), programs that offer counseling for a variety of employee problems. Of particular CONCERN is counseling for drug and alcohol abuse, although EAPs also HELP EMPLOYEES to DEAL with work stress and PERSONAL PROBLEMS that may adversely affect their performance and well-being. This INCREASE is likely due to the GROWING CONCERN over the devastating CONSEQUENCES of substance ABUSE in terms of harming worker health and organizational productivity. The MAJORITY of large American companies today HAVE some type of formalized EMPLOYEE ASSISTANCE PROGRAM. Employee assistance PROGRAMS usually take ONE of TWO FORMS. EXTERNAL PROGRAMS are those in which the COMPANY CONTRACTS with an OUTSIDE AGENCY to PROVIDE COUNSELING services for its employees. INTERNAL EAPs OFFER SERVICES at the WORK SITE. The ADVANTAGE of an INTERNAL program is its CONVENIENCE for the employees, although they are EXPENSIVE to maintain. Usually only LARGE ORGS. can AFFORD INTERNAL EAPs. The main ADVANTAGES of EXTERNAL programs are the LOWER COSTS and the increased employee CONFIDENTIALITY. There has been little research on these program's effectiveness. The PROBLEM RESULTS partly from the DIFFICULTY of EVALUATING any counseling program, because it is not always clear which variables will best determine a program's "success." Furthermore, it is DIFFICULT to DETERMINE how EAP counseling AFFECTS BOTTOM-LINE VARIABLES such as EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE. It is also difficult to determine the effectiveness of EAPs because the LARGE NUMBER of EXTERNAL AGENCIES that offer counseling services for businesses usually conduct their own evaluations, and it is unclear how objective and accurate these self-assessments are. It is likely that even a FEW CASES of EMPLOYEE RECOVER would lead an employer to LABEL an EAP a SUCCESS because of the SEVERITY of drug and alcohol ADDICTION. Moreover, there is some EVIDENCE that EAPs do HELP REDUCE LONG TERM HEALTH CARE COSTS for employees. One CRITIC of substance abuse EAPs argues that they FOCUS primarily on treating ALCOHOL and DRUG problems after they have reached the problem stage, but give LIL ATTENTION to their PREVENTION.

JOB BURNOUT 265-267

Employees exposed to such things as unresolved interpersonal conflicts, lack of clearly defined work tasks and responsibilities, extreme overwork, lack of appropriate rewards, or presence of inappropriate punishment may become victims of BURNOUT, a process by which they become LESS COMMITTED to their jobs and begin to WITHDRAW from work. The PROCESS of WITHDRAWAL may INCLUDE such reactions as increased TARDINESS and absenteeism and decreased work performance and work quality. Burnout usually occurs in THREE PHASES. The first phase is EMOTIONAL EXHAUSTION caused by EXCESSIVE DEMANDS placed on the worker. The SECOND PHASE is DEPERSONALIZATION, or the development of a CYNICAL, insensitive attitude toward people (other workers or customers) in the work site. The THIRD phase is marked by feelings of LOW PERSONAL ACCOMPLISHMENT. Here the burned-out workers feel a sense of frustration and helplessness. They begin to believe that their work efforts fail to produce the desired results, and they may quit trying. RESEARCH has shown that BURNOUT is especially high in HUMAN SERVICE PROFESSIONS that involve helping others, such as health-care providers (physicians, nurses, counselors), teachers, social workers, and policemen. It is important to note that there is some DEBATE AMONG RESEARCHERS about the DEFINITION and the complexity of the burnout phenomenon. For instance, researchers have disagreed about the number of components that comprise the burnout syndrome.

