Western Civ 2 - Test 2

a. Italy's Vittorio Orlando b. Britain's David Lloyd George c. Russia's V. I. Lenin d. America's Woodrow Wilson e. France's Georges Clemenceau The correct answer is C. The Big Four at the Paris Peace Conference included David Lloyd George, Georges Clemenceau, Vittorio Orlando, and Woodrow Wilson. Although Russia had been a member of the Triple Entente at the beginning of the war, after the Bolshevik Revolution of November 1917, Russia made a separate peace with Germany in early 1918, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. Since Russia was no longer part of the alliance at war's end, Lenin was not at Paris. Despite Wilson's idealistic belief in the equality of nations, Italy's Orlando played a lesser role than did the other members of the Big Four, in deference to the realism of Lloyd George and Clemenceau.

The photo of the Big Four at the Paris Peace Conference at the conclusion of World War I includes all of the following EXCEPT

The Nazi rule of Europe was MOST ruthless in

a. Eastern Europe because the Nazis considered Slavs to be racially inferior b. France due to the long rivalry between France and Germany c. Norway, Denmark, and the Netherlands due to their close proximity to Germany d. Italy because the Italians were generally considered to be disloyal e. Greece, because of the intellectual freedoms and accomplishments represented by ancient Greece The correct answer is A. In the Nazi empire, racial considerations determined how the conquered peoples were treated. The Scandinavian countries were supposedly Aryan, so those states received more lenient treatment. "Latin" peoples such as the French were inferior and thus placed under military rule. In the east, where German living space was required, the racially inferior Slavs were treated much more cruelly than elsewhere.

The American romantic author of The Fall of the House of Usher was

a. Mary Shelley b. Herman Melville c. Edgar Allan Poe d. Ralph Waldo Emerson e. Nathaniel Hawthorne The correct answer is C. Literary Romanticism stressed emotion, sentiment, and inner feelings rather than objectivity and reason. The term Gothic was applied to a certain type of story or novel that involved mystery and horror. Mary Shelley's Frankenstein is one example of the genre. In the United States, the major practitioner of Gothic Romanticism was Edgar Allan Poe, who wrote The Fall of the House of Usher.

Which of the following nineteenth-century European political movements was MOST responsible for triggering World War I?

a. Nationalism b. Liberalism c. Conservatism d. Marxism e. Socialism The correct answer is A. Early nineteenth-century liberals believed that the organization of Europe along national lines would ensure peace. However, the system of nation-states that emerged by the latter half of the century resulted in excessive national competition rather than cooperation and brotherhood. Nationalism not only led to patriotic rivalry and feelings of superiority, it also produced imperial and commercial competition and, eventually, an arms race between the European states.

The post-World War II art world has been dominated mainly by

a. New York City b. Paris c. Berlin d. London e. Rome The correct answer is A. From the late nineteenth century until the Second World War, Paris was the center of the art world. Although Berlin challenged Paris as a focus of the avant-garde during the 1920s, in the aftermath of World War II, neither city could rival New York City as the artistic center of the Western world.

The GREATEST difference between Naturalism and Realism in literature was that

a. Realism dealt more with themes like human suffering b. Naturalism was more popular than realism c. Naturalism was more optimistic about the possibility for human progress d. Realism was simply a continuation of Naturalism e. Naturalism tended to be more pessimistic than Realism The correct answer is E. Literary Naturalism emerged toward the end of the nineteenth century. Naturalist writers often were less optimismtic than their Realist predecessors of the mid-nineteenth century. Naturalists, such as France's Emile Zola, were pessimistic about the survival-of-the-fittest world of social Darwinism they observed and its seemingly inevitable struggles. Some Naturalist even feared for the future of European civilization itself.

Which of the following states was a continual source of trouble for Austria-Hungary and a primary cause of World War I?

a. Serbia b. Bulgaria c. Greece d. Italy e. France The correct answer is A. The decline of the Ottoman Empire in the nineteenth century created a vacuum in the Balkans. A rivalry developed between Russia and Austria-Hungary for dominance of the region. Russia supported Serbia's ambition to establish a large Slavic state within the Balkans. Austria-Hungary possessed its own Slavic minority and feared that a greater Serbia would threaten the unity of multi-ethnic Austria-Hungary.

Toward the end of the eighteenth century, the European legal system witnessed

a. a trend away from imprisonment and toward capital punishment began b. a decline in corporal and capital punishments c. more brutal criminal punishments as violent crime increased d. punishments that were proportionate to the crimes committed e. the adoption of English common law throughout Europe The correct answer is B. Extremely brutal punishments have been used throughout human history. The use of torture and inhumane means of executions were common until modern times. At one time, England had over two hundred crimes for which the penalty was death. However, by the end of the eighteenth century, objections by Cesare Beccaria and others to the inhuman brutality of some punishments led to growing public sentiment against executions and torture and a general decline in corporal and capital punishment.

The Nazi policies toward women

a. differed fundamentally from those of Fascist Italy b. eliminated females from all professional occupations c. were aimed at bridging the differences between the sexes d. emphasized childbearing and service in the home e. were more progressive than those in Britain and France The correct answer is D. Nazi ideology maintained that a woman should bear and raise Aryan children who could bring about the triumph of the race. Although fascist Italy also defined a woman's role in strictly traditional terms, they did not adopt an ideology of ethnic supremacy. Both nations emphasized the importance of increasing the population.

Natural human rights advanced by political thinkers of the Enlightenment include all of the following EXCEPT

a. equality before the law b. the right to assemble c. freedom from taxation d. freedom of worship e. the right to own property The correct answer is C. The concept of human rights during the Enlightenment included a number of "natural" rights. However, no major Enlightenment figure argued that freedom from taxes was a human right. Locke stated that natural rights included life, liberty, and property, and Jefferson claimed that they were life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. The French "Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen" listed "liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression."

In the post-World War II Middle East, the Arab states were united in their opposition to

a. the Suez Canal b. equal sharing in oil revenues c. the state of Israel d. a sympathy for Communism e. support for America's foreign policy The correct answer is C. The one issue that united the Arab states in the decades after World War II was the issue of Palestine. The Arab states differed and quarreled with each regarding borders, sharing of oil resources, the role of religion in society, and the preeminence of Sunni or Shi'ite Islam. However, following the independence of Israel in 1948, all the Arabs were united in their support for Palestine and their opposition to the state of Israel.

The experimental work of early twentieth-century physicists challenged and ultimately invalidated

a. the chemical theories of Paracelsus b. Newton's rational, mechanical universe c. the heliocentric theory of Galileo d. Harvey's arguments on circulation e. the geocentric theory of Copernicus The correct answer is B. The discoveries and theories of Marie Curie, Max Planck, and Albert Einstein brought into question the assumptions behind Isaac Newton's conception of an ordered, mechanical universe. Newton's clockwork universe was supplanted by a new physics that exposed the seemingly random behavior of subatomic particles and the relativity of space and time.

a. Neo-Gothic b. Modern-Baroque c. Neo-Classical d. Post-Romantic e. Neo-Renaissance The correct answer is A. Britain's Houses of Parliament in London were rebuilt in the Neo-Gothic style following a fire in the 1830s. During the early nineteenth century, artistic movements inspired by the Middle Ages enjoyed great popularity. These prominent Romantic, Gothic, and neo-Gothic artists and architects in part represented a reaction to the industrialization and urbanization.

The picture of the new British Houses of Parliament, rebuilt following a fire in 1834, exemplifies the architectural style known as

a. the Rolling Stones b. the Beatles c. the Beach Boys d. the Doors e. the Eagles The correct answer is B. The photo is of the Beatles when they arrived in the United States. Although rock-and-roll originated in America, during the 1960s, British groups such as the Beatles and the Rolling Stones enjoyed great popularity in the United States and around the world. John, Paul, George, and Ringo became icons of their generation in the 1960s.

The rock-and-roll group in the photograph is

The capable French wartime leader Georges Clemenceau uttered perhaps the only observation on World War I worthy of memory, when he said

a. "Who would have thought that this war would go on so long and at so great a human price?" b. "War is too important to be left to generals." c. "War is the hygiene of modern humanity." d. "Without war there would be no technological progress and no promise of future profits for industry." e. "War is hell." The correct answer is B. Georges Clemenceau, who became premier of France in 1917, a year with one military disaster after another, millions of war-time military casualties, and little prospect of the war ever coming to an end, famously noted that "War is too important to be left to generals." As a civilian, he took control of France's war effort. It was General William T. Sherman in the American Civil War who said that war is hell.

The argument that further social progress required population control was popularized by

a. Adam Smith b. Thomas Malthus c. Joseph de Maistre d. Jeremy Bentham e. David Ricardo The correct answer is B. Thomas Malthus, among others, was concerned that the rapidly increasing population of the eighteenth and nineteenth century would lead to famine and social chaos. In his "Essay on the Principles of Population," he argued that despite the advances of the agricultural revolution, food supplies increased arithmetically, while population increased geometrically. He saw this contradiction leading inevitably to disastrous overpopulation. Malthus himself believed that governments could do little to solve the problem, which would eventually be resolved through famines, wars, and plagues.

