WH I Jensen Test #3 (Comprehensive)

hieroglyphs

"sacred symbols" in Greek - Egyptian picture-writing - symbols could have various meanings (could be a word or a sound) - alphabet consisted of 24 of them

Apocrypha

14 books of the Septuagint that are not part of the Hebrew Bible - rejected by Protestants & Jews - given full canonical status by the RCC at the Council of Trent

Context of Black Death

14th century EU was an age of adversity: crops failed, the number of animals decreased

Revolt of the Netherlands

1568-1609 (a cease-fire began under Philip III) Spain eventually lost the Netherlands conflict & with it, its industrial heartland

Decline of Empire

180-284 AD - Commodus of Gladiator fame began ruling in 180 - Rome experienced many economic, military, & political hardships - corruption was characteristic

Apologists

2nd century - def: apology, an argument - sought to defend or explain Christianity (distinguishing it from a "deviant" form of Judaism)

Persian

550-331 - located in modern Iran - massive empire

Hegira (Hijira)

622 September - means the severance of clan ties - the journey in which Muhammad travels to Yathrib (name changed to Medina) using less-traveled roads to escape assassination plots - the "migration" of Muhammad & his followers (200?) becomes the starting year for the Muslim calendar - loyalty shifts from clan to one another - Muhammad's ability to mediate a civil war sought

Writing of the Quran

A compilation - codified between 644-656, after Muhammad's death - a complete draft was finished soon after he died - not supposed to be translated from Arabic when used in a worship setting

Spain

Charles V belonged to the Hapsburg family - possessed a EU & New World empire - however, easy access to income (gold & silver) was detrimental to the economy - no incentive for the development of domestic, entrepreneurship, or international commerce

Roman Empire united

E & W again united under Constantine - 330 capital moved to Byzantium (Constantinople) - moving the capital shifted the empire's focus from west to east - foundation for Byzantine Empire

Eastern (Greek) and Western (Latin) church split

E rejected the Roman pope's claims to primacy early on - 1054 Great Schism is the usual date noted - in 1095 "cooperation" on 1st Crusade - 1204, complete separation on 4th Crusade

centralized administration

Emperor was absolute monarch, a divine right ruler

Franks

Germanic peoples with a kingdom located in modern France & Germany

Unconditional Election

God's election is without condition, a sovereign act

Motives for exploration

God, greed, glory

Ambrose

Bishop of Milan - forced Emperor Theodosius I (who had ordered the massacre of thousands in Thessalonica) to submit to church disciple (prohibited his presence at the Lord's table) - underscored the idea (at least in the W) that the emperor is within the church, not over it

Olympics

Greek city-states, though occasionally forming loose alliances generally fought among themselves, however, they called for truces during it - began in 776 BC (5 days long) - every four years (men only, first female 1900)

Technological Advances

Guns, sailing ship

Luther debates John Eck

He debates the RCC theologian at Leipzig (multi-day) and defends Huss/some of Huss' views - sum: he admits that he is a heretic as "defined" by the RCC

Clovis

King of the Franks - domain expanded via conquest: much of Roman Gaul, etc. - made Paris the Frankish capital - regarded as the founder of modern France

Friars

Latin for brother - generally took vows of poverty - supported by alms - Dominican - Franciscan

3 main branches of Christianity

Orthodox - RCC - Protestantism

2nd Triumvirate

Mark Antony, Octavian, Lepidus

Near East

Mesopotamia, Palestine and Egypt

Fertile Crescent

Mesopotamia, Phoenicia, Palestine

Summary of coalescence

Peter's "ecclesiastical primogeniture" over his fellow apostles & his superior position (derived from Petrine Theory) are passed on from him to his successors, the next/future bishops of Rome, via apostolic succession

Pope's claim to supremacy

Petrine Theory - Apostolic Succession

Polygamy

Muslim belief - males can marry up to 4 wives - Allah gave the prophet permission to have 12 wives

Moguls (Mughals)

Muslim dynasty of mixed Mongol & Turkish descent) - invaded India & expanded over most of the subcontinent (except extreme south) - ruled until early 1700s

Components of Mariolatry

Immaculate conception - Perpetual virgin - Bodily assumption into heaven - Mediator between humans & Christ (aka mediatrix) but it is not always commonly acknolwedged

Jerusalem laid to waste

Roman Emperor Vespasian's son, Titus - small part of Temple complex survived - Western or "Wailing" Wall - sacrificial system essentially ended & the political Jewish state (Israel) collapsed - rather than surrender, Jewish holdouts against Rome killed one another at the Dead Sea fortress of Masada

Conquistador

Spanish for "conqueror" & refers primarily to the Spaniards who conquered territory in the New World through the use of force - the two most "successful" conquistadors were: Cortes & Pizarro

Authoritarian

Sparta's entire society was harshly & militarily mobilized due to fear of rebellion - slaves (helots) outnumbered citizens 10 to 1 - slavery was their economic base - slaves were in agriculture, craft & domestic settings - Spartans were thus free for "other" pursuits

Jewish Revolts

another Jewish revolt (132-135) tried to set up an independent state - crushed - conflict of 70AD made Christians even more distinct from Jews - Christian Jews had taken a non-involvement approach

Knight

any nobleman who took up arms

Canons of Dort

Total Depravity - Unconditional Election - Limited Atonement - Irresistible Grace - Perseverance of Saints - known as the five points of Calvinism and are often symbolized by the mnemonic device TULIP - not a full exposition of Calvin's theology, surely they reflect his soteriology, however, Calvin addressed many other theological elements

Background to exploration

Trade - Beginning in the 15th century: Rapid technological revolution in the west - Sailors of the 15th century did not believe the world was flat (they had no idea of the true dimensions)

barbarian groups

Visigoths - Ostrogoths - Vandals - Huns - Franks

Muslim view of Jesus Christ

a faithful Muslim - mentioned in the Quran c. 25 times - He did not die on the cross but was protected from crucifixion - a substitute took His place

Spartacus

a gladiator in Rome who led a slave revolt

Greek Mythology

a religion in which the factors of life such as the earth, sun, moon, love, marriage, death, war, etc. are represented by a god or goddess - the Greeks were polytheistic

Disintegration

after their Golden Age, the empire began to fall apart - lost at Manzikert to Muslim Seljuk Turks - signals Turkish domination of the Mid-East - the rise of commercial rivals, especially Venice, posed a threat - Constantinople was sacked in 1204 by W crusaders during the 4th Crusade - in 1453 Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks, it became their capital - the "fall" of 1453 is viewed by some to mark the approximate end of the "Middle Ages" era

Avignon Papacy

aka the Papacy's "Babylonian Captivity" which lasted c. 68 years (1309-1377) - Bishop of Rome (Pope) moves from Rome to Avignon, France - under the control of French kings

Babylonia

area of Akkad, city of Babylon & the area of Sumer

Forerunners of the Protestant Reformation

arose during the papacy's nadir - John Wycliffe - John Huss

Gaul

ancient region of Europe which is present-day: southern Netherlands, Belgium, France, Switzerland, NW Germany, and northern Italy - the area was initially settled by groups of Celts

Socratic method

asking probing and penetrating questions - intended to cause the individual to realize that he did not know that which he thought he knew

Protestantism

asserts that spiritual authority rests in the inerrant Word of God (sola scriptura)

Muslims

attacked EU from the S - sacked Rome & plundered churches

Sargon I successors

attempted to extend his empire - however, Mesopotamia lacks defendable frontiers

Greek Dark Ages

c. 1150-750 - began after the destruction caused by a Dorian invasion c. 1200

Hatshepsut

c. 1504-1482 - 1st female Pharaoh (beard in images)

akkad (agade)

city (yet undiscovered) on the Euphrates which gave its name to an ancient northern Semitic kingdom traditionally founded by Sargon I (aka Sargon the Great) who ruled c. 2334-2279 BC

Arian Visigoths

conquered most of Spain during 400-500 AD - King Recared officially proclaimed the conversion of the people to Catholicism

Francisco Pizarro

conquered the Inca Empire in Peru

first solar calendar

devised by the Egyptians - leap year (each year was six hours short) - they observed that the average period between floods was 365 days (used stars also)

civilization

culture that has attained a high degree of complexity, characterized by urban life

Benedict of Nursia

established monastic orders in the W at Monte Cassino (near Naples) - there was to be no contact with the world that existed outside of the monastery - his famous Rule involved daily routine & focused on poverty, chastity, & obedience

Patrick

evangelized Ireland early in the 5th century - facts confused by legend - he was a slave in Ireland - escaped - went back as a missionary - March 17th is his feast day

Hundred Years' War Result

expulsion of the English from France 1429-1453 - France thus "wins" - There was increased nationalism - the war established England & France as clearly distinct nations - exhausted England & fueled discontent - strife erupted into a 30-yr conflict called the War of the Roses (1455-1485)

Italy

centrally located - a commanding position in the Mediterranean area

Patronage

certain offices in the church were reserved for the papacy to fill

Odoacer

chief of the Germanic Heruli people (former Roman mercenaries), deposed the last Western Roman Emperor, Romulus Augustus -later declared king of Italy

Christendom

church & state fused together - a "Christian community" under one government

Otto I

emerged as the strongest power in EU & a friend of the RCC (military campaigns at the behest of the pope) - John XII awarded him the imperial crown & title - from his coronation onward, many HRE's were German kings

John Wycliffe

emphasized that Scripture was the ultimate guide to faith - opposed indulgences & transubstantiation - translated the first English Bible

Recovery

for roughly 2 centuries, Byzantium enjoyed a period of political and cultural superiority over its foes - "Golden Age" where there was relative calm, wealth, powerful rulers, a strong military system (theme), & a flowering of artists, scholars, and theologians

Antony & Cleopatra

forces defeated in 30 BC - fled to Egypt - both committed suicide - Antony first

RCC

functioned as the "social cement" of the MA - performed many of the record-keeping, judicial, & welfare functions modern govts. have assumed - RCC Medieval history may be divided as: dissemination, decline, domination, decline

Sumer

generally regarded as 1st civilization (not nomadic, more than tiny villages) - uncovered 1877 AD

city-states

geographically separated (mtn. ranges hinder communication), independent political organizations developed in/on cities/islands

Muhammad

his prophetic status is not to be questioned - most Muslims believe that he was sinless, not divine - is the greatest example for life

Greater Jihad

individual battle against sin - all Muslims are engaged in a private spiritual struggle

Rosetta Stone

inscribed 196 BC & found near Alexandria in 1799 by Napoleon's troops - contained inscriptions in Greek, Egyptian demotic (popular script), & Egyptian hieroglyphics - housed in the British Museum

Sacraments

intermediary between God & man - all seven acts had an exalted position in worship - an efficacious sign of grace, instituted by Christ and entrusted to the Church, by which divine life is dispensed to us through the work of the Holy Spirit