STRESSFUL OCCUPATIONS 251-252

Is it true that certain occupations are particularly stress prone? There is SOME EVIDENCE to SUPPORT this. However, some STUDIES SUGGEST that rather than causing stress, the excitement and CHALLENGE of DEALING with PHYSICAL DANGER may actually be motivating and "ENRICHING" to many police officers and firefighters. In sum, trying to DETERMINE levels of worker STRESS merely by LOOKING at a person's OCCUPATION or job title may NOT be very ACCURATE. RESEARCH on these and other STEREOTYPICALLY STRESSFUL OCCUPATIONS has begun to DISCOVER exactly why these jobs are characterized as stressful. Rather than focusing only on high-stress occupations, it makes sense to EXAMINE those SOURCES of WORKER STRESS that are COMMON to ALL KINDS of JOBS, even those that are not typically considered high-stress jobs. Such SOURCES of STRESS can be DIVIDED into TWO general CATEGORIES: ORGANIZATIONAL and individual. ORGANIZATIONAL sources of STRESS come from the WORK ENVIRONMENT and can be broken down into TWO SUBCATEGORIES: STRESS derived from WORK TASKS and STRESS resulting from WORK ROLES. INDIVIDUAL sources of stress include a PERSON'S HISTORY of EXPOSURE to STRESS as well as certain stress-related PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS and BEHAVIORAL patterns.

EFFECTS OF WORKER STRESS 263-265

It is believed that MORE than ONE HALF of all PHYSICAL ILLNESSES are STRESS RELATED. It is ESTIMATED that these ILLNESSES, attributed in part to work stress, COST BILLIONS of dollars ANNUALLY in HEALTH-CARE costs and in employee absenteeism and turnover. WORKER STRESS can also have an ADVERSE IMPACT on EMPLOYEES' PSYCHOLOGICAL STATES. High levels of stress are associated with depression, anxiety, and chronic fatigue. Stress may also contribute to alcoholism and drug abuse in workers and may influence accident rates on the job. Emotional EXHAUSTION, detachment from coworkers, negative self-evaluations, and lowered self-esteem are also associated with worker stress. However, the RELATIONSHIPS between work stress and these KEY BOTTOM-LINE VARIABLES are quite COMPLEX. it has been suggested that the RELATIONSHIP between STRESS and PERFORMANCE may often take the form of an INVERTED U, rather than being direct and LINEAR, with greater stress leading to poorer performance. ON THE OTHER HAND, having LITTLE OR NO STRESS means that the worker is not being challenged or motivated. The effects of work stress on job performance might also be affected by other variables. If stress is caused by an inability to get along with a certain coworker, an EMPLOYEE may try to COPE with this situation by AVOIDING all INTERACTIONS with the individual. This AVOIDANCE STRATEGY may IMPAIR the employee's job performance if the coworker has some valuable information that the employee needs to perform his or her job. A great deal of EVIDENCE suggests that work stress can lead to increased TURNOVER and ABSENTEEISM. Gupta and Beehr (1979) found this to be true for a variety of occupations in five organizations. Another study concluded that it was a combination of high levels of work stress and low levels of organizational commitment that predicted voluntary turnover rates for workers in a food processing company

DEFINING WORKER STRESS 249-250

Researchers cant agree on one definition of stress, there are at least 8 different definitions (Models) for stress. According to the EARLY STRESS RESEARCHER, HANS SELYE (1976), STRESS is primarily a PHYSIOLOGICAL REACTION to certain threatening environmental events. From SELVES PERSPECTIVE, worker stress would simply refer to the stress caused by events in the work environment. PSYCHOLOGIST JOHN FRENCH and his COLLEAGUES say that worker stress results from a lack of "fit" between a person's skills and abilities and the demands of the job and the workplace. RICHARD LAZARUS, in his "TRANSACTIONAL" VIEW of worker stress, saw stress as resulting from the worker's perception that a certain environmental event is a threat or a challenge, factoring in your perception of how capable you will be at managing the threat. From RICHARD Lazarus's PERSPECTIVE, you and I might interpret the SAME EVENT very DIFFERENTLY. All THREE DEFINITIONS VIEW WORKER STRESS as an INTERACTION between the PERSON and some ENVIRONMENTAL EVENT, or STRESSOR. In addition, all the definitions EMPHASIZE that there are some IMPORTANT REACTIONS to the STRESSFUL EVENT. These reactions can be either physiological or psychological in nature, or both. Therefore, we will DEFINE WORKER STRESS as PHYSIOLOGICAL and/or PSYCHOLOGICAL REACTIONS TO an EVENT that is perceived to be threatening or taxing. Some stress distinguish the NEGATIVE STRESS, termed DISTRESS, from the POSITIVE kind of STRESS, called EUSTRESS. In many ways, STRESS is a PERCEPTUAL PROCESS. An event that one INDIVIDUAL PERCEIVES to be STRESSFUL may NOT BE LABELED as such by SOMEONE ELSE. COMPANIES and managers have become more and more CONCERNED with the EFFECTS of STRESS on workers and on important "BOTTOM-LINE" variables, such as PRODUCTIVITY, ABSENTEEISM, and TURNOVER. MANAGERS and WORKERS may also be CONCERNED about STRESS at a more PERSONAL LEVEL. Worker stress can be, in many ways, the flip side of job satisfaction. Whereas job SATISFACTION REPRESENTS the "POSITIVES" associated with work, stress is a way of conceptualizing the "negatives" associated with jobs—the pressures, the strains, the conflicts.