The French Rococo painter who portrayed the aristocratic life as refined, sensual, and civilized was

a. Antoine Watteau b. Balthasar Neumann c. Madame Geoffrin d. Rembrandt e. Nicholas Poussin The correct answer is A. By the early eighteenth century, a new art style was emerging in Europe. Known as Rococo, it emphasized curves, grace, and gentle action. One of the major figures of Rococo was Antoine Watteau, who painted an aristocratic world that was refined, civilized, sensual, and filled with joy and happiness.

The city in which Hitler spent his formative years and developed his fundamental ideas was

a. Berlin b. Munich c. Vienna d. Hamburg e. Frankfort The correct answer is C. Adolph Hitler wrote his autobiography Mein Kampf (or My Struggle) while living in Vienna between 1908 to 1913. This was a formative period in his life, when he was first exposed to fervid German nationalism, demagogic politics, and anti-Semitism.

After 1763, conflict between colonists and the British authorities arose over

a. British efforts to raise new revenues through increased taxes b. freedom of trade on the high seas c. freedom of religion for the colonists d. the expansion of rival French colonies in North America e. the colonists' desire to grant equal rights to the Native Americans The correct answer is A. Although the Seven Years' War expanded England's worldwide empire, it greatly increased English debt and defense costs. To raise much needed revenue, the British government instituted the Stamp Act and other tax legislation in North America. These attempts to raise revenue in the colonies were met with considerable opposition. The conflict over the Stamp Act began the first chapter in the American Revolution.

The MOST important factor in preventing the European overthrow of the newly independent nations of Latin America was

a. British naval power b. the Monroe Doctrine guiding American foreign policy c. the sheer size of South America d. growing support for pacifism in Europe e. the Atlantic Ocean The correct answer is A. Many Latin America colonies declared their independence during the upheavals of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. The major Continental powers considered restoring the newly independent American states to Spain and Portugal, but Britain opposed intervention, to safeguard British trade and investment in the region. America's Monroe Doctrine of 1823 warned Europe about intervening politically or militarily in the Western hemisphere.However, the weak navy of the United States relied on the British navy to enforce a policy that was in the interest of both nations.

Which of the following was a central feature of nineteenth-century liberal ideology?

a. Child labor laws b. The preservation of law and order c. An emphasis on individual freedom d. The buildup of a nation's military e. A strong central government working to maximize economic profits The correct answer is C. Liberalism was a dominant ideology of the nineteenth century. The essential political philosophy of liberalism can be best summed up with the phrase "government which governs best, governs least." Although there were many different forms of liberalism, all liberals shared a belief in the paramount importance of individual freedom. They believed that citizens should be free from restraints imposed by the church, government, or aristocrats. They sought to expand the laissez-faire philosophy to all aspects of human society.

As early as July 28, 1914, European diplomats' attempts to avoid war were unsuccessful mainly because

a. European kings, tsars, and emperors were too bent on war to heed their advice b. the rigid mobilization plans of European generals made immediate military action essential c. popular enthusiasm for war was too great for politicians to ignore d. European industrialists, hoping to profit from the conflict, pushed for war e. economic predictions of an on-coming depression spurred politicians to war The correct answer is B. The assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand on June 28, 1914, sparked a seemingly unstoppable rush to war in large part because the complicated and complex mobilization plans devised by general staffs and military leaders could not be delayed or changed without risking chaos and probable defeat when the war did come. Military considerations over mobilization had become paramount rather than politics and diplomacy, which might have settled the outstanding issues without going to war.

Which of the following statements concerning the Seven Years' War is correct?

a. Its immediate origins can be traced to the failure of Frederick II's Pragmatic Sanction. b. The French defeated the British in India due to their superior forces. c. At the end of the war, France controlled much of Europe, while Britain ruled the seas. d. The continuation of rivalries from the War of the Austrian Succession led to Prussia's overwhelming victory in the European theater. e. Britain became the world's greatest colonial power. The correct answer is E. By aborting French imperial ambitions in India and North America and by dominating the oceans, at the end of the Seven Years' War, Great Britain had become the world's greatest colonial power. Part of its empire would be lost a few years later as a consequence of the American Revolution, but during the nineteenth century, the British Empire would become in territory and population the world's greatest empire in all of history.

Which of the following groups emerged as the MOST important radical element of French politics, at the beginning of the Revolution?

a. Jacobins b. Papists c. Communists d. Loyalists e. Girondists The correct answer is A. As the events of the French Revolution evolved, critics emerged who believed that more radical solutions were called for, politically as well as economically. The most important radicals were the Jacobins. They were a group that existed from the revolution's earliest days and were known as the Jacobins after they occupied the Jacobin convent in Paris beginning in October 1789. By 1791, there were 900 Jacobin clubs throughout France.

What was the name of Descartes' book that expounded his theories about the universe?

a. On the Revolution of Heavenly Bodies b. On the Fabric of the Human Body c. Discourse on Method d. Mind Over Matter e. Principia The correct answer is C. In 1637, René Descartes published one of the seminal works in modern philosophy, his Discourse on Method. Decades before, he had experienced an epiphany in which he saw the outlines of a new rational-mathematical system. In Discourse, he told the story of how he had absorbed knowledge and information for years, but was still filled with doubt, so he rejected all that he had learned and began again. He reconstructed a view of reality based on the single fact that he could not doubt, that he existed. His philosophy was based on the initial argument "I think therefore I am."

Auguste Comte was responsible for

a. posing an evolutionary theory akin to Darwin's b. founding the discipline of sociology c. helping to remove theology as a subject from university curricula d. integrating science with religion e. establishing a utopian community at New Lanark The correct answer is B. Auguste Comte's "positivism," advanced in his System of Positive Philosophy, attempted to apply the scientific method to the study of human society. Comte established a hierarchical system based upon mathematics that he called "positive knowledge." At the top of his hierarchy was "sociology," or the science of human society, which encompassed anthropology, economics, history, and psychology.

The first professional occupation to be opened up to women was

a. teaching b. the legal profession c. business management d. engineering e. a medical profession The correct answer is A. Teaching was the first professional occupation open to women. After the emergence of the women's rights movement in the nineteenth century, some middle and upper-middle class women were able to attend women's colleges. Many of these women-only colleges recognized that teaching was a woman's most likely profession and focused on teacher training.

The growth of Mussolini's Fascist movement was aided by

a. the inability of the parliamentary parties to conduct an adequate foreign policy toward France b. popular, nationalistic resentment toward Italy's treatment following World War I c. crop failures in 1920 and 1921 d. economic cooperation between Italy, Germany, and the Soviet Union e. the desire of the Catholic Church to established a republic in the city of Rome The correct answer is B. Although Italy gained the regions of Trieste and what had been the Austrian South Tyrol as a result of World War I, its demands for other areas such as Fiume and Dalmatia on the Adriatic were rejected. Popular resentment against limited gains, combined with domestic political instability, produced an environment that allowed Mussolini's Fascist movement to grow.

The development of the steam engine during the Industrial Revolution

a. was the work of Edmund Cartwright b. proved disastrous for Britain's mining industry c. made factories dependent upon the location of rivers d. made Britain's cotton goods the cheapest and most popular in the world e. gave way to the internal combustion gas engine early in the nineteenth century The correct answer is D. The steam engine as perfected by James Watt revolutionized industrial production in the late eighteenth and nineteenth century. The impact of the steam engine was particularly significant in the production of cotton textiles. In 1760, Britain imported 2.5 million pounds of raw cotton to be manufactured into cloth, but by 1840, Britain was importing 366 million pounds of cloth annually. By 1850, seven eighths of the power used to manufacture textile came from steam.

Rousseau's influential novel Emile deals with which of the following important Enlightenment themes?

a. Proper child rearing and human education b. The best roles for women in making modern society c. The importance of church marriages and reform of church's implementation of this sacrament d. The abolition of the pope's restrictions on religious practices and the content of sermons e. Prison reform and individual justice The correct answer is A. Jean-Jacques Rousseau's Emile was published in 1762. Written in the form of a novel, the work was concerned with "the education of the natural man." In education, children must be encouraged to follow their natural instincts rather than be restricted into set categories and forms. His emphasis upon the balance between heart and mind, or sentiment and reason, made Rousseau one of the precursors of Romanticism.

Which of the following statements BEST describes seventeenth century absolutism?

a. Real power in any state must be religious and exercised by churchmen. b. Ultimate authority rests solely in the hands of a king who rules by divine right. c. Subordinate powers have an absolute right to advise the king on conducting the affairs of state. d. No matter how humble, male citizens have an absolute right to participate in politics. e. The monarch's power is total and absolute, totally independent of any religious or divine sanction. The correct answer is B. Absolutism in the seventeenth century was a system where all governmental authority was concentrated in the hands of a monarch ruling by divine right. The monarchs justified their authority by claiming that God established human society and placed monarchs over it to rule and maintain order. Kings derived their authority directly from God, and their authority could not be questioned by mere mortals. Louis XIV was a prime example of seventeenth-century divine right; however, in practice, even Louis' rule was not absolute and was restricted by practical and political factors.