Aramaic

international language of the Near East - in Judea, it was more commonly spoken among certain classes than was Hebrew - also used by Jesus/the disciples

background of Diet of Worms

formal assembly - Luther was a subject of Frederick the Wise - when the papacy moved to silence Luther, Frederick insisted that his professor, a growing attraction at the University of Wittenberg (newly founded by Frederick), be heard on German soil & treated fairly - virtually all of Germany supported Luther

Edict of Nantes

it allowed RC to remain the state church, yet provided freedom of worship and legal equality for French Huguenots (in the 1600s, every FR king attempted to undermine both their regional power & religious liberty)

King John

lost battles/lands to the French, as well as the power to appoint bishops (England under interdict) - he collected dues illegally, thus the barons (nobles) revolted & a civil war situation ensued - London was captured in May 1215, he was forced to "sign" or affix his stamp to the Magna Carta

Caligula

madman

positive elements of monasticism

monastic schools -> seats of learning; educated 90% of the literate - some care for the afflicted -> refuge for the outcast, the weary traveler, those needing a hospital - copyists preserved manuscripts -> Ireland a center of literacy during barbarian conquests of Europe

Reasons for the Byzantine Empire's Endurance

money economy - advanced military science - centralized administration - Caesaropapism

imperial state

more extensive, politically centralized, poly-ethnic, and supported by a formal military organization (Akkadians)

Mary in RC theokogy

most doctrinal developments began in Trent - RC pronouncements have culminated in what is termed Mariolatry

Scholasticism

name given to a theology that developed in "schools" - in the 12th century cathedral schools were the center of theological activity - "scholastics" sought to demonstrate through deductive logic what they knew to be true by faith

age of an account

never makes it definitive - this and its accuracy are two totally different aspects/factors/topics

Anarchy

no rule

Whole Tenor Principle

no section of Scripture should be interpreted apart from the whole of Scripture - likewise: no teaching contrary to the general tenor of the Scriptures should be developed from any particular passage - application: be thorough

Huns

nomadic central Asian people who c. 350 AD moved west - unified by Attila - they gained control of parts of C/E Europe - attacked other barbarians - in 452 after bursting through the Alps, Attila was ready to attack Rome - persuaded by Pope Leo I to turn away

Venial Sin

not observing the standard prescribed by the moral law, or when he disobeys the moral law in a grave matter, but without full knowledge or without complete consent

Bible as the sole authority

of the Christian faith - not the writings of the early church fathers, popes, or councils - Sola Scriptura - Scripture alone

Bodily assumption into heaven

taken directly to heaven at the end of her life

Luther excommunicated

pope declared him a heretic & expelled him

EU in decline

population decreases, food shortages, declines in trade & education

asceticism

practicing strict self-denial as a measure of personal & spiritual discipline; may involve denying physical needs to concentrate on spiritual ones

Byzantines

predominantly Greek in language & culture, but they called themselves Romans

John Tetzel's indulgences

provided plenary "remission of all sins" & the punishments of purgatory would be "totally wiped out" - an indulgence purchased on behalf of those already in purgatory would fully remit their punishment - slogan "As soon as the coins in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs"

Lord

provided protection, justice in his court, and a grant of land (fief) to the vassal

the essence of Jesus

put forward at Nicaea - Arius - Athanasius - Eusebius

Absenteeism

receive income from an office but never fill it - use a clerk for the duties

Hadith

report(s) of the words & deeds of Muhammad and other early Muslims - considered an authoritative source of revelation, second only to the Quran - traditionally, the body of authentic hadith reports is considered to embody the Sunnah (custom/example) of the Prophet Muhammad

Tribal Assembly

representing plebeian concerns, eventually had equality with the Senate - after this, plebeians usually willing to let the experienced Senate run govt. affairs - technically a democracy - reality: noble patricians & rich plebeians control Rome

Great Pyramid of Giza

required 84K people working 80 days a year, for c. 20 years (estimated), orignally c. 480 feet (tallest man-made bldg. until 19th C.)

new political climate

rise of monarchs/rulers strong enough (politically) to challenge CH power

water

rivers deposited fertile silt on adjoining fields, provided water for crops, & served as avenues for trade - to construct/maintain irrigation works required the cooperation of large numbers of people

Architecture & engineering

road builders, Pantheon, domed structure, aqueducts

henotheism

the worship of one god without denying the existence of others

Petrine Theory

the RCC insists that Christ gave to Peter a special rank as the 1st Bishop of Rome & leader of the apostles - Peter was the 1st pope & all subsequent popes inherited his authority - misinterpretation of MT 16:13-19

Events in Germany

the electors possessed considerable independence within their domains & acted as a counter-weight to Emperor's power

Irresistible Grace

the gift of faith given by God cannot be resisted by the elect - efficacious

Egypt

the gift of the Nile - many mysteries remain - there is historical disagreement & conjecture

Nineveh

the capital from which the Assyrians ruled by terror - a normal practice (Jonah c. 780)

summary of civilization factors

the combination of these developments differentiate 1st civilizations from earlier people

Fraud theory

the disciples or others stole the body and claimed a resurrection

sacerdotalism

the power of the priest as an essential mediator between God & man

Primogeniture

the right of an eldest son to succeed to the estate of his father at the exclusion of all his siblings - developed in western EU and introduced in England in the late 11th century

Greek philosophy

the universe can be understood in terms of itself - causation is natural not mythological - essentially, understand how the world works in a non-supernatural way

Arabian Peninsula

where the birth of Islam is geographically located - largely desert

slavery

widespread - at times 40-50% of population

Importance of the Greeks

their contribution to WH may be summed up in the word "ideas" (synonym "concepts"): rationality, democracy, individualism, citizenship, free, debate, inquiry, a love of wisdom (philosophy) - these concepts (and others) are foundational to/for what may be termed: "Western Civilization"

Spain

their settlements in the New World grew into colonies which had the sole purpose of bolstering their economy - the land was ravaged for gold, crops, & anything of value that could be sent back

Problem with Regnal Dating

there may be overlapping/missing reigns in a regnal system (thus estimations) - as new data emerges, things can change

Other Muslim beliefs

there will be variances given the social/legal climate - polygamy - victory & martyrdom (two most excellent things)

Aristotle & Plato

they both have faith in reason to lead us to the best possible life

Karma

very important Buddhist concept - good actions rewarded, evil ones punished, either in this life or through a long series of lives, resulting from Samsara (rebirth of a person) via reincarnation

Umayyad (Omayyad) Muslim dynasty

661-750 - Ali (4th Caliph) is challenged by the Syrian governor Muawiya - Ali was eventually killed, allowing his rival to seize power - from 661 the caliphate (territory controlled by the caliph) remained in the hands of Muawiya's family & became known as the Umayyads - Capital is moved from Medina to Damascus

Israel divided

931 - Israel and Judah

Lower Mesopotamia

Akkadians, Babylonias, Sumerians

children of Henry VIII

Edward VI - Mary I - Elizabeth I

Republic

Etruscan monarch overthrown - aristocracy established the Roman Republic - two consuls (annually elected); ruled with the advice of the Senate

Hellen

Greek mythology, King of Phthia - ancestor of all true Greeks

Background of Treaty of Tordesillas

In 1481, the pope granted Portugal all land south of the Canary Islands & west of Africa - Spain appealed the decision & a compromise was reached in 1494

Far East

India and China

Latin-based languages

It - Fr - Span - Romanian - Portuguese - Romance languages

Society of Jesus

Jesuits - approved by Pope Paul III as a new religious order - founded by Ignatius of Loyola, they took a vow expressing special loyalty to the pope - the aim of the order: restore the RCC back to a position of spiritual power/wordly influence - concentrated on three tasks: education, winning back areas from protestantism, foreign missions

education

Jesuits became & remain among the best-educated clergy

Arius

Jesus a created being, not of the same essence as God the Father, not coequal or coeternal

Athanasius

Jesus the same essence as the Father, yet a distinct personality, equal & coeternal

Perpetual virgin

Jesus was her only son - no other children

immediate cause of the Reformation

John Tetzel's indulgence sales in German lands

Johan Gutenberg

Mainz, Germany - goldsmith - (and possibly other printers) - "invented" movable metal type - he fashioned single letters & words out of metal - these could be combined in trays to form words or sentences - this allowed books to be mass produced quickly/inexpensively - books/printed materials disseminated throughout Europe - printing press

Immaculate conception

Mary was conceived without sin (free of original sin) - feast day 12/08

Parliament

Parler means to speak - began in the late 1200s largely because the king wanted to build popular consensus - its major component will be: the "Power of the purse," withholding $ grants until the king addressed grievances (petition) - English kings grew strong; nobles could restrict them

Edward VI

Protestant child-king - died at age 15, most likely from tuberculosis

Phoenicians' most popular export

cloth dyed purple (from snail glands)

Christ-myth School

late 18th century - asserts that Jesus never lived but was invented

Third Crusade

undertaken after Muslim leader Saladin (proclaimed Jihad) took Jerusalem

Magna Carta

"Great Charter" - the king must observe all feudal rights/privileges - the idea (implied) that law is above the king, placing limits on power - king can be forced to obey

Extreme Unction

"Last Rites" given by a priest to someone near death for forgiveness of sins

Vasco de Balboa

"discovered" the Pacific Ocean

Anabaptist

"radical reformation" (no support) - not a single coherent group - no one person tied the movement together - there was no unifying organization - most (though not all) shared certain distinctive beliefs: pacifism, insisted upon the separation of church & state, held to believer's baptism

Girolamo Savonarola

(1452-1498) Italian Dominican friar - led a revolt in Florence - his denunciations (preached against papal immorality) - was arrested, tortured, hanged, burnt

Cosimo de Medici

(the elder) (1389-1464) - ruled Florence - the de Medici family made money through banking

Treaty of Tordesillas

1. it drew a vertical line of demarcation through what is now South America - much to yet explore - 2. Spain got the rights to all land west of the line; Portugal got the rights to all land east of the line

Israel

10 Northern Tribes identified with Samaria - conquered 722 BC by the Assyrians

Apostolic

1st century - sought to edify the church

Philip II

359-336 BC - King of Macedonia - began a conquest of the splintered Greeks - his victory in 338 at Chaeronea brought mainland Greece under his control - assassinated - his son inherited the throne

Muhammad dies

632 June - his chief advisor, Abu Bakr, is elected leader of the Muslim community, becoming the first caliph - he essentially launches wars that will dramatically expand the Islamic world.