SOURCES OF WORKER STRESS 250

SITUATIONAL STRESS can come from ALL ASPECTS of our LIVES. Most stress researchers realize this and EMPHASIZE that when STUDYING STRESS, it is IMPORTANT to LOOK at the BROAD PICTURE of an individual's TOTAL STRESS, rather than focusing narrowly on stress derived from work.

ORGANIZATIONAL SOURCES OF WORK STRESS: SITUATIONAL STRESSORS 252-253

Worker stress is caused by stressors in the environment of the work organization. Some of this ORGANIZATIONAL STRESS is CAUSED by the WORK TASKS THEMSELVES—the physical and psychological demands of performing a job. ORGANIZATIONAL STRESS may also be CAUSED by WORK ROLES because work organizations are complex social systems in which a worker must interact with many people. These two types of situational stress—WORK TASK and WORK ROLE STRESSORS—can often be ALLEVIATED by MANAGEMENT ACTIONS.

NEGATIVE EMPLOYEE ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIORS 273-275

(POSITIVE AFFECTIVITY from ch. 9 mentioned) What are the RELATIONSHIPS between NEGATIVE AFFECTIVITY, worker stress, and undesirable work outcomes? There is MIXED EVIDENCE about how NEGATIVE AFFECTIVITY influences perceived stress; however, it seems that individuals prone to negative emotions do indeed perceive that they have more stress on their jobs. Workers with high negative affectivity also leave work early. In addition, there is some EVIDENCE that workers high in negative affectivity may NOT RESPOND as WELL to FEEDBACK from SUPERVISORS about how to improve their work performance. Beyond the role of negative emotions, what are some negative employee behaviors that are of major concern to organizations? I/O psychologists have INVESTIGATED COUNTERPRODUCTIVE WORK BEHAVIORS (CWBs), which are DEVIANT BEHAVIORS that are harmful to an employee's organization and its members. COUNTERPRODUCTIVE work behaviors INCLUDE such things as stealing from employers, vandalism, sabotage, harassment of coworkers, deliberately missing work, and using drugs or alcohol on the job. RESEARCH has shown that CWBs can RESULT from stress, frustration at work, or feelings of inequity, causing attempts to retaliate against the employer and seek revenge, or even from jealousy. Meta-analyses suggest that CWBs are more PREVALENT in YOUNGER EMPLOYEES employees and those with lower job satisfaction. COUNTERPROD. work behaviors, and even workplace aggression and violence, are also LINKED to TRAIT NEGATIVE AFFECTIVITY, and other personality variables. Interestingly, a METAL-ANALYSIS showed that the INCIDENCE of CWBs is NEGATIVELY RELATED to (r = -0.32) the INCIDENCE of ORG. CITIZENSHIP BEHVAVIORS, but they are distinct constructs. RESEARCHERS SUGGEST that ORGS. should ENGAGE in PROGRAMS to try to ALLEVIATE sources of STRESS and PROVIDE STRATEGIES to give workers greater control over their jobs, as a way to reduce CWBs. There is evidence that CWBs are NOT JUST INDIVIDUALLY MOTIVATED, but can also be influenced by the norms and values of the group and organization. Other strategies of combating counterprod. given.