Which of the following statements BEST applies to Napoleon's domestic policies?

a. Reform of the prefect system granted greater autonomy to provincial departments. b. His "new aristocracy" was little different from the old and still based on privilege and wealth. c. His Civil Legal Code reaffirmed the ideals of the Revolution, creating a uniform legal system. d. As a devout Catholic, he reestablished Catholicism as the official state religion. e. The Catholic Church was expelled from France. The correct answer is C. One of Napoleon's greatest accomplishments was the creation of a comprehensive code of civil law, know as the Napoleonic Code. Prior to the Napoleonic Code, there were more than 300 different legal systems in France. Napoleon's Code superceded these older laws and incorporated many of the rights gained during the Revolution, including equality before the law and freedom of religion. Napoleon was able to make peace with the Catholic Church without reestablishing Catholicism as the official state religion. His "new aristocracy" reflected merit rather than birth, and he worked for greater centralization rather than local autonomy in government.

Which of the following was NOT an argument to justify imperialism at the turn of the century?

a. The argument of "the white man's burden" b. Social Darwinism c. The need for military bases d. The need to lower European population through the emigration of criminals and others to the colonies e. The need for larger markets and more raw materials following the Industrial Revolution The correct answer is D. Overpopulation itself was never used as an argument to support the new imperialism, although many Europeans voluntarily migrated overseas as colonial administrators, soldiers, or in the quest for wealth and new opportunities. Various factors contributed to late nineteenth-century imperialism including national competition, the need for markets and raw materials, Social Darwinist assumptions of national power, and a perceived moral and religious obligation to bring the benefits of "civilization" to non-Western peoples.

Essentially, the Cold War was

a. a clash of Soviet and American ideologies in the aftermath of World War II b. a non-shooting war over industrial differences between America and France c. a clash of political objectives in post-war Poland d. differences over Northern European borders after World War II e. a "phony war" that effectively involved all nations The correct answer is A. The Cold War could be defined in numerous ways, but essentially it was a conflict of Soviet and American ideologies over the most secure geopolitical arrangement of peoples and nations in the aftermath of World War II and the decline of Europe's former major powers Britain, France, and Germany. It was a new world, with the old rules no longer necessarily valid, a world divided between capitalism and communism or democratic liberalism and authoritarian communism, with both parties seeking to advance their interests and achieve security.

All of the following contributed to Britain's emergence as the first industrial power EXCEPT

a. a rapid population growth and a surplus pool of labor b. the agricultural revolution of the eighteenth century c. a ready supply of domestic and colonial markets d. Parliament's heavy and controlling involvement in private enterprise e. plentiful natural resources, including coal and iron deposits The correct answer is D. Britain was the first nation to industrialize. In contrast to continental nations, Britain adopted a very laissez-faire attitude toward private enterprise, and Parliament did little to encourage or hinder development. Several factors contributed to Britain's industrial development: Britain benefited from extensive deposits of coal and iron, and an agricultural revolution also fueled population growth which created a pool of surplus labor. This expanding population and a worldwide empire provided a large market for British industrial goods.

Artistic and intellectual trends in the inter-war years were concerned with

a. a rejection of the avant-garde in painting and music b. a sense of disillusionment with Western Civilization provoked by the horrors of the World War I c. realistic forms of art, like the Dadaists and Cubists d. an acceptance of modern art forms, especially in Germany and Russia e. an appreciation of middle-class culture and folk art The correct answer is B. Artistic and intellectual trends in the inter-war years exhibited a deep sense of disillusionment with Western civilization provoked by the horrors of World War I. Dada art exemplified the absurdity of life, and Oswald Spengler's Decline of the West reflected the dominant feelings of many intellectuals when he criticized the decadence of the West and predicted its imminent collapse.

After the fall of the Soviet Union, Russia struggled with all of the following EXCEPT

a. a renewed Communist Party majority that took control of the government b. organized crime c. an uprising in largely Muslim Chechnya d. economic hardship e. deteriorating infrastructure and a failing national health system The correct answer is A. Although the Russian Communist Party participates in elections, it has not been able to win elections and return to power. Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Russia has struggled with numerous challenges, including Muslim separatism in Chechnya, organized crime, poverty, failing infrastructure, and poor healthcare.

Efforts to maintain European peace following World War I included

a. a three-way alliance between Great Britain, France, and the Weimar Republic b. the addition of an armed international security force to the League of Nations c. the belated entry of the United States into the League of Nations d. increased intervention by the United States in European political affairs e. an inherently weak system of alliances between France and the Little Entente The correct answer is E. After World War I, French security was depent upon a strong League of Nations and military alliances with the United States and Britain. However, America did not join the League and France was unable to secure much needed military alliances with America and Britain. Isolated and embittered, France turned to the new nations of Eastern Europe for help, establishing alliances with Poland and the Little Entente of Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Yugoslavia. The inherent weakness of this ad hoc system became clear late as Europe was plunged once more into war twenty years later.

The basis of the Bismarckian System was devoted to

a. acquiring a huge overseas empire b. isolating France through a series of military alliances c. enhancing the civil service d. creating a German war college e. preparing Germany for war against France and isolating Britain diplomatically The correct answer is B. Bismarck fully realized how the unification of Germany in 1871 had upset the balance of power in Europe and that France desired revenge for its defeat in the Franco-Prussian war and the loss of Alsace and Lorraine. To preserve a united Germany and to isolate France, Bismarck engaged in a series of alliances with Austria, Russia, and Italy. Not all succeeded, however, and by the early twentieth century, France had its own allies in Russia and Britain.

By the end of 1937, the British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain

a. advocated strongly for a policy of appeasement b. called for Britain to declare war on Germany c. worked with Hitler to divide Europe into spheres of influence d. denounced all changes in the status of central Europe e. accepted the surrender of the British Empire in Africa to Germany in order to secure peace The correct answer is A. When Europe was threatened by Fascism in the 1930s, many democratic statesmen were desperate to avoid the millions of casualties of another world war. This tendency was compounded by a world-wide economic depression. In Britain, Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain chose to appease Hitler, rather than risk a war that would result in the decline and fall of the British Empire.

The "Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen"

a. became law by popular vote of the National Assembly b. was ignored by the male-dominated National Assembly, which did little to help French women c. caused massive riots in its defense by ordinary men and women, especially in cities d. was fully accepted by the crown and its ministers and then became enforceable law e. was unanimously adopted by the National Assembly but vetoed by Louis XVI The correct answer is B. On August 26, 1789, the National Assembly adopted the "Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen." The document reflected the natural rights philosophy of Locke and the American "Declaration of Independence," affirming "the natural and imprescriptible rights of man." In the male-dominated society of the time, the rights of "man" were not equally extended to women. Olympe de Gouges wrote her own version, the "Declaration of the Rights of Women and the Female Citizen," which was ignored by the all-male National Assembly.

During the Second Industrial Revolution, employment opportunities for women

a. changed in quality and quantity with the expansion of the service sector b. declined dramatically as the mill industry faltered c. increased greatly as working-class men pushed their wives to work outside the home d. declined when piece-work was abandoned as "inefficient" and "sweatshops" were outlawed e. decreased significantly with the belief that men should be given jobs before women The correct answer is A. By the 1870s, new job opportunities became available to women. Although the number of industrial jobs may have decreased, service-sector and white-collar jobs greatly increased. The number of women working as clerks, typists and secretaries rose, as did the number of positions in health and social services. Woman also made noticeable gains in teaching, the first profession truly open to women.

The literary realists of the mid-nineteenth century were interested in

a. completely avoiding romantic imagery, as shown in the works of Charles Dickens b. employing emotional and poetic language to bring about social reform c. portraying ordinary characters from real life d. showing the positive values of middle-class life e. placing characters in unusual natural environments such as forests and jungles The correct answer is C. The literary realists, such as Gustave Flaubert, avoided the unusual settings and sentimental language of Romantic works, portraying instead ordinary characters from real life. Flaubert's Madame Bovary relates the story of a woman trapped in a dull marriage to a provincial doctor. She has an adulterous affair that eventually leads her to commit suicide.

Organized religions in the seventeenth century

a. conceded the accomplishments of science and separated theology from science proper b. rejected scientific discoveries that conflicted with the Christian view of the world c. contributed greatly to scientific research d. largely ignored science as merely a "toy for the minds of God's children" e. declined and were replaced by Deism, in which God is the "watchmaker" or the Prime Mover The correct answer is B. Most churches, both Catholic and Protestant, largely rejected those discoveries of the Scientific Revolution that conflicted with the Christian-backed Ptolemaic-Aristotelian cosmology and the Bible. This led to a split in the eighteenth century between scientific investigation and religious belief and to an increasing secularization of intellectual life in Western civilization.

The republican calendar created by the revolutionary government in 1793

a. contained new names for days and months that reflected the new urban, bourgeois society b. was part of the government's dechristianization efforts c. was well received by most of the populace d. was not abandoned by the French until Napoleon's defeat e. was opposed by the Committee of Public Safety and immediately abandoned The correct answer is B. The National Convention adopted a new republican calendar in 1793 with the intention of removing Christian influences from French society and installing a new revolutionary society. Year I was set to 1792 to honor the proclamation of the French Republic in September of that year. The names of the months were changed to reflect the seasons, and the seven-day week was abolished in favor of ten-day decades. Christian holy days were replaced by revolutionary ceremonies. The republican calendar was widely unpopular and abandoned by Napoleon in 1806.