Joshua

After 40 years of wandering, c. 1406 BC (age 90) he became Israel's leader who drove out most of the Canaanites & divided the land among the 12 tribes - then: the period of the Judges (over the 300 years)

The Five Pillars

Allah cannot be known, only obeyed

syllogisms

Aristotle laid down rules for it - a deductive scheme - major premise, minor premise, conclusion (i.e. all men are mortal; Socrates is a man; therefore, Socrates is mortal)

First 5

Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, Nero

Howard Carter

British archaeologist who discovered the first steps of King Tut's tomb on 1922 - took them 10 years to completely excavate the tomb

Fall of Rome

By 146 BC, Roman might spanned the Mediterranean world - but with foreign enemies no longer threatening it (c. 133 BC) cooperation deteriorated & internal dissension tore it apart

3rd Roman Civil War Background

Caesar assassinated on the Ides of March by 50-plus senators - Et tu Brute? - cause: dictator for life and suspension of Roman Republic

3rd Roman Civil War

Caesar's conspirators were defeated - Lepidus lead a revolt in Sicily & was forced into retirement - Antony & Octavian became enemies - dispute settled in a naval battle near Actium - Antony deserted by forces

priesthood of all believers

Christ is the only mediator, and true believers interact directly with Him and constitute the church under the authority of the Word of God

Limited Atonement

Christ's atoning death was sufficient to save all, but efficient only for the elect

Theodosius

Christianity made state religion of the empire

disloyal subjects

Christians' unwillingness to make public sacrifice to Roman gods branded them as treasonous (possibly even viewed as enemies of state)

Entertainment

Colosseum (80 AD) - amphitheaters in most Roman provinces - "bread & circuses" (free food & entertainment) was sarcastically applied (c. 100 holidays)

Thomas Aquinas

Dominican - greatest of the scholastics - his goal was to harmonize revelation with reason

William the Conqueror

Duke of Normandy - became King of England - in 1066 (with papal backing) he claimed the right to the English throne & landed an invasion force - defeated King Harold II - Battle of Hastings (Bayeux tapestry tells the story)

Zhou Dynasty (or Chou)

During times of political and social turmoil under this dynasty, new philosophical schools or social ideologies developed - essentially there was a range of worldviews

Constantine & Licinius

Edict of Milan - full religious freedom throughout the empire - extended to all - restored to Christians their confiscated property

Ptolemaic Kingdom

Egypt

Hundred Years' War Population

England's population c. 3.5 million; France's population c. 16 million, yet small armies

Boniface

Englishman - Apostle of Germany - began organizing the German Church

Byzantine History Periods

Expansion - Peril - Recovery - Disintegration

Huguenots

FR Protestants/Calvinists

Decius

First empire-wide persecution - now it is a matter of state policy - Rome is seeking to return to paganism, Christians must offer sacrifice (incense to the genius - creative life principle - of the emperor) - objective: extermination of Christianity - some caved in

John Calvin

French-born, led the Reformation in Geneva, Switzerland (aka the "Protestant Rome") - his Institutes of the Christian Religion summarized much of Reformation thinking - referred to as the systematizer of the Reformation - his work influenced: French Huguenots, English Puritans, the Dutch Reformed Church, & Scottish Presbyterians

Sophists

Hellenic philosophers who rejected the existence of absolute truth & universal morality - truth for them was relative - they were challenged by Socrates, Plato, & Aristotle who led a countermovement grounded upon the notion that truth is real and discoverable

Edward VI becomes king

Henry VII dies, his ten-year-old-son ascends - the power of the govt. under him rested with a group of royal advisers who were in sympathy with the Protestant Reformation - English policy shifted rapidly in a Protestant direction

Henry VIII marries Anne Boleyn

Henry is excommunicated by Pope Clement VII - Anne gives birth to a baby girl - she will be Elizabeth I

Four major ecclesiastical streams of the Reformation

Lutheran, Anglican, Reformed, Anabaptist

India

Modern: 1.27 million sq miles; pop. 1.20 billion; 80% Hindu, 11% Muslim; Capital: New Delhi

Babylonian Captivity

Nebuchadnezzar's conquest of Judah - fullfilled Jeremiah's prophesy

Vikings

Norsemen - Scandinavia (Norway, Sweden, Denmark) - first attacked Britain c. 787 - raided the river valleys of EU for about 200 years - terrorized coastal EU peoples - looted monasteries/churches - clergy slaughtered - visited N America, took Normandy, forged a Russian state, destroyed Irish culture

Context of Punic Wars

North Africa - Carthage - a Phoenician colony (aka "Punic") established

geographical distribution of the Reformation

Northern Europe (predominantly Protestant) - Southern Europe (predominantly Catholic)

Caesaropapism

Orthodox Church & state closely tied - Patriarch appointed by Emperor - enhanced unity and stability

4th kingdom

Pergamene in upper Asia Minor

Seleucid Kingdom

Persian Empire

Power Struggle

Pope Gregory VII vs. Germany King Henry IV - Gregory excommunicates King Henry & pronounces the interdict - under pressure (rebellion from the nobles), Henry submits

Defenestration of Prague

Prague Protestants stormed the royal palace & threw two ministers & their secretary out of a window (they fell c. 50 feet, but survived) - followed by a major Protestant uprising - these events serve to begin the conflict

Piracy

Rival nations & pirates drooled over the cargo that Spanish treasure ships carried across the ocean - Spain developed a convoy system (guard ships & galleons) to make the voyage safer - Also helping were fortified ports like St. Augustine, established in 1565 (oldest city in the U.S.) - Caribbean pirates a serious threat

Pax Romana

Roman Peace from 27 BC to 180 AD - not peaceful for Christians or Jews at various times - essentially, Rome was so strong that attention could be turned to commerce

Cornelius Tacitus

Roman historian and governor of Asia in 112 AD - in his work Roman Annals, written between 115-117 AD he mentions the fire of Rome and Nero's attempt to blame it on the Christians - first time had occasion to mention the Christians, so he provides a brief background: "They got their name from Christ, who was executed by sentence of the procurator Pontius Pilate..."

Claudius

Roman occupation if Britain

Proletariat

Roman usage - this term emerged to describe a lowest class who paid no taxes, and served the state only by producing children ("proles")

Political Strife

Rome's ruling elites showed little concern for the welfare of its subjects

Antiochus IV (Epiphanes)

Seleucid ruler - attempted to destroy Judaism - Judas Maccabaeus' revolts

Pilgrims

Separatists - step ashore at what we call Plymouth, Massachusetts

Plato

Socrates' disciple & Aristotle's teacher - divided reality into the intelligible and the sensible

Charles V & subjects

Their commonality was their RC religion - a break-away German national church, or political union within Germany, threatened the existence of the Hapsburg Empire - Charles had to find a way to deal with Germany without provoking civil war

Synod of Dort

Ultimately, a national synod - met at Dordrecht - the rejection of Arminian theology was unanimous - five theological points were formulated to answer the Remonstrants - known as the Canons of Dort

Trojan horse

Virgil's Aeneid - possibly c. 1250-1200 BC - wooden horse left outside the city - attackers then sail off - Trojans pull wooden horse inside city gates - go to sleep - at night Greek soldiers crawled out of horse and opened gates for returning army

Carolingian Renaissance

When Charlemagne began a palace school at Aachen & commissioned Alcuin (noted scholar) to over see it, it became the nucleus of an intellectual/cultural revival

gunned ship

When W. EU combined the two innovations (guns & the sailing ship), they had a ship more maneuverable, faster, & with a definite tactical advantage - gave the W naval superiority around the globe

Mencius

a Confucian who added important new dimensions to Confucian thought in the areas of: human nature (man is good) & government (should be concerned for the welfare of people)

Pliny the Younger

a Roman official, wrote Emperor Trajan c. 111 AD of his persecution of the followers of Christ - they would not curse Christ

Babylon

a city prominent under Hammurabi who made it the capital of Babylonia (area) - its ruins now lay on the Euphrates c. 55 miles south of modern Baghdad

Athens

a commercial & sea-faring community - open to new ideas, products - sought "knowledge" - individualistic --> at times practiced direct democracy (the Assembly c. 462) - participation by all citizens (c. 10-20% of pop.): men with two Athenian parents - no participation by idiots & women

Emergency in Republic

a dictator could be substituted & given absolute power

Lesser Jihad

a holy war - sometimes demands defense of Muslim territory & military aggression

mummy

a human being (or animal) embalmed or treated for burial - Egyptians wanted to live forever; to achieve this, they believed the person's body had to be preserved - corpse was dried out with natural salts, coated with oils, wrapped in layers of tight linen bandages - after a waterproofing coat, placed inside a case (protection) - entire process c. 70 days

Henry Tudor

a relative of the Lancasters, won the war - victory in 1485 - c. Henry's eldest son, Arthur (heir), married Catherine of Aragon - in 1502 Arthur died - Arthur's younger brother, Henry (will become Henry VIII), was now heir to the throne

In the Praise of Folly

a satire, Erasmus exposed abuses in the RC church by writing against moral corruption & denouncing the ignorance/idleness of monks

Epicureans

a school of Hellenistic Philosophy - the finest pleasures are intellectual - free the body from pain, the mind from fear (particularly the fear of death) - avoid bodily excess - eternally they were annihilationists - they retreated from the worldly responsibility - founder: Epicurus 342-271 BC

War of the Roses

a series of outbreaks, murders, & executions

Sultanate

a succession of ruling Muslim dynasties in India

monasticism

a way of life that emphasizes certain aspects: life-in-community, celibacy, poverty, worship, etc.

Other aspects of the Pope (Papacy, Holy See, Pontiff, Vatican)

a. NT has no mention of Peter serving as Bishop of Rome (only a legend) - b. according to RCC history there were 266 popes from Peter to Benedict XVI, various lists may disagree - c. about 1/5 of the world's population is RC and 20% see him as the spiritual leader - d. when the pope speaks "Ex-cathedra" (from the chair), it is viewed as possessing divine authority equal to that of God in Scripture (infallible)

2nd Punic War

about 23 years later - Carthage (seeking to expand its empire in Spain) attacked an ally of Rome - Carthaginian General Hannibal led a force of c. 50K infantry, 6K calvary, & a detachment of elephants through the Alps (in 15 days) & into Italy where he was very successful (for 16 yrs) - Rome counter-attacked at Zama (N. Africa) - Hannibal was forced to return home - Rome's Scipio beats Hannibal - Carthage forced to accept a harsh treaty - "Carthaginian Peace"

Pharaoh believed to be both man & a god

absolute ruler, benevolent protector - controlled sunrise, floodwaters, kept irrigation works in order, & maintained justice in the land - people expected that when he died, he would still assist his living subjects

Ninety-Five Theses

academic points for scholarly debate (an invitation) written in Latin - not intended to attack the use of indulgences (in total) or the papacy, even though Luther clearly questioned some of the powers claimed for indulgences - translated into German/reprinted in many cities

Nirvana

achieving this breaks the cycle of rebirth - a state of super-consciousness or peace (for this life only) which is gained through extinguishing desire

forms

actual things are copies of transcendent ideas

Constantine

advanced across the Alps to evict Maxentius from Italy & capture Rome - met his militarily superior enemy at the Milvian Bridge (outside Rome) - turned for help to the God of the Christians - victorious - interpreted success as proof of the power of Christ & superiority of the Christian religion - favored Christianity openly - Emperor in the West - defeated Eastern Emperor Licinius in 323