INDIVIDUAL SOURCES OF WORK STRESS: DISPOSITIONAL STRESSORS- TYPE A BEHAVIOR PATTERN/ SUSCEPTIBILITY AND RESISTANCE TO STRESS/ SELF-EFFICACY 258-260

(TYPE A BEHAVIOR PATTERN) Researchers have uncovered the Type A behavior pattern, or Type A personality, which is characterized by EXCESSIVE DRIVE and COMPETITIVENESS, a sense of urgency and impatience, and underlying hostility. This behavior pattern is particularly SIGNIFICANT because there is EVIDENCE that PERSON'S who POSSESS the Type A personality are slightly more PRONE to develop stress-related coronary heart disease, including fatal heart attacks, than persons who do not have the behavior pattern, termed Type Bs. EARLY RESEARCH on Type A BEHAVIOR HYPOTHESIZED that it was the Type A's hardworking, competitive drive that caused STRESS and subsequent heart problems. LATER RESEARCH, however, SUGGESTED that the Type A's underlying HOSTILITY, and the lack of appropriate expression of that hostility, is also partly RESPONSIBLE for increased stress reactions in Type A's. Other STUDIES SUGGEST that the more GLOBAL CONSTRUCT of "NEGATIVE AFFECTIVITY," or the EXPRESSION of NEGATIVE EMOTIONS, such as anger, hostility, anxiety, impatience, and aggression, is what COMBINES with a Type A personality to INCREASE STRESS-related health risks. Type A's may have STRONGER STRESS-induced PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES that they are NOT necessarily AWARE of, and it is these strong physiological responses over time that lead to increased health risks. Although there are obvious stress-related costs to the Type A behavior pattern, there are also some GAINS. STUDIES consistently SHOW that Type A's tend to work harder, work well in high-variety jobs, and have higher positions and salaries than Type B's, this is tied into the idea of "workaholic." (SUSCEPTIBILITY/RESISTANCE TO STRESS) The CONCEPT of HARDINESS was OUTLINED by psychologist SUZANNE KOBASA, who argued that HARDY PERSONALITY TYPES are RESISTANT to the harmful EFFECTS of STRESS because of their style of dealing with stressful events. A META-ANALYSIS shows that HARDY INDIVIDUALS EXPERIENCE LESS STRESS and are better at COPING with STRESS than non- hardy individuals. HARDY TYPES view stress as a CHALLENGE and DERIVE MEANING from these CHALLENGING experiences. Moreover, they also BELIEVE that they can CONTROL and INFLUENCE the COURSE of their LIVES. LACK of HARDINESS is ASSOCIATED with higher levels of SELF-PERCEIVED STRESS, and there is EVIDENCE that such "UNHARDY" or "disease-prone" PERSONS may be more SUSCEPTIBLE to STRESS-RELATED illnesses and depression. There have been attempts to INCREASE HARDINESS through what has been called HARDITRAINING. In essence, TRAINING for HARDINESS actually INVOLVES the development of workers' coping skills, and a combination of relaxation training, a program of diet and exercise, and developing supportive networks to help reduce stress. (SELF EFFICACY) SELF-EFFICACY is defined as an INDIVIDUAL'S BELIEFS in his or her ABILITIES to ENGAGE in courses of ACTION that will LEAD to DESIRED OUTCOMES. In other words, self-efficacy is RELATED to one's SENSE of COMPETENCE and EFFECTIVENESS. SELF-EFFICACY is a very IMPORTANT concept that not only relates to one's ABILITY to COPE with stressful situations (i.e., the possession of COPING self-efficacy), but it is also an important FACTOR RELATING to a WORKERS ABILITY to PERFORM his or her job (JOB-RELATED self-efficacy), to lead a work team (LEADERSHIP self-efficacy), and to deal effectively with relationships at work (RELATIONSHIP self-efficacy). There is EVIDENCE that a SENSE of SELF-EFFICACY can have POSITIVE EFFECTS in REDUCING STRESS in the workplace.