Prior to 1914, British politics saw the

a. continual growth of political democracy b. peaceful and successful settlement of the "Irish question" c. transformation of the Fabians into the Conservatives d. reduction of the House of Commons' power e. granting of the right to vote for women in the Reform Bill of 1884 The correct answer is A. A major development in Britain in the nineteenth century was the growth of political democracy. At the time of the reform bill of 1832, one out of eight males was qualified to vote, a similar bill in 1867 expanded participation to one in three adult males. By 1884, any male who rented or owned a residence could vote—approximately 75 percent of the adult male population. However, women had to wait until after World War I to obtain the vote, and only if they were over the age of thirty. Finally, in 1929 women were granted the right to vote on an equal basis with men.

Louis XIV's Edict of Fontainebleau

a. created new ranks of intendants to govern the newly created administrative provinces of France b. revoked the earlier Edict of Nantes, curtailed the rights of French Protestants, and caused thousands of highly skilled Huguenots to flee the country. c. established new standards of court etiquette and was intended to diminish the power of great nobles. d. removed most French bishops from their seats and replaced them with nobles to strengthen Louis' control of the French Catholic Church. e. granted toleration to Jews and Muslims living in France, thus extending the religious toleration granted to Protestants in the earlier Edict of Nantes. The correct answer is B. With his Edict of Fontainebleau (1685), Louis XIV revoked his grandfather's (Henry IV) Edict of Nantes that had given France's Protestant, or Huguenot, minority considerable religious toleration. Louis, an orthodox but not fanatical Catholic, acted more for reasons of governmental philosophy than religion, believing that France should have "one king, one law, one faith." As a result, about 200,000 Huguenots left France, taking their skills and talents with them.

In eighteenth-century Europe, both Catholic and Protestant churches

a. declined in membership and influence b. continued to play a major role in social and spiritual life c. were responsible for dramatic literary developments d. had changed little over the past two centuries e. had lost all legal connections with the state The correct answer is B. Although challenged by the Scientific Revolution and skeptical Enlightenment intellectuals, Catholic and Protestant churches continued to play a major role in social and spiritual life. Established churches retained their central position in society, and movements, such as Methodism in England, reflected new spiritual needs caused in part by what some have labeled a secular era.

Hitler's armies took Poland in 1939

a. despite interference by the Soviet Union b. in a long protracted struggle that cost Germany dearly c. upon Poland's request for German intervention d. using Blitzkrieg, or "lightening war," tactics and with active support from Joseph Stalin e. with the support of a British government that was still committed to appeasement The correct answer is D. When Hitler decided to attack Poland, he told his generals to "act brutally." On September 1, 1939, Germany invaded Poland using Blitzkrieg, or "lightening war," that combined tanks and mechanized infantry with close air support for the first time in military history. Germany's invasion was facilitated by the Nazi-Soviet Pact signed on August 23, which ceeded eastern Poland to the Soviets and western Poland to Germany.

Louis XIV restructured the policy-making machinery of the French government by

a. distancing himself from the actions of his ministers and secretaries b. stacking the royal council with loyal followers from relatively new aristocratic families c. selecting his ministers from established aristocratic families d. choosing diplomats from the middle class e. delegating great responsibility to his parliament The correct answer is E. When Louis XIV took direct control of the French government after the death of Cardinal Mazarin in 1661, few decisions were made or responsibilities delegated without Louis's personal knowledge. To advise and assist him, he selected individuals from relatively new aristocratic families who would be loyal to him, rather than from the older and established aristocratic families that had proved so dangerous to royal rule in the sixteenth and seventeenth century.

In his encyclical De Rerum Novarum (1891), Pope Leo XIII

a. endorsed Marxist conceptions of materialism b. asserted that much in socialism was Christian in principle c. ordered Catholics to turn away from all forms of political activity d. began to question the necessity of the sacraments e. took a rigid stand against the modern ideas of nationalism, socialism, religious toleration The correct answer is B. In contrast to Pope Pius IX (1846-1878), who condemned all modern ideas such of progress and liberalism, Pope Leo XIII (1878-1903) allowed the theory of evolution to be taught in Catholic schools. In his encyclical De Rerum Novarum (1891), he upheld the right to private property, but he criticized excesses of capitalism and said that much in socialism was Christian in principle, though he condemned Marxism for its materialism and its atheism.

Frederick William the Great Elector built Brandenburg-Prussia into a significant European power by

a. establishing religious uniformity in his kingdom by expeling the Huguenots and other religious minorities b. freeing the peasants from the dominion of the nobles and using them in a new professional army c. using his army whenever possible to accomplish his political goals d. making the General War Commissariat the bureaucratic machine of his state e. drafting serfs and artisans into his navy to defend Prussia from threats from the North Sea The correct answer is D. The defeats suffered by Brandenburg-Prussia during the Thirty Years' War convinced Frederick William the Great Elector that he must build a powerful modern military. He established the General War Commissariat to raise taxes for the army and to supervise its training and growth. The commissariat soon became responsible for much of the civil government. Frederick William used the newly created bureaucracy as an instrument to govern his nation.

The reforms of Tsar Alexander II centered on

a. government sponsorship of popular societies including the Bolsheviks b. improvements in the military c. the pacification of Siberia d. the formation of local, self-governing assemblies called "dumas" e. the abolition of serfdom The correct answer is E. Despite the reforms of Peter and Catherine the Great, nineteenth-century Russia lagged far behind most of Europe.The failures of the Crimean War made Tsar Alexander II painfully aware of Russia's many deficiencies. He instituted a series of reforms, including the abolition of serfdom. On March 3, 1861, the Tsar freed millions of serfs. However, the ex-serfs were required to pay for their freedom, and most of them remained on the same aristocratic plantations they had labored on while serfs.

The Congress of Vienna

a. granted Prussia complete control over Polish lands b. created policies to maintain a balance of power among the members of the Quadruple Alliance c. failed to achieve a long-lasting peace among European nations d. treated France leniently in the wake of Napoleon's One Hundred Days e. restored the Habsburgs the Austrian throne The correct answer is B. The Congress of Vienna, 1814-1815, ratified the creation of the Quadruple Alliance of the major states allied against Napoleon and France. The alliance consisted of Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia.The Quadruple Alliance hoped to create a permanent balance of power prohibiting any one state from dominating Europe as France had under Napoleon.

Otto von Bismarck, the Prussian-born leader of German unification,

a. instituted the Zollverein, the German customs union that drove industrial development b. followed a rigid plan for national unification at all costs c. was a liberal from lower-class origins who used politics to achieve his reform goals d. practiced Realpolitik in conducting domestic and foreign policy e. was awarded the first Nobel Peace Prize for his mediation of the Austro-Franco War The correct answer is D. Otto von Bismarck was the architect of Germany unification. He was a masterful politician, an opportunist, a political realist, and the ultimate master of the Realpolitik. Bismarck was a diplomat and viewed war as a last resort. However, in three wars (Danish War of 1864, the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, and the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871), Bismarck and the German army brought unity to Germany, toppling the existing balance of power in Europe.

The English Bill of Rights

a. laid the foundation for a future constitutional monarchy b. resolved England's seventeenth-century religious questions c. reaffirmed the theory of divine right kingship while limiting the king's power d. confirmed the king's right to raise standing armies without parliamentary consent e. gave the House of Commons greater constitutional power and influence than the House of Lords The correct answer is A. The Bill of Rights was based upon the rule of law and the power of Parliament and established England's constitutional monarchy. After the flight of James II from England, Parliament offered the throne to James' daughter, Mary, and her husband, William of Orange. The new monarchs were required to accept a bill of rights (1689), which assured Parliament's right to make laws and levy taxes, authorized a standing army, and guaranteed free Parliamentary debate and elections.

The policy used by the United States against Communism was called

a. massive retaliation b. containment c. appeasement d. curtailment e. Realpolitik The correct answer is B. America's Cold War policy toward the Soviet Union and international communism could best be described as containment, a policy advocated by George Kennan in an article published in Foreign Affairs in July 1947. Kennan desired an "application of counter-force... corresponding to the shifts and maneuvers of Soviet policy." It formally became American policy after the Soviet's blockade of Berlin in 1948.

In the Estates-General, the First Estate represented the clergy, the Third Estate represented the masses, and the Second Estate represented the

a. nobility b. pope c. people d. army e. bureaucracy The correct answer is A. The Second Estate represented France's estimated 350,000 nobles. Although nobles constituted a small minority of Frances 27 million citizens, they owned 25 to 30 percent of the land and held the highest offices in the government, military, judiciary and church. Nobles were also exempt from most taxes, including the real estate tax known as the taille.

During the Reign of Terror, the majority of the victims were

a. nobles b. clergy c. middle class d. peasant and laboring classes e. foreigners The correct answer is D. Between 1793 and 1794, the Reign of Terror claimed victims from all social and economic classes. However, 60 percent of its victims were peasants and laborers. Middle class citizens made up 25 percent of those executed followed by nobles, 8 percent, and clergy, 6 percent.

The newly created economies of the Industrial Revolution in Europe

a. often experienced cycles of economic expansion and contraction b. often declined in terms of real gross national product c. far out-performed the slowly industrializing economy of the U.S. d. never actually caught up economically with England e. experienced economic stagnation for decades at a time The correct answer is A. The industrial economies of Europe and the United States were frequently caught up in cycles of economic expansion and contraction. Although depressions and recessions are not exclusively a product of industrialization, industrialized economies often experience more sudden and frequent boom and bust cycles caused by overproduction and a corrective reaction that results in underproduction. Economic contractions resulted in widespread unemployment and produced considerable social tension.