John Knox

after the ascension of Mary I, he fled to EU & in 1556, accepted a call to Geneva - went back to Scotland in 1559 & became leader of the reforming party (took Calvinism to Scotland: Presbyterian) - drew up the Scottish Confession & brought into being commission which forbade the celebration/attendance of mass & abolished the authority of the pope (in Scotland)

Peril

after victories against the Persians, the Empire found itself with trouble on all sides - iconoclastic controversy

Economic Strife

agricultural crisis after 2nd Punic War (countryside devastated) - small farmers could not increase their incomes by working on neighboring estates - the importation of slaves (well over 100K) to work on large plantations (aka latifundia) replaced them - farmers gave up their lands and went to Rome seeking work

Akhenaton

aka Amenhotep IV - attempted a type of monotheistic reform (worship of the sun god Aton; essentially henotheism) - married Nefertiti - "son" Tutankhamun (by "secondary wife") succeeded him

Chaldean

aka Babylonian - c. 612-539 - began with peoples who had migrated into Babylon - joined with the Medes to overthrow the Assyrians (612 BC) - other nations likely shed no tears - power crumbled after Nebuchadnezzar's death - Belshazzar slain by the Persians (Oct. 539)

Barbarians

all uncivilized tribes - more specifically Germanic/Slavonic/Asian tribes that invaded Rome after 50 AD - sometimes warred against themselves, sometimes Rome - some became allies with Rome

Albrecht of Mainz

allows the Dominican order to sell St. Peter indulgences in his land - he owed a large sum to Rome for having granted him a special dispensation to become an ecclesiastical prince of three territories (two archbishop positions & an administrator) - borrowed the money from the Fugger banking house which employed an experienced indulgence salesman, Dominican John Tetzel, to run the traffic - half the proceeds go to A of M & the Fugger bank; other half to Rome

Phoenician contribution

alphabetic symbols - phonetic alphabet with 22 consonants - adopted by Greeks

Pluralism

an individual might become the holder of more than one church office

Ideological aspect of Christendom

an integrated view of life in which everything: politics, social order, religious practice, economic relationships, etc. - was based on the Christian faith as communicated by the Roman Catholic Church and protected by the actions of secular rulers - a "Christian world-state"

Cornelius Sulla

appointed dictator in order to revise the constitution - TA's powers were reduced & the Senate gained near total control of all legislation (could veto Tribal Assembly acts)

Charles V

as HRE - the first of Spain - came to the throne of Spain in 1516 & united it with that of the HRE which he inherited in 1519

Wrong tomb theory

asserts that the disciples went to the wrong tomb - could easily have been corrected if the Roman & Jewish leaders would have simply produced the body; moreover, explain the disciples' actions of Acts 4:5 and beyond (especially Acts 4:13)

transubstantiation

at the priest's words, the elements actually become the body and blood of Christ - hence they are to be worshipped

advanced military science

at times, army was probably the best in the world - navy's secret weapon: "Greek Fire" - worked like napal ( a fire bomb or flame thrower) - knowledge of the precise chemical compound has been lost

Pneumonic

ate your lungs away - highly infectious & spread quickly - transmitted to humans by coughing or sneezing

Plebeian rise

avoiding civil war (early on), patricians incrementally granted plebeians social & political equality

Seven Sacraments

baptism - Holy Eucharist (communion) - Penance or confession - Confirmation - Matrimony - Holy orders or ordination - Extreme Unction

Philip II upset

because of English support of Prot. Dutch rebels & attacks on SP's Caribbean holdings - May 1588, c. 130 ships of the Armada depart Lisbon for Flanders (parts of modern BE, FR, NL) - in the journey around Scotland/IRL - Armada wrecked (bad weather) - c. 60 ships returned to SP

Roman control of Judea

began after annexation by Pompey - Antipater was appointed governor by Julius Caesar - his son Herod the Great appointed prefect of Galilee - in 40 BC, Parthians invaded & Herod the Great escaped to Rome - will return

Roman Inquisition

began in 1542 to halt the growth of Protestantism

Renaissance background

began in northern Italy (FYI: not yet a "country") & spread throughout W. Europe - the struggle between popes & the Holy Roman Emperors left the city-states of N. Italy free to develop - Since Italy was the most economically advanced area in Europe, Italian church, business, & govt. leaders possessed the economic means (disposable income) for patronage (sponsorship) of the arts

Reconquista

began in the 11th century - it was a "crusade" designed to oust Muslims who had invaded Spain (711) & by 756 established an independent state

Monotheism

belief in a single God or religion affirming that belief - opposes polytheism (belief in many deities)

William Tyndale

betrayed & falls into the hands of church officials - after months in prison he was burned at the stake - during his imprisonment, Miles Coverdale published the first edition of a complete English translation of the Bible (basically Tyndale's work, supplemented)

Roanoke Island

between 1585-87 attempts (financed & organized by Sir Walter Raleigh) were made to establish a permanent settlement - a 3rd attempt in 1587 was established & John White returned to England for supplies; his return back to the settlement, however, was delayed by war (Spanish Armada attack on England) until 1590 - upon his return, the colony had been abandoned and the word "CROATOAN" was etched into a tree - the mystery of the "Lost Colony" remains

Trade

between EU, Africa & the Orient existed for centuries - usually through intermediaries: 1. W. EU merchants sought to break those monopolies & go directly to the sources - the overland trade route to Asia was hindered by the Ottoman Turks - a sea route was desired

Abram

born 2167 BC - traveled from Ur to Canaan (enters c. 2090 BC)

3rd Punic War

broke out 53 years later

first substantial empire

built by Sargon I - it stretched from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean - garrisons were stationed in conquered lands & there was a standing army kept to quell revolts/launch new ventures

pyramid

burial chamber for the pharaohs (c. 80 survive) - illustrated the skill of the Egyptian architects & the state's ability to organize a work force

Nero

burning of Rome, Christian persecution

United Kingdom of Israel's high point

c. 1051-931 BC under its first three kings - Saul - David - Solomon

Amenhotep II

c. 1450-1415 - Pharaoh during the 1446 Exodus of the Hebrews

HRE effectively over

c. 300 principalities/cities that comprised it were basically autonomous political bodies - technically "existed" as a loose confederation until 1806

early dynastic period

c. 3100-2625 - c. 3000 B.C. King Menes of Upper Egypt (south) conquered Lower Egypt (north) & united the two kingdoms - capital city was Memphis (c. 14 miles S. of Cairo)

Jerome

c. 405 he produced a Latin translation of the Bible commonly called the Vulgate (vulgus -> common) - authorized Roman Catholic Bible - compelled by the church to include the Apocrypha though he did not regard it as fully inspired

Persian Wars

c. 492-449 - events begin c. 499 when Ionian Greeks revolt

Cyrus the Great

c. 550-530 - one of the "greatest conquerors in the history of the ancient Near East" - defeated the Medes (550, fused together, "Medo-Persian" empire), Lydians (547), & Babylonians (539) - used warrior horsemen , brilliant cavalry tactics, possibly an army of c. 300K

Muhammad & Khadija

c. 595 - Muhammad (involved in caravan trade) manages the goods of a wealthy, 40-year-old widow named Khadija - she is so impressed with his abilities that she offers him marriage - he accepts, the 25- year-old Muhammad obtains enough capital to become independently wealthy (are married c. 25 years)

Muhammad's vision

c. 610 - according to tradition, he had a vision of the Angel Gabriel, during which he hears a voice telling him he is the "Messenger of God" - this marks the beginning of Muhammad's status as "the Prophet" - he receives further revelations (messages from Allah) at frequent intervals until death

Age of Empires

c. 900-331 BC - age of brutal warfare that put an end to the era of small states

RCC moral decline

came with the reign of John XII, pope at 18, immoral and lasted mid-11th century - papal pornocracy

Rome

central location, on the Tiber River (c. 15 miles from the sea) - hills for protection

AC's reforms

civil service, police & fire departments, efficient taxation, building programs - permanent standing army (some stationed on frontier province) - future area expansion - legislation against adultery (was exempted)

Investiture Struggle

claim of kings/rulers to appoint bishops & abbots - the pope views it as symbolizing lay authority over the church - the concepts of Simony and Primogeniture are related to it

HRE Emperor

claimed to be the temporal sovereign of Christendom, ruling in cooperation with the pope - in reality, relations often difficult - survived as a theory because he never ruled all of Christendom

Advantage of Constantinople's site

commanded the waterways connecting the Mediterranean & Black Seas - EU & Asia - strategically located for commercial & political influence

Holy Eucharist

communion - heart of the Mass worship service - the priest presides over a miracle as Christ's sacrifice is re-presented and the bread & wine become the actual body & blood of Christ, a process called transubstantiation

Crusade of Princes

consisted largely of FR nobility - July 1099, they took Jerusalem & massacred the inhabitants - report say that so many were slaughtered within the remains of Solomon's temple that the floor was ankle-deep in blood - Crusader "states" established

Council of Clermont

convened by Pope Urban II - called on Christendom to unite to protect the Holy Sepuclhre from further Muslim attack - Crusaders were motivated by the desire to earn salvation (all past sins would be forgiven), adventure, & the promise of land, wealth, and fame

William Farel

convinces John Calvin (headed to Strasbourg) to assist in the Geneva reformation

Monks

copied & preserved ancient manuscripts - their choices defined the limits of modern knowledge; if they excluded it, it was lost

cause of the Reformation

corruption - new political climate - popularity of mysticism - a new intellectual climate - the providence of God to bring about the right man, at the right hour, in the right context (Martin Luther)

Moses and Epic of Gilgamesh

could have used accurate parts of Gilgamesh as a source (under the inspiration of God) - however, the epic, in its totality, is not the definitive narrative - under the inspiration of God, Biblical authors can use a host of sources

Senate

council of nobles from the Patrician class who held their positions for life

Excommunication

cut the individual off from the church and its sacraments - denied the individual fellowship with other believers - in effect, the individual was damned

Ostracism

dangerous politicians (after a vote) could be exiled/banished for ten years

Augustus

date for rule varies - birth of Christ

Zoroastrianism

de-facto state religion of Persia (Iran) - views the world as being divided between the spirits of good & evil (dualistic) - worships Ahura Mazda who is forever in conflict with Ahriman

Tiberius

death of Christ

Socrates' death

death sentence - drank hemlock

Pisa Council

deposed both acting popes & the College of Cardinals then selected a new pope, Alexander V - Problem: the two other popes refused to accept the decision of the council & now there were three popes (a Roman pope, an Avignon pope, & a Conciliar pope)

Augustine

described his dramatic conversion (take & read) in Confessions - served as Bishop of Hippo (N. Africa), battled heretics, & emphasized God's sovereign calling of the elect - Christian Philosophy of History - work: The City of God (multiple selections) - Whole Tenor Principle

Juan Cabrillo

discovered California

goal of Socratic method

divest self of false notions - participate in the quest for knowledge

Spread of Christianity

doctrines (love, salvation, immortality) - appeal (across elements of society) -> downtrodden classes, both genders, dignity in this life - structure of the Roman Empire -> safety, urban life, highways - zeal -> much displayed by early Christians - efficiency -> church organization - God's role (sovereignty) & the truth of the Gospel

Old Catholic Church

each bishop had been an equal

context of monasticism

early 300s c. 10% of Romans professed Christianity - early 400s c. 90% did - when Christianity became Rome's state religion, unconverted pagans flooded the church

Manorialism

economic relationship between nobles (whose estates were called manors) & serfs

first printed Greek NT

edited by Erasmus - based on early MSS - this called scholars' attention to the true gospel - argued that the Bible should be published in the vernacular

a new intellectual climate

education of townspeople began to produce skepticism/self-reliance - by 1500, printing presses were in over 200 cities/towns (could examine & ridicule the RCC)

Persian rule's success

efficient administration - toleration

Social Strife

employment prospects and civic virtue began to crumble - Rome swarmed with fortune hunters, imported slaves, unemployed farmers, discontented veterans

"dark side" of civilizations

epidemic disease thrived in urban centers - warfare fascinated the people who created the 1st civilizations: warrior-kings boasted of conquests, military heroes held in high esteem

Spanish Inquisition

especially cruel and abusive of its power

Division

faced with military problems on the frontiers & insurrection in the provinces, in 286 Emperor Diocletian split the empire between himself in the east & Maximian in the west

1st Roman Civil War

facing an invasion crisis in Athens (& elsewhere) - Cornelius Sulla & Gaius Marius vied for military command - ended with Sulla's victory

Total Depravity

fallen man is totally incapable of choosing or doing that which is acceptable to God

Life in Rome

father ruled the family unit (paterfamilias) - family farms & family strength - marriage viewed as lifelong

French

few French people moved to North America, two-thirds of those who did eventually left - at one point, the French government paid female orphans to go to Canada - it didn't work out

Gilgamesh

figure, lived c. 2700 - best known ancient Mesopotamian hero - the epic is an odyssey of a king who did not want to die - no historical evidence for his depicted exploits

the Academy

founded by Plato - in Athens to train the ruling class - no tuition

Athenian freedom

freedom of movement, speech etc, - still had limits

Sailing ship

galley ships were driven by oars/human energy - unsuitable for the Atlantic 1. created by the Portuguese, the caravel was a ship with large square sails for moving forward - 2. it also had small triangular sails for sailing (in a zig-zag pattern) into a headwind - 3. the caravel also had an acceptable hull for cargo - furthermore, it was fast

Moses

gave the Law after the 1446 BC Exodus (some date 1445) from Pharaoh Amenhotep II

West Africa Trade

gold, slaves & pepper

efficient administration

governors (satraps), provinces (20), taxes, spies, a royal highway that ran Sardis to Susa - common: language (Aramaic), weights, measures, coinage

Socrates' belief

he believed in self-examination - counseled "know yourself" & "the unexamined life is not worth living" - moral excellence attained through self-knowledge - evil & error the result of ignorance

Vasco da Gama

he sailed around Africa, then continued on to India & returned - the cargo of pepper & cinnamon covered the cost of the expedition 60 times over

Charlemagne & Christendom

he took the notion of church-state cooperation, a legacy from the days of Constantine, & by attaching it to EU, he bequeathed it to generations

empty tomb

heart of the Christian faith

Council of Nicaea

held near Byzantium and attended by Constantine & c. 250-300 bishops attend - emperor paid the costs and presided over the first session - represents the end of the pilgrim church era (the church operating independently of the government)

Upper Mesopotamia

home of the Assyrians

Regnal Dating

how dating was accomplished - based off the reign of kings

Religious aspect of Christendom

humans need salvation - it is wrought by the merit of Christ communicated through God's grace - the distinctive medieval notion was that saving grace comes to people through sacraments in social setting defined by the cooperation of church & state

misunderstanding of Christian practices

i.e. communion aka love feast - led to charges of incest, cannibalism & immorality

Iconoclastic Controversy

icons were religious images used to foster worship - flat pictures, mosaics - fearing that the use of icons could lead to idolatry, iconoclasts (people) tried to destroy all icons

Purgatory

idea upheld by Pope Gregory I - suffering before heaven - description: a place or state in which are detained the souls of those who die in grace, in friendship with God, but with the blemish of venial sin or with temporal debt for sin unpaid. Here the soul is purged, cleansed, readied for eternal union with God in Heaven

Effects of Printing Press

ideas could now be spread quickly across Europe to thousands of people in a short time span - greater exposure to the Word of God - first printed Bible completed by 1454 - a wider theological discourse - pamphlets & tracts dealing with Christianity began circulating

Mara bar Serapion

in a letter to his son c. 73 AD he mentions Christ, along with Socrates & Pythagoras, as a wise man unjustly executed (point: Jesus was taken as a real person)

defeated peoples

in general, they were treated well & given partial citizenship - sometimes, those who were vanquished were enslaved

divisions (denominations) within Christianity

in order to understand them, one must understand the Reformation era - an important distinction must be made: agreement on the authority of Scripture is not the same as agreeing on what Scripture says/directs in any particular passage

summary of Rome's decline

in the West there was Roman weakness & disorganization - the Huns pushed other tribes

Canossa

in winter, Henry crosses the Alps with his wife/child & presents himself to Gregory there - for three days (barefoot in snow?) he is rebuffed - granted an audience (day 4) - discipline finally removed - prestige gained for pope, loss for king

Sparta's land and culture

isolated and agricultural - trade & travel were prohibited - closed to new items and ideas - by Athenian standards they were culturally backward & economically weak - the term "Spartan" has come to mean a disdain for luxury

Pope Leo X

issued a plenary (full) indulgence to raise funds for the completion of St. Peter's Basilica

Emperor Leo III

issued an edict that forbade the veneration (worship) of icons in 726 - strained E/W relations, as Pope Gregory III condemned iconoclasm

Edict of Milan

issued by Constantine in 313 (named after the city from which he was ruling) - gave religious freedom - it granted: "both to the Christians and all others full authority to follow whatever worship each man has desired"

Secularism

it places less of an emphasis on the religious & supernatural and more of an emphasis on things of the earthly world - such as wealth, fashion, art - it should be observed that while the Renaissance era tended to emphasize secular concerns, it did not seek to fully exclude God

Roman Political Life

it transitioned (chronologically) from: a republic, to a dictator, to an empire

Theory of Forms

key part of Plato's thought - there are forms that exist outside the material realm - they are unchanging - they do not come into, or pass out of, existence - abstract entities or "universals" are thus contrasted with their objects or "particulars" in the material world - we had contact with the forms prior

Second Crusade

killed Jews (Rhineland) & pillaged the Byzantine Empire

Amateurism

lacking professional skill

Mesopotamia

land between the rivers - Tigris & Euphrates - present-day Iraq & Syria - encompasses the entire region around the rivers - Cradle of Civilization

Bubonic

large black swellings - infection of the lymph nodes - Black Death - transmitted to humans by rats that carry fleas

Christian Humanists

largely from Northern Europe - had a particular interest in the original source-texts of Christian antiquity: biblical manuscripts & documents related to the early church

Cleopatra

last of the Ptolemies - became co-ruler of Egypt (driven out & restored) - son with Julius Caesar - twins with Mark Antony (acknowledged) - defeated at Actium - committed suicide - Egypt passed into Roman hands

Delhi Sultanate

lasted from about 1216-1526 AD - it spread across much of the subcontinent and was India's first Muslim state

Ulrich Zwingli

led the Reformation in Zurich, Switzerland - in 1549, the Zwinglians merged with the Calvinists through the Consensus of Zurich

Result of Alexander's conquests

led to blending of Greek, Persian, & Near Eastern civilizations - Greek culture would be spread eastward during which is known as the Hellenistic Age/Period - diffusion of the Greek language will provide one tongue for the proclamation of the NT message

Head of Eastern Orthodox Church

many BUT patriarch of Constantinople is the first among equals - National branches (Russian, Serbia) remain with their own patriarchs

Greek decline

many reasons are speculative

Taoism (Daoism)

may be described as "Intuitive Mysticism" (Def: intuitive - without rational thought or inference; mysticism - reality through experience & intuition)

Confucianism

may be described as "Rational Humanism" (Def: a rational standard of ethics in human affairs) - a way of life that people practice together with other religions (Buddhism/Daoism)

Legalism

may be described as "it works" - embraces a pragmatic (practical as opposed to idealistic) approach - legalists claimed people were basically "bad" - strict laws were necessary to gain order/stability; China's unification largely the result of legalist ideas put into practice

Developments in Medieval Life

merchants & craftspeople organized guilds to protect their members from outside competition - merchant guilds were designed to regulate commerce - craft guilds regulated professions

Julius Caesar & Cleopatra

met in Egypt - Caesar brought her back to Rome - had an illegitimate son

reality check on Athens' golden age

middle of the 5th century BC - infanticide practiced (newborns & infants) especially girls - double moral standard - affairs and mistresses were acceptable for men - the symposium - homosexuality/pedophilia present: a mature man would have a relationship with a young boy prior to the boy reaching puberty

atheists

misconception due to the lack of any visible image to worship

Eusebius

of Caesarea - sought middle position - Jesus of similar essence

Hammurabi's law code

one of the most complete to survive from the ancient world - class distinctions clearly expressed in the code: penalties varied with status of wrongdoer/victim - provisions regarding business transactions show the importance of trade in Mesopotamian life

First Crusade

only true militarily successful crusade - morphed into two: Peasants' and Crusade of Princes

Dominican

order of friars (aka Black Friars) established by Dominic of Spain (1170-1221), devoted to preaching and known for their scholarship & intellectual persuasion. Thomas Aquinas (in this order), helped develop aspects of the present system of theology for the RCC

Holy Orders

ordination - priests are sanctioned for their work by a bishop - power to remit sin

Magyars

originally from W. Asia - terrorized EU (Central, Southern & part of Western) early 900s with raids - halted c. 955 by Otto I, integrated mainstream EU culture

Turks

originally from central Asia - during the 6th century they controlled an empire stretching from Mongolia to the Caspian Sea - after the W part of their empire was conquered by the Islamic Abbasid Dynasty (8th century), many of them converted to Islam & moved W

Vassal

owed loyalty/military service - responsible to ensure law/order on the fief he received

Semite

people descended from Shem - a member of any group of peoples of SW Asia chiefly represented now by Jews & Arabs

EU "Christianized"

people left paganism & were baptized - numbers of people, however, were lukewarm or nominal Christians

cause of slavery

people were taken captive during conquests - slavery served as a means to pay off debt

India Trade

pepper, spices, & silks

Athenian life

permitted slavery (c. 25% slaves) - women had no political rights, could not possess property in their own name - little rights at all - political life witnessed amateurism & demagoguery

Philosophy

philo --> love of ; sophia --> wisdom

Aristotle

philosopher & scientist - associated with the Lyceum (school) near Athens - pupil of Plato (c. 20 years) & tutor to Alexander the Great - he carefully reviewed theories of his predecessors & retained (usually w/ considerable revision) some aspects of their opinions/accounts