The primary goal of Peter the Great's foreign policy was to

a. open a warm-water port to provide access to Europe b. destroy the Ottoman Empire c. capture of the Scandinavian countries d. gain control of Constantinople and the Dardanelles e. seize Siberia from Imperial China The correct answer is A. Russia was a land-locked state. Tsar Peter the Great's primary foreign policy aim was to open Russia to European contacts by establishing a warm-water port. His "window to the west" was Saint Petersburg, named after his patron saint. Begun shortly after 1700, Saint Petersburg became Russia's most European city and one of its most impressive, although its construction cost thousands of lives.

Lenin's "April Theses"

a. outlined a specifically Russian movement toward socialism to be led by soviets of soldiers, workers, and peasants b. contained his proposals to continue Russian participation in World War I c. listed the conditions under which the Bolsheviks would accept a new republican form of government d. argued that revolution was an impractical means of establishing a new government for Russia e. urged a continuation of the war in order to further weaken the tsar's government The correct answer is A. In his "April Theses" of 1917, Lenin claimed that it was not necessary for Russia to go through a bourgeois revolution before a proletarian revolution could lead to socialism. Instead, Russia could leap directly to socialism using the soviets of workers, peasants, and soldiers, which were already being created. Lenin's subsequent campaign promised the Russian populace "Peace, Land, Bread."

Science became an integral part of Western culture in the eighteenth century because

a. people perceived it to be rationally superior to other belief systems b. its mechanistic nature was popular with the lower classes c. the victory of radical political groups, such as the Levellers following the Puritan Revolution, encouraged freedom of expression d. it offered a new means to make profits while maintaining the social order e. almost everyone agreed that science was a rationally superior system The correct answer is D. Economic elites of the eighteenth century were attracted to science largely because it allowed new methods and technologies to increase profits. In addition, ruling elites made use of the material benefits that science could provide in increasing food production and commerce to maintain control over radical and millennial social and religious groups such as the Levellers, Diggers, and Ranters of England's Puritan Revolution.

Allied bombing raids on German civilians

a. produced stubborn resistance from the German people b. destroyed the average German's will to fight c. were only done to retaliate for German bombing d. occurred mostly by accident when bombing strategic targets e. were condemned by the Pope and the League of Nations The correct answer is A. The Allies inflicted horrible destruction upon Germany. Millions of buildings were destroyed and half a million civilians died in bombing raids. However, contrary to expectations, the raids did not lessen German resolve to fight. Most Germans, whether pro- or anti-Nazi, fought on, if only in hopes of surviving the saturation bombing.

The chief aim of Georges Clemenceau's terms of armistice was to

a. punish Germany and gain security for France b. help Germany become a democracy c. maintain a demilitarized Europe d. limit Britain's influence on the continent e. form a permanent military alliance with the United States through the Treaty of St. Germaine The correct answer is A. Clemenceau's approach to peace after World War I was conditioned by concerns for France's national security. France had suffered greatly from two wars with Germany, the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871 and World War I. Revenge and security were his major demands. He believed that Germany should be demilitarized, pay reparations for the cost of the war, and that there should be a buffer state created in the Rhineland to divide the two antagonists.

During the early 1920s, Lenin's New Economic Policy

a. put Russia on a path of rapid industrialization at the expense of the peasantry b. contained capitalist elements, acknowledging the economic failures of early Russian Communism c. forced Communism to move forward as both industry and agriculture were nationalized d. failed to reverse the patterns of famine and industrial collapse that began in 1921 e. established giant collective farms, which led to famine and deaths of millions The correct answer is B. The Russian civil war led to the death of millions of Russians and a complete economic collapse. In 1921 Lenin recognized the failure of Early Soviet communism, and he established a system of limited capitalism known as the New Economic Policy (NEP). Private enterprise was allowed in small businesses, and both firms and peasants were permitted to sell what they produced. However, banking, heavy industry, and mining remained under government ownership.

The development of trench warfare in France was characterized by

a. quick advances and seizures of enemy trenches b. fewer casualties due to thick fortifications c. long periods of dreary boredom broken by murderous artillery barrages and terrifying frontal assaults d. high morale and assurance of victory among the troops whose use of modern weapons reduced casualty rates e. reinforced concrete structures and well-drained cement trenches along the entire length of the Western Front The correct answer is C. Trench warfare in France and Flanders along the Western Front was characterized by long periods of dreary boredom in lice-ridden and rat-infested muddy or dusty trenches and dugouts. Battles featured powerful artillery barrages and horrific frontal assaults into machine gun fire, barbed wire, and poison gas. Until the development of the tank late in the war, there was no effective way to cross the no-man's land separating trenches.

During the Thermidorian Reaction, the Directory government

a. relied primarily on royalist support b. was a unicameral and directly elected body c. was characterized by honest leadership and wise economic planning d. increasingly relied on military support for its survival e. was still the Committee of Public Safety but used a different name The correct answer is D. After the execution of Robespierre in July 1794, the Committee of Public Safety was abolished. Eventually, an executive committee of five directors was given administrative authority. The period of the Directory (1795-1799) was an era of corruption and graft, a reaction to the austerities of the Terror and Robespierre's Republic of Virtue. The Directory was never popular and was attacked from the right and the left. The Directory was forced to increasingly rely on military support for its political survival

During the eighteenth century, the idea of Divine Right

a. remained the basis of most European governments b. was gradually replaced by more republican ideas concerning government c. was gradually replaced by the idea of "enlightened absolutism" justified by utilitarian arguments d. was best exemplified by the reign of Joseph II of Austria e. was superceded by the ideals of republican democracy The correct answer is C. During the eighteenth century, the philosophy of Divine Right was gradually replaced by the idea of "enlightened absolutism." Most political theorists of the century accepted the concept of natural rights, and many, like Voltaire, believed that only a strong ruler, an enlightened absolute ruler, or despot, could protect and preserve those rights against vested interests such as the church and the landed aristocracy.

The flow of "enlightened" American political and moral ideas back to Europe was facilitated by

a. returning British prisoners of war b. French army and navy officers who had fought on the American side during the Revolutionary War c. European nobles returning from expeditions to the new American frontier d. missionary priests returning from evangelical campaigns deep in the U.S. back country e. the younger brothers of Louis XVI, who had been envoys from France to the American revolutionaries The correct answer is B. The American victory over the British in the revolutionary war was due in large part to French aid. At the crucial final battle of Yorktown, a French fleet kept the British from landing reinforcements by sea. Washington's army also included many French soldiers. Many of the young Frenchmen who took part in America's revolution returned to France with "revolutionary" ideas and experiences. One of the most famous was the Marquis de Lafayette.

As soldiers on both sides of the First World War realized that neither side could gain an advantage in trench warfare,

a. savage treatment of prisoners became commonplace b. new weapons were developed to kill rather than overrun the enemy c. daily life for the soldier became increasingly regimented and miserable in filthy, rat-infested trenches d. they were encouraged by their officers not to fight and instead to await a peace treaty ending the war e. the French army totally disintegrated and the British and German armies experienced mass desertions The correct answer is C. As the war went on to no apparent end, daily life for the soldier became increasingly squalid, regimented, and miserable in lice-ridden and rat-infested trenches and dugouts. The continued goal was to overwhelm the opposing trenches and break through to open ground beyond, and new weapons, such as poison gas, came into use. These new weapons were not explicitly designed to kill enemy soldiers, but they did. Savage treatment of prisons never became commonplace, but incidents of prisoner abuse did occur. In spite of the carnage, mass desertions did not happen, and although units of the French army mutinied, the army did not disintegrate.

Economically, World War I

a. saw European governments adopt laissez-faire economic policies b. saw European governments all take control of only war-related industries c. led to the failure of the American banking system because of British and French loan defaults d. did little to affect the domestic industries of European nations e. witnessed European governments gradually take full control of all aspects of their economies The correct answer is E. Throughout Europe, wartime governments abandoned free-market capitalism and rationed food, fixed prices and wages, and instituted rent controls. Generous subsidies and guarantees were provided to manufactures of munitions and other war materials. Even the transportation system was nationalized and some forms of compulsory employment were instituted in key industries. In spite of nineteenth-century laissez-faire assumptions, World War I led to full mobilization for the war effort.

During the eighteenth century, European diplomacy was predicated on the idea that

a. sea power was the basis of real power b. in a balance of power, one state should not achieve dominance over another c. the size of a nation's empire determined its greatness d. the charisma of a ruler determined a country's success in foreign policy e. one state should have overwhelming authority to maintain order over the other nations of Europe The correct answer is B. The diplomacy of the century was predicated upon the concept of the balance of power wherein no state could be allowed to achieve extraordinary power over the others. However, the commitment to the diplomatic balance of power did not limit or discourage warfare as evidence by the War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War.

Hitler's Nazi party proved to be effective in the realm of politics by

a. securing financial support from large German corporations b. making the Nazi program appealing to every segment of German society c. persuading the average German that their program was the only alternative to the inept Second Reich d. forcing the poorer Germans to vote for Nazi candidates through intimidation e. promising to enforce the Treaty of Versailles to increase Germany's international prestige The correct answer is B. In the late 1920s, Hitler created a structured political party that was designed to appeal to all segments of German society. Young people were attracted because of active politics, the middle- and lower-middle classes were courted by promises of financial security, and large corporate interests supported the Nazis because the party was a bulwark against communist Bolshevism. Hitler gained support from all segments of society by promising to tear up the much hated Versailles Treaty.