Papyrus

plant native to the Nile Valley - material on which to write, prepared from thin strips of the center of the plant laid together, soaked, pressed and dried - used by ancient Egyptians, Greeks and Romans

Holy Roman Empire

political entity in W. EU - centered in the German states & N Italy - conceived as the successor to Charlemagne & Rome

penance or confession

priest privately listens to a person confessing sins which are then forgiven - the forgiven sinner is assigned some prayers to say or works to be done to make up for it

electors

princes of the Holy Roman Empire who hold the right to elect the Holy Roman Emperor, aka the German king

Dating

prior to Christ it can be difficult for scholars to fix dates because there is no uniform reference point unlike AD dates which fix years from the common reference point of Christ

Aspects related to the fall of the Roman Empire

process lasting a hundred years - only in the West - the Eastern half lived on - no single explanation accounts for it - multiple forces operated concurrently - multiple causation

Feudalism & Manorialism

provided a measure of stability in the absence of any central government

Hernan Cortes

reached the Aztec Empire capital: Tenochtitlan - helped destroy Aztec civilization - Cortes conquered the great Aztec Empire in Mexico

Ponce de Leon

reached the land he named "Florida" at a point near St. Augustine

Trojan War

referenced by Homer (which raises the issue of the Homeric Question) in: Iliad (no factual knowledge-it may be "based" on real events) & Odyssey (a sequel) - these were long poems memorized and recited verbally - then later written down

Expansion

reign of Justinian - tactics: defensive in the E; offensive in the W - reconquered N Africa & parts of Italy - Ravenna made W. capital - success short-lived - his efforts for the Empire exhausted his treasury & military (high taxes led to civil unrest)

Constantine's life and actions

remained: Pontifex Maximus, head of the pagan state religious cult - sun god remained in coins - clearly a conspirator (plotter) and a murderer - not baptized until his deathbed

Council of Trent

response to the "Reformation" - series of meeting at Trent (city) - held in three separate sessions - it outlined the RCC position for c. 400 years (until Vatican II) - no real compromise with Protestantism or theological change occurred

Julius Caesar

responsible for death/enslavement of over 1 million people - known for his vicious fighting troops - wealthy - many mistresses - vain

The Crusades

roughly a 200-year period - background: control of Jerusalem passed to the Seljuk Turks (Sunni Muslim) - there were 4 of them

Bartholomeu Dias

rounded the Cape of Good Hope

Diocletian & Galerius

sacrifice to Roman gods required (303-the great persecution) - D believed that Apollo had spoken to him - all civil rights suspended, churches destroyed

Demagoguery

selfish, unprincipled appeals to popular passions & prejudices - ex. Huey Long, Louisiana Senator (1932-1935 AD) and his Share-Our-Wealth plan (aka Share the Wealth)

focus of Council of Nicaea

settle long-standing Christological and Trinitarian controversies

Puritans

settled the Massachusetts Bay Colony (1691 merge w/Plymouth)

Tetrarchy

sharing of power among four rulers - existed at about 293 AD - true authority rested with Diocletian, in practice: E & W had an Augustus & a Caesar (Jr.)

lifestyle

sharp contrast with Roman culture - Christians refused to go to the arena, theaters, or public baths - condemned homosexuality; some Romans viewed their separation as hating the human race

Joseph

sold by his brothers c. 1897 BC - the twelve tribes then multiplied in Egypt

Conciliar Movement

solution to the Great Western Schism - accepting the notion that a universal council, representing the entire church, had more authority than the pope - a church council was convened in Pisa in 1409 - eventually ended the RCC multi-pope dilemma - Council of Constance

God

some Europeans, including Columbus, believed that by making contact with the heathen lands beyond the seas, the conversion of the entire world to Christianity (RCC) would soon be underway

Ahriman

spirit of evil

Prince "Henry the Navigator"

sponsored both nautical studies and expeditions along the African coast where the Portuguese established a lucrative gold & slave trade

ziggurats

stepped pyramids with temples at their summit

Gaius Marius

supported by the Tribal Assembly - elected consul

Constantine's dream

supposedly saw a cross in the sky & the words: "In this sign conquer" - convinced him to advance

Magisterial reformation

term for the work of Luther, Calvin, & Zwingli - they often received support from magistrates

Dark Ages

term is a matter of debate - generally refers to the 5th-8th centuries - after the fall of the last W. Roman Emperor, conditions in parts of EU could be chaotic, brutal, lawless, & backward under the barbarian kingdoms of the early medieval period

intelligible

that which we can apprehend with our intellect

sensible

that which we can experience

foreign missions

the Jesuits dispatched disciples to four continents

Ahura Mazda

the Wise Lord - supreme deity in Zoroastrianism

Simony

the buying & selling of spiritual or Church benefits - taken from the name of Simon Magus who attempted to buy spiritual powers - it came to mean the purchase of any office or authority within the RCC

Guns

the earliest guns were big cannon, then handheld firearms & mobile field artillery

The Columbian Exchange

the exchange of Old & New World plants, animals, & diseases

Elizabeth I

the last Tudor monarch, never marries - English "Golden Age"

Sunni

the majority party in Islam - c. 85% of all Muslims - they followed first Caliph Abu Bakr (one of Muhammad's fathers-in-law) - for them, Muhammad's spiritual gifts died with him

Matrimony

the marriage ceremony

Shiah (Shiites)

the smaller of the two major divisions in Islam - c. 10% of Muslims - they identified with Muhammad's cousin/son-in-law Ali (4th Caliph) - saw Ali as possessing a spiritual endowment directly from Muhammad - they believed that their leaders, the Imams, had if not authority on par with Quran - at least the final authority on how to interpret the Quran

Reformed

the term is used of various denominations, etc., in the Reformed or Calvinist tradition - includes Presbyterians, many Baptists, Dutch & German Reformed Churches, Congregationalists - Calvin & his followers emphasized the rigorous pursuit of moral righteousness - character was a fundamental test of genuine religious life

Mariolatry

the veneration (Def: reverential respect & awe, admiring deference) of Mary - in actuality, it is the outright worship of Mary

Jane Seymour

third wife of Henry VIII - married shortly after Anne's death - son: Edward - dies after giving birth

Jihad

though technically not one of the 5 Pillars, some Muslims still add it as a major element - means "struggle" - encompasses two types (or senses) a greater and a lesser

Cluniac reform

to counter decline, a movement began in Cluny's monastery - called for an end to the corruption/immorality that characterized the life of the RCC - denounced: trafficking (simony) & appointment of relatives (nepotism) to RC offices

Portuguese

took the lead in exploration (not distracted with domestic issues) - determined to find a sea route to Asia - had no intention of heading west to get there - rather, go down the African coast

Greed

trading profits & precious metals - Europeans dreamt of finding gold - gold was the common currency of Europe - every nation desired gold and would trade anything for it - silver also become desirable - profits from trade were also sought, especially through spices as the demand was insatiable - fresh meat was available only at slaughtering time - spices made meat and other foods palatable

Dominicans & Franciscans

traveled across Central Asia & the Far East as missionaries

missi dominici

traveling inspectors

Perseverance of the Saints

true saints continue in the faith and are kept by the power of God

Council of Constance

two of the competing popes (Roman & Conciliar) were deposed or "resigned" - cardinals & a commission named by the council then elected Martin V as sole pope - until death, the other claimant Benedict XIII (Avig.) believed he was the true pope

Medieval Society

two primary classes: nobility/clergy & serfs (or peasants) - given the chaotic situations, new relationships such as feudalism & manorialism emerged that provide for law/order & economic livelihood at the local level - localism will dominate

Judea

under domination by Ptolemies (Egypt) & Seleucids (Persia, Syria)

Philosophical speculation

undermined conventional Greek beliefs/traditions - there was a move from mythology to philosophy

who was mummified?

used to be only for Pharaohs, then anyone who could afford it, also animals: cats, etc.

resurrection of Jesus

validity of our faith - without it, our faith would be useless and there will be no salvation - integral part of the Gospel

Black Death's effect on RCC

weakened it & paved the way for reformation - decline: devout clergy remained with their suffering parishioners, often dying with them - desertion: those whose career in the church was a "living," rather than a ministry, fled - disgust: looking to the church for solace, people found it rocked by scandal at the highest levels

Feudal Society

wealth is measured by ownership of land & serfs

Herod the Great

went to Rome in 40 BC & was declared by Octavian/Antony (Senate agreement) to be the king of the Jews (Mt 2 slaughter)

Hellenes

what the Greeks were called in honor of their ancestor

Corruption

what was new, was the blatant selling of indulgences by the Avignon popes

technology

wheeled vehicles & potter's wheel (1st true mechanical device) - combined copper & tin to produce bronze (sharper/stronger) - period to c. 1500 BC: Bronze Age

priest

when church leaders developed the notion that the institutional church dispersed saving grace through sacraments, formal ordination of clergy to administer sacraments was deemed necessary - a congregation's ruling elder/office bearer became the official mediator between people & God

non-essential doctrine

while Reformers might agree on the Bible alone, grace alone, & faith alone - they may, however, disagree passionately on the meaning of communion, church polity, forms of worship, etc.

Diet of Worms

with HRE Charles in attendance - Luther refused to recant & possibly uttered "here I take my stand" - negotiations at an impasse, Luther is granted 21 days for safe passage to Saxony before the sentence falls - ultimately he is condemned as a heretic & an outlaw (anyone could kill him)

Aristotle's associated...

with elements of both deductive & inductive reasoning

Friars background

with only one universal institutional church, revival movements often came in the form of new monastic orders

Octavian aka Augustus Caesar

"revered one" - deified by religious cults - restored order after years of strive - rule called the Principate - Emperor - "first citizen" -> really a dictatorship permitting the Senate some power - maintained near-total control of the army - his power was difficult to really challenge

Charles Martel

"the Hammer" - served as Mayor of the Palace - in 732, Islamic armies crossed the Pyrenees Mountains into France - he defeated an Islamic army near Tours on the Loire River - credited with saving Christendom

Leonardo da Vinci

(1452-1519) - Italian painter, sculptor, architect, engineer, & scientist - was/is recognized as a true "Renaissance Man" (multi-talented)

Desiderius Erasmus

(1466-1536) - Dutch scholar - referred to as the "Prince of Humanists" - used his humanist linguistic skills to produce a new Greek translation of the New Testament c. 1516

Niccolo Machiavelli

(1469-1527) - Florence-born politician/author - wrote both The Prince & Discourses - politics to The Prince was a means to an end: power - if a lie or deceit would work, use it - the emphasis is on what is effective over what is ethical

Michelangelo Buonarroti

(1475-1564) - Italian sculptor, painter, architect, & poet - his scheme (he paints it) for the Sistine Chapel ceiling tells the Old Testament account from Genesis to the Deluge

Raphael (Raffaello Sanzio)

(1483-1520) - Italian painter - notable work: School of Athens

William Shakespeare

(1564-1616) - English dramatist & poet; considered the greatest English playwright - his works are rich in language and provide a study on human personality

Phoenicians

(aka "Canaanites" a general term used for several different peoples) - Era: c. 1200-700 - from Lebanon - before the Greeks, they were the Mediterranean's greatest traders, navigators, shipbuilders, & colonizers

Octavian's victory

(aka Augustus) would now rule Rome and transition to the Roman Empire would become complete.

The Inquisition

(aka Holy Office) an ecclesiastical (church) court for the persecution of heresy - Spanish - Roman

Dutch

(aka: Holland or The Netherlands) 1. in 1609, Englishman Henry Hudson (Dutch employ) sailed up the river that now bears his name - 2. Hudson was searching for a Northwest Passage - c. 1611 his crew set him adrift to die

Aramaeans

(c. 1100-700) - from Syria - they dominated camel caravan trade & thus their language became the international language of the Near East

Hundred Years' War

(c. 1337-1453; France vs. England) - not one long war, a series of armed conflicts - there were truces & peace treaties - in all, it lasted c. 116 years immediate cause: sovereignty - the English king claimed the French throne (intermarriage common)

Parthenon

(in Athens) built 447-432 BC 0 a major temple containing a gold and ivory statue of Athena

Patricians

10%, wealthy, controlled the Senate

conflict of Troy

10-year war between Greeks & Trojans - possible goal: control of Black Sea trade - fought after Trojan prince Paris ran off with Helen of Troy (aka of Sparta); inconclusive battles (years)

Confirmation

12-14 - faith publicly affirmed, RCC membership confirmed, Holy Spirit received

Mongols invaded Muslim lands

1200s - stormed Baghdad plundering/killing - the pagan Mongols converted to Islam

Attempted Reforms

133 BC the Gracchi brothers attempted reform but faced an uncompromising Senate - by killing the Gracchi, the Senate made murder a means of coping with troublesome opposition

Judah

2 Southern Tribes identified with Jerusalem - fully conquered 586 BC by the Babylonians - conquest in 3 stages

Polemicists

3rd century - fought false doctrine, attacked heretical ideas

Nile river

4, 100 miles long, c. 5-15 miles wide varies by location/season - rose & fell with precision - peaked in September, then subsided - surrounding soil was renewed by the "Black Silt" left behind (a layer of fertile earth) - Egyptians could build an elaborate network of canals (some for irrigation, others for transportation) - provided reliable transportation - going south: wind - going north: current (flows into Med. Sea)

Peloponnesian War

431-404 BC - Who would control Greece? - Athens put its superior navy up against Sparta's stronger ground forces - c. 430 BC, Athens lost perhaps c. 1/3 of its pop. to a plague - Sparta would prevail - this was the end of the "golden age" - described by historian Thucydides

Thermopylae

480 --> Darius' son, Xerxes, returns at Thermopylae (a pass NW of Athens, originally narrow, now widened) c. 6K Greeks, including 300 Spartans under Leonidas, made a heroic defense

Salamis

480 --> after Persian success at Thermopylae, they approach Athens; their fleet destroyed

Marathon

490 --> 10K Greeks defeated an invading Persian army at this place (messenger runs c. 26 miles)

Protagoras

490-429 - most famous Sophist - quotation: "man is the measure of all things" - means that: I am the measure of all things; these are matters of individual judgment - no universal standards

Pericles

490-429 - statesman - dominated Athens during its Golden Age - implemented public works programs (Parthenon) - refused to concede to Sparta, thus initiating the Peloponnesian War

Bible students

4th & 5th centuries - wrote on Scripture & doctrine

Cleisthenes

570-508 - founder of Athenian democracy - increased the number/power of the citizens

Muhammad & 10, 000 Muslims march on Mecca

630 January - it surrenders with little resistance once Muhammad promises a general amnesty - upon entering the city, he destroys the pagan idols in the Kabba & rededicates the shrine to Islam - many Meccans subsequently convert to the Islamic faith

Abbasid Muslim Dynasty

750-1258 - moved the capital from Damascus to Baghdad

EU invaded

8th-11th centuries by Vikings, Muslims, & Magyars

Serfs

90% of the pop. - surrendered their freedom to a lord and lived on his manor - life was difficult and dominated by custom - hereditary condition, tied to the land/not allowed to leave - the manor was "life - worked the land & owed the lord a portion of his crops (other obligations) - could hold a portion of land for their use (to grow crops) & had a few legal rights

Plebeians

90%, commoners, small farmers, artisans (skilled in a trade)

Assyrian

900-612 - militaristic & cruel people of the upper Tigris - basically unstoppable - deported the ten lost tribes of Israel - designed to destroy national feeling - miraculously withstood by Hezekiah in Judah when they demanded tribute (701 BC) - 2 Chron 32, 2 Kings 18&19, Isaiah 36-39

Peace of Westphalia

After years of fighting & negotiating, a settlement was reached in October 1648 - actually several treaties - its elements changed the course of EU history: Holy Roman Empire was effectively over

2nd Roman Civil War

Caesar gained control of legions in Gaul (10 yrs) because he knew the importance of military command - after, he conquered Britain - ordered to relinquish command - instead, crossed the Rubicon - Senate & Pompey fled - outnumbered: 2:1 - 15K of Pompey's forces killed - Pompey flees to Egypt and beheaded there - Caesar: dictator of Rome -> for life

Tudor

English royal house that began with the ascension of Henry VII - with the death of Elizabeth I (1603) it ended, & the throne passed to James VI of Scotland - of the House of Stuart

Medieval papal methods of discipline

Excommunication - Interdict - The Inquisition - #1 & #2 established & in use by late 11th century

Renaissance

FR for "rebirth" - generally occurred after the Black Death - to say things were suddenly different - a mistake - one could place the Italian -- as beginning around 1350 - around the late 1400s (or c. 1500) it expanded - it moved across the Alps

Significant city-states

Genoa, Milan, Venice, Florence, Papal States, & Naples - never united - intense competition - established ambassadors/practiced balance of power politics - Florence (aka Firenze) is best identified as the cultural center or "heart" of Renaissance life - later, focus shifted to Rome (High Ren.) - popes launched building & beautification campaigns

Christopher Columbus

Genoese sailor, possessed tremendous naval skill, a brilliant self-promoter - worked for Portugal & finally convinced Queen Isabella of Castile to support him 1. he believed that Asia could be reached quickly by sailing west from Europe - 2. was granted only 3 ships, 90 men, & a handful of supplies - monarch expectations possibly low - 3. August 1492, he departed - October arrived at the Bahamas - then Cuba, finally Hispaniola (DR) - 4. believed he had landed in Asia - location termed the "Indies" - he called the inhabitants "Indians" - 7. for the rest of his life, he believed that he had landed in Asia

Franks

Germanic tribes from present-day Belgium/Lower Rhine - settled in Gaul by c. 350 AD - went on to dominate Europe after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire

Shariah (Shari'a)

God's eternal & immutable will for humanity, as expressed in the Quran & Muhammad's example (Sunnah) - considered binding for all believers - it is ideal Islamic law - the term is sometimes applied to denote all Islamic legislation

Henry VIII & Catherine of Aragon

Henry VIII asked Pope Clement VII to revoke the dispensation granted from Julius II permitting him to wed his deceased brother's wife (based on interpretation of Lev. 20:21) - He wondered if Catherine's inability to bear a son was evidence of God's curse upon the union - if granted, his 18-year-marriage to Catherine of Aragon would now be invalid - the pope might have concurred had Catherine not been the aunt of the HRE Charles V - given the Roman invasion, the pope could ill afford to offend the emperor, so he stalled in deciding Henry's request

Large Muslim Communities

Indonesia, Middle East, Pakistan, N. Africa - may be termed: the 10/40 window (horizontal Latitude designation: roughly 10 in Africa, 40 in Europe)

1st Triumvirate

Julies Caesar, Pompey & Marcus Licinius Crassus ruled - not a formal commission but a "deal" among 3 strong leaders - Crassus died in 53 - in time, P & C would drift apart

Antigonid Kingdom

Macedonia

succession of conquests

Mesopotamia was marked by it - Tigris/Euphrates area was open to invasion & saw constant warfare - each city wanted to enlarge its land & guarantee access to water & irrigation

Ottoman Empire

Muslim Empire of the Turks that was established in N Asia Minor by Osman I & expanded by his successors - its power in the region ebbed & flowed - it would resurge & ultimately capture Constantinople in 1453 (by 1699 it held all of AM & much of SE EU)

Native cultures were undermined

N. American culture became geared toward war & the fur trade - Iberian-American cultures were nearly destroyed - between 1500-1600, the number of New World natives shrank (in millions) from about 20 to perhaps no more than 2 - the major cause was disease

John Huss

Prague professor who emphasized the Scriptures, opposed sacerdotalism & indulgences - at the Council of Constance, "safe conduct" was granted to him; once there, he was charged with heresy, tried, convicted, & burned at the stake - emperor withdrew the "safety"

Henry, Duke of Bourbon

Protestant - ascended the throne in 1589 - ended the French Wars of religion by signing the Edict of Nantes

Seljuk

a Turkish dynasty that ruled parts of Asia Minor in the 11th through 13th centuries - they successfully invaded parts of the Byzantine Empire and defended the Holy Land against the Crusaders - eventually they were defeated by a Mongol army

Cause of Black Death

a bacterium, yersinia pestis - however, unscientific medieval Europeans had no true idea what was causing the carnage - numerous theories: maybe it was stale air ? - "pocketful of posies"

Spanish Inquisition

a council authorized by Pope Sixtus IV (1478) & organized under the RC monarchs Ferdinand & Isabella to combat heresy - its main targets were Jews & Muslims - its methods included torture, confiscation, & burning - after the Reformation, it attacked all forms of Protestantism - in the 16th century there were 14 Spanish branches - jurisdiction was extended to colonies of the New World

responses to the Black Death

a judgment: some thought God was punishing people for sin - a conspiracy: there were massacres of Jews who were accused of poisoning the water supply - an appeasement: flagellants sought a purging by flogging themselves

Galleon

a large-hulled ship to carry cargo - Spanish galleons were intercepted - thus, they added guns

Polis

a major town with its surrounding territory

Joan of Arc

a peasant girl, she rallied King Charles VII & the people in 1429 - at age 13 (17?) - the English burned her at the stake - she was abandoned to her fate by the French king - she did provide a morale boost to the French & was eventually canonized a RC saint (1920)

Stoics

a school of Hellenistic Philosophy - universe controlled by "something" - determinism/providence - goal: conform your will to the "world will" - accept your fate - urged participation in worldly responsibilities

Individualism

a school of thought emphasizing the importance of the individual - he/she was capable of self-expression - it helps explain the increase in portraits commissioned

Thirty Years' War

a series of conflicts, conducted in four phases & fought mainly in Germany over religious, dynastic, and territorial concerns - pitted German Protestant princes & their allies (France, Sweden, Denmark, England, United Provinces) against German Catholic princes & the HRE - Defenestration of Prague - Peace of Westphalia - German areas were devastated