Russian society in the seventeenth century

a. suffered under the reign of Ivan the Terrible b. witnessed profound religious reforms in the Russian Orthodox Church c. was characterized by a highly oppressive system of serfdom d. saw the rise of the merchant class to power e. was strongly influenced by the ideas of John Locke The correct answer is C. During the seventeenth century, Russian, or Muscovite, society was highly stratified. At the top was the tsar, who ruled by divine right. The Russian upper class, or aristocracy, controlled much of the land. During the course of the century, an abundance of arable land combined with a relative scarcity of peasant labor induced Russia's landed aristocracy to bind most peasants to the land they worked, making them hereditary "serfs."

Under Bismarck's chancellorship, Germany.

a. supported the growth of a real democracy through universal male suffrage b. passed social welfare legislation to woo workers away from the Social Democrats c. engaged in the Kulturkampf, or crusade, to make Catholicism Germany's national religion d. maintained a professional military second only to that of France on the Continent e. pursued a policy of diplomatic isolation The correct answer is B. Bismarck feared the socialists' antinationalistic, antimonarchical, and anticapitalistic platform. He attempted to woo German workers away from the Social Democrats by convincing the Reichstag, the German parliament, to adopt social welfare legislation. Under his chancellorship the Reichstag passed legislation that included sickness, accident, and disability benefits, as well as old-age pensions, giving Germany the most advanced social welfare program of the era

Voltaire was BEST known for his criticism of

a. the German monarchical system b. the separation of church and state c. England's constitutional monarchy d. Plato and the Greeks e. religious intolerance The correct answer is E. Francois-Marie Arouet, known as Voltaire, was one of the major philosophers of the Enlightenment. He spent time in more tolerant England as a voluntary exile from France where his criticisms of French society were at times unpopular. Voltaire was particularly critical of religion, religious institutions, and religious intolerance. His cry "Crush the infamous thing" was an attack on all religious fanaticism and superstition.

World War I not only killed millions of human beings, it also destroyed one of the basic intellectual precepts of modern Western civilization:

a. the concept of a benevolent God b. the belief in progress c. the conviction of the enlightened spirit of man d. the belief in justice for all e. the power of the industrial machine The correct answer is B. Faith in inevitable progress was a major casualty of World War I. In the nineteenth century, most European believed that permanent progress would produce a future utopia of peace and prosperity. This Age of Progress belief, or faith, resulted from the material progress exemplified by the Scientific Revolution and especially the Industrial Revolution. The relative peace enjoyed by Europe following the Napoleonic Wars caused many European to believe that peace, or at least a relative peace, would be permanent.

The revolution of 1848 in France ultimately resulted in

a. the continued rule of Louis-Philippe but with radical reforms b. new elections to the national Assembly, resulting in the dominance of the radical republicans c. Europe's first socialist state under the guidance of the workshops d. a new empire under Louis Napoleon e. a European-wide war The correct answer is D. In 1848, King Louis-Philippe was overthrown and France entered another revolution. The Second Republic was established following the revolution of 1848, and Louis Napoleon, nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, was declared president. The constitution did not allow for reelection, so, in 1852, a coup d'etat enthroned Louis Napoleon as Emperor Napoleon III, marking the end of the Second Republic and the start of the Second Empire.

A key financial innovation of the eighteenth century was

a. the creation of insurance policies b. the circulation of paper bank notes to compensate for a lack of coinage c. international currency markets and arbitrage speculation d. deficit spending by enlightened monarchs to pay for vital government reforms e. greater use of silver and gold coinage The correct answer is B. European trade, commerce, and industrial development all increased dramatically during the eighteenth century. The decline in the amount of gold arriving from the Western hemisphere threatened to have a disastrous economic impact. However, the money supply increased as public and private banks were established and the use of paper bank notes became common. The best example is the Bank of England, established in 1694, which issued its own "banknotes."

The collapse of Russia's tsarist regime in March 1917 was facilitated by all of the following EXCEPT

a. the leadership of the Mensheviks in forming the new Provisional Government b. a general strike in Petrograd c. the wartime casualties due to incompetent leadership and poor equipment d. strife in the ruling dynasty as evidenced by the influence of Rasputin, "the mad monk" e. the introduction of rationing and the high cost of bread The correct answer is A. The collapse of Russia's tsarist regime was sudden. Russia was unprepared for war in 1914. Russia lacked weapons and competent military and civilian leadership. The ruling Tsar Nicholas II was mainly concerned with family matters. By 1917, the Russian armies had suffered eight million casualties. Food shortages and the high cost of bread led to demonstrations by women in the streets of Petrograd and a general strike. Nicholas abdicated and a provisional government was established under the leadership of the moderate Constitutional Democrats, not the Marxist Mensheviks.

John Locke's philosophy contributed to the development of Enlightenment ideas by arguing that a person's character was shaped by

a. the person's environment, not by innate ideas implanted in the brain by God b. the person's genetic heritage c. the person's elementary education d. personal relationships e. original sin, which humanity had been doomed with since the Garden of Eden The correct answer is A. John Locke, in his "Essay Concerning Human Understanding" (1690) argued against the existence of innate ideas. He believed that the human mind at birth was a tabula rasa, a blank slate possessing no initial information. Instead, knowledge was acquired through humans' interaction with their environment—experience—not from heredity or theological sources. A new world, a new society, a "new man" could be created by changing and improving the environment, a belief popular during the Enlightenment.

The series of revolutionary upheavals in central Europe following Germany's defeat led to.

a. the successful creation of a new socialist state in Germany led by Karl Liebknecht b. a military dictatorship in Austria headed by the Free Corps c. the creation of several independent republics within the old Austro-Hungarian Empire d. a strong communist influence among most of the German populace e. a successful Marxist revolution in Poland The correct answer is C. In World War I, Germany was allied with the Austro-Hungarian and the Ottoman Empires. The defeat of these Central Powers led to the breakup and collapse of both empires. The collapse of the Austro-Hungarian empire resulted in the creation of several independent republics, including Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia

Above all, Montesquieu's The Spirit of the Laws was concerned with

a. the superior position of executive leadership b. the importance of the legislature c. the judiciary being the most important element of government d. maintaining a balance between the various branches of government e. the concept of direct, rather than representative, democracy The correct answer is D. In his The Spirit of the Laws (1748), Montesquieu used the scientific method in an effort to discover the "natural laws" governing social relationships. His most lasting contribution was to identify the importance of checks and balances and the separation of powers between the branches of government. His work was translated into English in 1750 and was an important influence on the creators of the United States Constitution in 1787.

The visual arts in Nazi Germany centered on

a. the use of modern, abstract forms such as Dada and Surrealism to reflect Germany's "new order" b. the functionalism of the Bauhaus school c. the simplistic, petty-bourgeois art with sentimental and realistic scenes glorifying strong, heroic Aryans d. religious scenes influenced by Catholic dogma e. pictures of famous military victories from the past, particularly from ancient Greece and Rome The correct answer is C. During the 1920s, Weimar Germany was one of the leading cultural centers of Europe, but Hitler had little use for modern art or the avant-garde, which he labeled Jewish, or "degenerate," art. Hitler demanded that the new German art should reflect healthy and heroic Aryans in realistic everyday settings. His art was, in fact, the German genre art of the previous century.

The origins of the Scientific Revolution can be traced to

a. the work of thousands of ordinary artisans and mechanics making daily discoveries b. the concentrated efforts of Protestant and Catholic clerics c. the work of a very small number of great European intellectuals d. a secretive group of alchemists and magicians e. medieval scholasticism The correct answer is C. The Scientific Revolution had roots in the "natural philosophers" of the Middle Ages and Renaissance. However, the origins of the Scientific Revolution lay in the work of a small number of great European intellectuals—notably Nicolaus Copernicus, Tyco Brahe, Johannes Kepler, Galileo Galilei, and Isaac Newton in astronomy and mathematics and Paracelsus, Andreas Vesalius, and William Harvey in medicine.

By 1871, the focus of Europeans' lives had become

a. their weekends b. their schools c. their favorite sports teams d. the nation state e. their places of employment The correct answer is D. By the 1870s, the national state had become the focus of the lives of most Europeans. Nationalism, the premier ideology of the nineteenth century, had replaced religion and the churches as the center of society, at least outside the nuclear family. Toward the end of the century, political democracy, at least for males, was growing rapidly, as were the institutions of representative government, legal equality, mass politics, and a mass press.

Newton's universal law of gravitation showed that

a. through its mathematical proof, any motion in the universe could be explained b. motion in the universe was governed by a set of different and separate but universal laws c. people could never comprehend why the planets moved the way they did d. the universe began with the "big bang" e. Einstein would be correct and that relativity was an absolute The correct answer is A. Isaac Newton's discovery of the universal law of gravitation marked a watershed in human history. He demonstrated that one universal law, proved by mathematics, could explain all motion in the universe—from the motion of the planets to the fall of an apple. His world-machine dominated the Western world view until the twentieth-century discoveries of Max Planck and Albert Einstein.

The Communist Manifesto of Marx and Engels

a. was a guidebook for the European workers in their revolutions of 1848 b. viewed the bourgeoisie as leading the proletariat in the destruction of the aristocracy c. saw the successful realization of its ideas in the First International d. based all historical development on class struggle e. advocated the rights of rural peasants The correct answer is D. In The Communist Manifesto of 1848, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels claimed that "the history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles." The authors believed that those who did not own property were locked in a struggle with those who did. During the nineteenth century, this struggle pitted the property-owning industrial middle-class bourgeoisie, against industrial-class factory workers known as the proletariat. The authors believed that the proletarians would ultimately win; ushering in world communism and a classless society where state and all its institutions would no longer be necessary and would wither away.

On the eve of the revolution, French society

a. was dominated by the military b. saw a sharp decline in sexual morality c. was still largely dominated by the nobility and clergy d. was rapidly changing, as the middle class became vastly more influential e. had descended into anarchy as a consequence of famine and plague The correct answer is C. Before the French Revolution, the nobility and the clergy dominated French society, as they had for centuries. The Estates system, dating back to the Middle Ages, was based upon notions of inequality of rights and privileges. The first two Estates enjoyed privileges and rights not accorded to members of the Third Estate, although the latter constituted the overwhelmingly majority of France's 27 million citizens.

Following the Congress of Vienna of 1815, the Italian peninsula

a. was entirely unified as a single country b. was divided into nine states c. had been devastated by Napoleon's final campaigns d. was annexed by Austria, as confirmed by the Congress e. was ruled by Spain The correct answer is B. The Italian peninsula remained politically fragmented from ancient Rome until well into the nineteenth century. At the Congress of Vienna, the European powers divided Italy into nine states. The major states after 1815 were the kingdom of Piedmont, the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, the Papal States, and the Austrian-controlled territories in the north. Austria emerged from the Congress with the greatest influence in Italy.

The Committee of Public Safety during the Reign of Terror

a. was headed by Maximilien Robespierre b. implemented a successful series of economic and price controls throughout France c. attempted to restore the church's influence over politics d. pardoned the queen, Marie Antoinette, and exiled her to her native Austria e. was a tool used by the monarchy to punish revolutionaries The correct answer is A. In late 1792, the continuing civil war and fears of a foreign invasion from abroad led the National Convention to give broad powers to an executive committee known as the Committee of Public Safety. The Committee of Public Safety under Maximilien Robespierre used its near-dictatorial powers to eliminate supposed threats to the revolution. Ironically, the Reign of terror ended in July 1794 when Robespierre was executed at the same guillotine he had used to kill so many of his countrymen.

Mazzini's Risorgimento

a. was largely successful in political terms b. failed due to opposition of the French, Austrians, and the pope c. became the basic ideology of contemporary German liberals d. was most popular among the Italian middle classes e. succeeded in permanently establishing an Italian republic in 1848 The correct answer is B. In 1831, Giuseppe Mazzini created the organization Young Italy to fulfill his dream of creating a united Italian republic. In 1848, a series of revolts occurred in Italy. Mazzini and his followers briefly took control of Rome and proclaimed an Italian republic. However, the movement was quickly crushed by opposition from France, Austria, and Pope Pius IX. Italy was not united until 1870 when it became a monarchy, not a republic.

Urbanization in the first half of the nineteenth century

a. was more dramatic for the Continent than Great Britain b. caused over 50 percent of the Russian population to live in cities by 1850 c. was a phenomenon directly related to industrialization d. accounted for widespread poverty in rural areas of Europe e. was far greater in the United States than in Great Britain The correct answer is C. During the first half of the nineteenth century, the industrialization of society lead to an increased urbanization. Cities that had once been centers of commerce and government were increasingly centers of manufacturing and industry. Between 1800 and 1850, the population of London increased from 1,000,000 to 2,363,000, and nine other British cities grew to over to over 100,000.

Prior to World War I, the trade union movement

a. was strongest in France after the dissolution of the Second International in 1890 b. spread widely and rapidly, despite trade unions being banned by most governments c. varied from state to state, but was generally allied with socialist parties, particularly on the continent d. was primarily for unskilled laborers, especially the New Model unions e. was outlawed entirely in England because of the Peterloo Massacre The correct answer is C. In England, there were two million workers enrolled in unions by 1900, although socialist parties in Britain were small and of little consequence until the early twentieth century. On the continent, however, trades unions were generally allied with socialist parties, particularly in France and Germany. Although it varied from country to country, by 1914, 85 percent of Germany's three million union members belonged to socialist unions.

The early Industrial Revolution saw the creation of a new social class of industrial workers who

a. were nearly all male b. worked long hours under dangerous conditions c. were never minors d. were unionized and achieved a significant political power e. strongly resembled the workers of cottage industries The correct answer is B. Factory workers in the early decades of the Industrial Revolution were forced to work under wretched conditions. Workdays ranged from 12 to 16 hours, six days each week. There was no minimum wage, and workers could be instantly terminated for any reason with no compensation. In cotton mills, heat and dust caused extensive health problems, many of them permanent.

During the Industrial Revolution, factory owners promoted a new system of workplace values that

a. were rejected by evangelical religions as being "unchristian" b. were a continuation of the values of the cottage industry system c. were never widely adopted by the working class d. demanded great discipline, rapid work, and greater competition among wage laborers e. was an improvement over the difficult and demeaning conditions of the cottage production environment The correct answer is D. The industrial factory necessitated a new type of discipline from the workers. Machinery was too expensive to remain idle, and workers were required to work regular hours and in shifts inasmuch as the machines had the potential to run twenty-four hours per day. Labor was repetitive and boring, and work rules harsh and demanding. For the smallest infractions, including lateness and drunkenness, workers were fined or fired. Children were often beaten.

a. The storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789 b. The "tennis court oath" taken by the Third Estate in June 1789 c. The execution of Louis XVI in January 1793 d. The execution of Robespierre in July 1794 e. The seizure of power by Napoleon in November 1799 The correct answer is A. The illustration portrays the storming of Paris' Bastille on July 14, 1789. The populace of Paris stormed the royal armory of the Bastille to obtain weapons and to liberate hundreds of political prisoners believed to be held there. Although only a handful of common criminals were freed from the Bastille, the fall of the Bastille gained great symbolic significance and is still celebrated in France as a national holiday.

The illustration portrays which of the following seminal and highly symbolic events of the French Revolution?

a. Free elections in Eastern Europe b. The numbers of tanks Americans and Russians could keep in Europe c. What to do with German prisoners of war d. Whether or not the Soviet Union would be in the United Nations e. Whether the atomic bomb should be used against Imperial Japan The correct answer is A. Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin agreed on Germany's unconditional surrender, zones of occupation for postwar Germany, and Soviet participation in the United Nations. However, Roosevelt and Stalin disagreed over the issue of free elections in Eastern Europe. Roosevelt desired free elections, but Stalin insisted that security for the Soviet Union required Soviet-friendly governments instead. The atomic bomb had not yet been tested, and Stalin would only be informed about it at the Potsdam Conference in July.

Which issue MOST divided Allied leaders at the February 1945 Yalta Conference, which is shown in the photograph?

a. Emileism b. Pietism c. Pantheism d. Methodism e. Miracleism The correct answer is D. England's John Wesley, after a spiritual experience, became a missionary to the ordinary people, people of the lower classes, who had been largely abandoned by the elite of the Anglican Church. He preached in open fields and elsewhere, and his converts were organized into Methodist societies, or chapels. After Wesley's death, Methodism separated from Anglicanism, and Methodists established their own institutional church.

In leading a deep spiritual revival in England in the eighteenth century, John Wesley founded a religious movement that came to be known as

a. Palais des Manufactures b. House of Progress c. Tower to Freedom d. Crystal Palace e. Temple of Industry The correct answer is D. The Great Exhibition, which was the first world's fair, was held in London in 1851 and signified Britain's momentous industrial accomplishments. One of the first prefabricated buildings, the Crystal Palace was made entirely of glass and iron. The structure contained 100,000 exhibits, and in six months, six million people visited the fair, including Queen Victoria and her husband Prince Albert, one of the organizers of the exhibition.

The Great Exhibition of 1851 was the first world's fair and held exhibits in the main building, constructed of glass and iron and known as the

a. Realism b. Naturalism c. Impressionism d. Post-Impressionism e. Romanticism The correct answer is C. Claude Monet became a leading Impressionist painter with his Impression, Sunrise, 1872. Impressionists painted studies of the changing effects of light on objects in nature. In this painting, Monet attempts to depict the fleeting moments of sunrise by capturing the interplay of atmosphere, light, and water.

The painting in the illustration by Claude Monet is an example of

a. Neo-Classicism b. Romanticism c. Naturalism d. Realism e. Impressionism The correct answer is D. Gustave Courbet's Stonebreakers is an example of artistic Realism. The Realists, many of whom were French, depicted the everyday life of ordinary people in natural settings. Realism was, in part, a reaction to Romanticism. As Courbet put it, "I have never seen either angels or goddesses, so I am not interested in painting them." The Stonebreakers portrays two road workers breaking stones to build a road. To some it was ugly and depressing, but to Courbet, no subject was too ordinary or too harsh, as long as it was real.

The painting, Gustave Courbet's The Stonebreakers, is an example of

a. Louis XIV's Versailles b. Louis's XV's Fontainebleau c. Frederick the Great's Sans-Souci d. Maria Theresa's Hofburg e. Charles II's Blenheim The correct answer is A. Louis XIV decided to convert a hunting lodge near the village of Versailles, ten miles outside of Paris, into an enormous palace, the largest in Europe. The palace of Versailles housed the royal government and thousands of nobles. It was the envy of other European rulers of the seventeenth and eighteenth century, often inspiring them to construct their own massive palaces.

The picture represents the Hall of Mirrors located in

Which of the following English monarchs was a devout Catholic who instigated a constitutional crisis for England in 1687-1688?

a. Charles II b. James II c. William I d. Charles IV e. William III The correct answer is B. James II ascended the English throne in 1685. A devout Catholic in an overwhelmingly Protestant kingdom, James desired to further Catholic interests, perhaps even restoring England to Catholicism. However, his two adult children, daughters Mary and Anne, were Protestants, and James was not a young man, so a Protestant succession seemed assured. But in 1688, a son was born to the king and because of primogeniture became the heir to the throne. The result was the invasion of England by Mary and her husband, William of Orange, and the Glorious Revolution.

The Ptolemaic conception of the universe was also known as`

a. God's master plan b. the geocentric conception c. the lunacentric conception d. the expanding universe e. flat-earth theory The correct answer is B. The Ptolemaic universe, named after Claudius Ptolemy, a second century CE astronomer, placed the earth at the center of all creation surrounded by a series of concentric spheres. Ptolemy's theories were based on the findings of Aristotle and supported by Church theology. The heliocentric, or sun-centered, universe of Copernicus replaced the Ptolemaic geocentric conception in the sixteenth century.

Prior to the Industrial Revolution, continental Europe's economy was marked by

a. the destruction of textile manufacturing under Napoleon's "continental system" b. a spirit of entrepreneurial innovation c. an unwillingness of most economic actors to take investment risks d. an absence of agricultural improvement and cottage industry e. a declining population The correct answer is C. Continental entrepreneurs were less willing to accept financial risks in industrial investments than their British counterparts. Like Britain, continental Europe also benefited from a population increase brought about by improved agriculture.

The belief in the existence of natural laws underlying all areas of human life led to

a. the development of the social sciences b. an abandonment of the scientific method c. intellectual stagnation d. the formation of the utopian communities in England and France e. economic equality throughout much of Europe by the end of the eighteenth century The correct answer is A. The successes of Isaac Newton and other figures of the Scientific Revolution inspired many intellectuals of the Enlightenment to explore the "science of man," creating the foundation of what would later be called the social sciences. The French Physiocrats and Scotland's Adam Smith are considered the founders of the modern discipline of economics, the first of the social sciences, governed by economic laws such as the law of supply and demand.

According to Sigmund Freud, behavior

a. was largely determined by genetics and predisposition to childhood diseases b. was shaped by one's environment, diet, and exercise c. was determined by inner drives of which people were generally unaware d. was shaped by one's socio-economic status as Marx had argued e. depended upon rational decisions The correct answer is C. Sigmund Freud's theories challenged the optimistic belief in human rationality that was central to the eighteenth-century Enlightenment and nineteenth-century liberal thought. Freud argued instead that human behavior was determined by the unconscious urges rather than the rational thought. He believed that this governing unconsciousness was a product of earlier experiences that the individual had forgotten or was largely oblivious to.

a. Maria Theresa of Austria b. Mary II of Great Britain c. Catherine the Great of Russia d. Marie Antoinette of France e. Isabella of Spain The correct answer is C. The enlightened autocrat in the picture is Catherine the Great of Russia who corresponded with several of the French philosophers. She criticized the use of torture, capital punishment and the institution of serfdom. However, she was dependent upon the Russian nobility and her palace guard to maintain control and deferred to them when necessary. As a result, despite her enlightenment ideals, very little concrete reform took place.

The enlightened eighteenth-century ruler portrayed in the picture is

a. coronation of Maria Theresa of Austria b. crowning of Britain's Queen Victoria c. capitulation of Catherine the Great to the Russian nobility d. coronation of Napoleon as emperor e. surrender of the Russian emperor after the Battle of Borodino The correct answer is D. In 1804, Napoleon Bonaparte crowned himself emperor, restoring the monarchy to republican France. Jacques-Louis David portrayed the coronation by showing Napoleon placing a crown on the head of his wife, Josephine. Napoleon broke with the Middle Age tradition of a having the pope perform the coronation; the pope is only an observer and Napoleon maintains all of the power.

The famous painting by Jacques-Louis David depicts the

The German philosopher Immanuel Kant proclaimed the motto of the Enlightenment to be

a. "Death to Priests!" b. "Convert the Kings to Peace!" c. "Dare to Know!" d. "Free Women from the Tyranny of Males!" e. "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity!" The correct answer is C. In 1784, the German philosopher Immanuel Kant defined the Enlightenment by arguing for the use of "one's own intelligence without the guidance of another," be it church, government, or another individual. He famously demanded "Dare to know! Have the courage to use your own intelligence!" "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity!" was one of the cries of the French Revolution.

By 1860, what percent of the population in cities held 70 to 80 percent of the wealth in America?

a. 2 percent b. 10 percent c. 60 percent d. 75 percent e. 90 percent The correct answer is B. In the United States, there was a myth about America being the land of economic opportunity, but the reality was that some became economically successful and many did not. By 1860, it is estimated that 10 percent of the urban population controlled 70 to 80 percent of the wealth, a figure that was up from 50 percent of the wealth in 1800.

The Catholic Roman Inquisition attacked Galileo for his scientific ideas with the encouragement of

a. European monarchs fearful of losing their authority b. Protestant theologians who resented the Catholic Italian scholar c. merchants and businessmen, who feared the new scientific theory would cause instability and lower profits d. the pope who refused to believe that the sun and planets really move about the earth e. elements within the church pledged to defend ancient Aristotelian ideas and Catholic orthodoxy The correct answer is E. The Church understood that the Copernican system threatened to undermine established biblical truths and a conception of the universe that had existed since the ancient world. The Bible and classical scholars posited a fixed and motionless earth, not the sun, as the center of creation. Man was supposed to be at the center of the universe and God in a specific place. Copernicus and Galileo created a universe of dangerous and uncertain change and flux.

The immediate origins of the Crimean War involved

a. French expansionism in the Black Sea b. Austrian expansionism in the Balkans c. threats to British interests in the Middle East and India caused by the industrialization of the Ottoman Empire d. the Turkish assassination of a British diplomat e. Russia's right to protect Christian shrines in Palestine The correct answer is E. The immediate cause of the Crimean War was Russia's demand that it be allowed to protect the Christian holy sites in Palestine, a right already granted to France.When rejected by the Turks, the Russians invaded territories nominally under Ottoman rule, and the latter declared war. An important underlying issue, however, was Ottoman decline and weakness, which gave Russia hopes of extending its power into the Mediterranean and British and French concerns that Russian expansion might threaten their interests in the region.

The Triple Entente included which of the following countries?

a. Great Britain, France, Russia b. Austria, Germany, Italy c. Turkey, Russia, Germany d. France, Spain, Great Britain e. The United States, France, and Britain The correct answer is A. Bismarck's plan to isolate France through a series of alliances failed. Kaiser William II allowed Germany's Reinsurance Treaty with Russia to lapse, prompting Russia to form an alliance with France in 1894. Britain's long-pursued policy of "splendid isolation" toward the Continent ended as a result of economic and military rivalry with Germany. In 1904, Britain and France agreed to the Entente Cordiale. Incidents in the next several years saw France and Britain come closer together, along with Russia, forming the Triple Entente, a looser association than the Triple Alliance.

Baroque art was superseded by which of the following artistic styles?

a. Impressionism b. English Landscape Art c. French Classicism d. Dutch Portraiture e. Mannerism The correct answer is C. In the second half of the seventeenth century, France replaced Italy as the cultural center of Europe. Many French artists found the Baroque style too showy and emotional and instead preferred the simplicity, balance, and design of the High Renaissance. French classicists such as Nicholas Poussin treated subjects from classical antiquity portrayed with noble grandeur and solidity.

Which of the following was one of Napoleon III's great domestic projects?

a. The building of the Eiffel Tower b. The rededication of the Cathedral of Notre Dame c. The reconstruction of Paris with broad boulevards, public squares, and municipal utilities d. The damming of the Seine River for flood control e. The construction of the Maginot Line in eastern France to protect France from invasion by Prussia The correct answer is C. Napoleon III's most famous and lasting legacy was the rebuilding of Paris. Napoleon III was not a liberal and did not believe in the virtues of laissez-faire or limitations on government power. Under the guidance of Baron Georges Haussmann, old medieval Paris was reconstructed. Broad boulevards, wide sidewalks, gas lamps, a sewer system, parks and hundreds of thousands of trees transformed Paris into one of the most beautiful cities in the world.

During the late eighteenth century, Britain's cotton industry

a. could not keep up with French textile production b. was responsible for the creation of the first modern factories c. declined due to the lack of technical innovation d. declined with the success of the Industrial Revolution e. declined as cheaper Indian labor lead to inexpensive imports The correct answer is B. Even before the Industrial Revolution took hold, England's cotton cloth production was extensive, using the traditional cottage industry method. The development of new technology, such as the flying shuttle, the spinning jenny, the power loom, and ultimately the steam engine, transformed working conditions, and modern factories replaced the former cottage production.