1st Punic War

a struggle about trade - Sicily is the initial focal point - Carthage was wealthier, had a larger population, and a magnificent navy - Rome, however, adapted techniques and emerged victorious - the conflict lasted 23 years

home

a swampy flood plain that allowed for productive fruit and grain agriculture - also subject to irregular flooding - irrigation allowed for "careers" beyond farming, thus: trade & manufacturing

Humanism

a term with multiple dimensions - a school of thought emphasizing the importance of man, man's greatness/potential - human body - cultural movement that emphasized rediscovery of ancient Greek & Roman ideas/values

money economy

as opposed to the W's barter economy - also diversified

RCC

asserts spiritual authority in: tradition, the pope, & the Scriptures

Vision or Hallucination theory

asserts that the disciples saw a vision of Jesus, probably caused by their intense desire to see Him; or they were suffering hallucinations

Orthodox

assume a "pneumatic" approach: internal witness of the promised Holy Spirit keeps the truth - can be expressed via: Holy Scripture, liturgical custom, patristic consensus, conciliar declaration, creedal statement

Islam's split

began with disagreement over Muhammad's successor - Sunnis upheld the principle that the caliph (leader) owed his position to the consent of the Islamic community - Shiites believed only Muhammad's descendants/kinsmen could lead - Sunnis/Shiites have different lines of succession

Indulgences

beginning of the 12th century - "...remission before God of the temporal punishment due to sins whose guilt has already been forgiven, which the faithful Christian who is duly disposed gains under certain prescribed conditions through the action of the Church which, as the minister of redemption, dispenses and applies with authority the treasury of the satisfactions of Christ and the saints." - "...is partial or plenary according as it removes either part or all of the temporal punishment due to sin." 82 - may be applied to the living or the dead

John Tetzel

begins indulgence sales in German lands - these indulgences were crafted to make them especially appealing to anyone concerned about escaping the pains of purgatory or aiding relatives who were already in purgatory

Roman Catholic Church

bishop of rome became elevated over other bishops - First, the Roman bishop came to be acknowledged as the first among equals - after Leo's succession, the Roman bishop began to claim supremacy over other bishops

Martin Luther

born 1483 at Eisleben (Ger); completed B.A./M.A. in shortest possible time - on leave from school, he suffered the "Thunderstorm Crisis" (lightning bolts, etc.) in 1505 - fearing for his life, he cried out to Saint Anne (patron saint of miners): "I will become a monk" - he then gave away his possessions & joined the Augustinians - in 1507, ordained a priest - the quintessential "insider"

Judea vs. Rome

broke out in 66AD after the massacre of 3, 600 Jews (before this event, Jewish Zealots massacred a Roman garrison) - at this time there were many factions in the Jewish community

three basic principles of biblical Christianity

brought on back by the Protestant movement - Bible as the sole authority - justification - priesthood of all believers

justification

by faith alone - byt not a faith that is alone, i.e. good works naturally follow saving faith, but they don't produce it - sacraments unnecessary for salvation - Sola Fides - faith alone

longest-lasting civilizations

by the Egyptians - c. 3000 years, c. 30 ruling dynasties - possibly the 1st national government - functioned more like a unit than a city-state - location surrounded by deserts (Arabian, Libyan, Sahara) & water - offered protection

Tutankhamun (King "Tut)

c. 1336-1327 - little is known about his rule - for most of his 8-9 year reign, power lay with a general & elderly official - would be a "footnote" to history, except that his tomb escaped looting & was found largely intact in 1922 - world tours followed

Mycenaeans

c. 1450-1200 - located at Mycenae (Greek mainland) - somewhat warlike

High Renaissance

c. 1500-1530 in Italy - the time when artistic work reached a "peak" of perfection

New Kingdom Period

c. 1550-1075 - Thebans expel the Hyksos & reunite Egypt - the greatest period of Egypt's history - an "age of empire" as warrior kings conquered parts of Syria, Palestine

Swoon or Semi-Coma theory

c. 1600 years after the event - Jesus never died - traumatized on the cross and went into a semi-coma state - He was only assumed dead - laid in the tomb & the coolness, combined with the pungency of the spices, revived Him

2nd Intermediate Period

c. 1630-1550 - central authority weakened: Hyksos settlers rule the north (lower Egypt); Thebans the south (upper Egypt)

Hittites

c. 1700-1200 BC - from Asia Minor (modern Turkey) - alleged to be an example of "error" in the Bible - critics claimed the Bible was incorrect since they supposedly never existed

Celt

c. 2000-100 BC - a group of W. European peoples who during the Iron Age (c. 1500-1000) occupied parts of Europe - spreading over W. & C. Europe from c. 900 BC

Minoans

c. 2000-1450 - the island of Crete - commercialized agriculture appears, exports: olive oil, wine, etc. - prosperous trade - capital: Knossos (3500-year-old palace with flush toilets) - conquered by the Mycenaeans, probably after natural catastrophes

Old Kingdom Period

c. 2625-2130 - age of pyramids reaches zenith at Giza, the country's economy & culture flourished - however, the enormous expenditure on pyramids led to its decline - in a sense Egypt was financially destroyed by over-building (& upkeep) - there is crop failure & increased taxes

Italian Peninsula

c. 750 miles long, four times the size of Greece, two-third the size of CA

Hittite achievements

challenged Egypt in a Near Eastern power struggle - horse-drawn, light-weight chariots - iron weapons (c. 1500 BC) iron was stronger, cheaper, & lasted longer - this innovation (iron) helped pave the way for the true "age of empires" - the use of formal treaties (notably one with Egypt after battle at Kadesh c. 1269)

Julius Caesar's reforms

changed the calendar from lunar (355 days) to solar (Julian - July) - Gregorian today - also cut welfare roles by requiring people to be hired on large estates or to work on building projects

factors of civilization

cities & organized government - specialization of labor - monumental architecture & religious structures - writing system & advanced technology

Interdict

closed churches in a geographical area & forbade celebrating mass & other sacraments (except baptism of infants & extreme unction for the dying) - it was designed to cause such an uproar from the masses, who would fear for their salvation, that the ruler would have to submit

Socrates

credited for helping lay the foundations of Western thought - interested not in the speculation about the natural world (engaged in by earlier philosophers), but in pursuing questions of ethics - he believed in the existence of universal/absolute truth & morality

Hittites discovered

critical view was challenged when archaeologists unearthed remains of their civilization in 1906 - about 10, 000 tablets were discovered, providing abundant evidence of their existence - archaeology verified Biblical references, doubted by skeptics - historians practiced revisionism

Fourth Crusade

crusaders contracted with Venice to sail them to Egypt - they attacked Constantinople - when promises weren't fulfilled, crusaders attacked the city again (a 3-day massacre ensued) - this soured E & W relations for centuries - Egypt/Holy Land never reached

Mary Tudor (I) becomes queen

daughter of Henry VIII & Catherine of Aragon ascends - devoutly Catholic, she tried to lead England back to Rome - October 1553: Parliament restored Henry VIII's marriage to Catherine & repealed all of the religious reforms enacted under Edward VI - Thomas Cranmer replaced - the country interpreted her devotion to RC & her marriage to Philip II of Spain as a betrayal of her people - somewhat alienated from her subjects

popularity of mysticism

defined in this context to mean the desire of direct communion with God instead of using the church and/or saints as intermediaries - personal devotion

Amerigo Vespucci

determined that Columbus had landed nowhere near Asia, but had stumbled upon a continent that no one in Europe knew existed - thus: a "New World"

Charles V

elected Holy Roman Emperor (1519-1555) - prince of Saxony, Duke Frederick III "the Wise", an Elector, cast the deciding vote in favor of Charles

Orthodox Theology

emphasizes sanctification - justification virtually absent - The Doctrine of justification by faith is virtually absent from their history and theology. Rather, it emphasizes theosis (divinization), the gradual process by which Christians become more and more like Christ (Daniel B. Clendenin)

Alexander's death

empire divided & given to four officers/generals (Daniel 7/8) - these factions fought amongst themselves until c. 275 BC when there emerged three kingdoms that dominated the eastern Mediterranean

Apostolic Succession

essentially refers to bishops tracing a direct line of authority through the Apostles back to Christ - though all bishops were equal, & though all were in the line of apostolic succession of bishops from Christ - Rome's bishop deserved special honor, it was believed, because its bishop was in the line of succession from Peter

Anglican or Church of England

essentially two reformations: the first was constitutional, assigning the monarchy its place in the church - under Henry VIII very little changed doctrinally - England essentially rejected the authority of Rome - the second reformation was theological in nature - that occurred later under Protestant & Puritan influence (began with Edward VI, resumed later)

Sunnah (or Sunna)

established custom, normative precedent, conduct, & cumulative tradition, typically based on Muhammad's example - the actions & sayings of Muhammad are believed to complement the divinely revealed message of the Quran, constituting a source for establishing norms for Muslim conduct and making it a primary source of Islamic law

Fourth Lateran Council

established: annual confession of sin & Mass attendance on Easter -> both mandatory for every Christian - transubstantiation -> the Mass became a sacrifice - that Jews were required to live in ghettos and (with Muslims) to wear distinctive clothing

Roman bishops

filled the leadership vacuum during/after the fall of the Western Empire - barbarian invasions brought an upsurge in the Papacy's rise/position/authority

Episodic plague

first wave until c. 1352 - during the first five years it was brutal - continued to surface periodically until leaving EU c. 1670

Catherine of Aragon

first wife of Henry VIII - daughter: Mary - Henry seeks an annulment - seeks legitimate heir, affections "elsewhere" - Henry moves the C of E away from Rome and is free to marry again

Toleration

for local customs and religions - essentially allowed some "rights" - this type of administration became a model for later Greek and Roman Empires

Feudalism

formed among nobles (10% of pop., clergy included) who had land, weapons, horses - decentralized political relationship - designed to avoid anarchy in a violent age

Buddhism

founded (in India) by Siddhartha Gautama (the supreme Buddha) who initially wanted to reform Hinduism - later, Buddha was worshiped by certain branches of the Buddhist movement - in general, Buddhism has NO gods - it is based on Four Noble Truths - Karma - Nirvana

Hyksos

from Egyptian: "rulers of foreign lands" - were invaders from Syria (or Palestine) - they could have started as an economic force & thus "conquered" - their power lasted until c. 1550 BC when they were overthrown in a national uprising

Positions of the Council of Trent

good works do contribute to a right standing with God - the sacraments are necessary for salvation - no private interpretations of Scripture could depart from the church's teaching - rejected the Protestant view of "Scripture alone" & declared that along with the Scriptures, tradition, as preserved by the church, was a source of authority

Arianism

heretical teachings of Arius - Jesus was not divine, but an exceptional human being - adopted by Germanic invaders of the empire because it was simpler than orthodox Christianity - spread throughout W EU & persisted in places until the 8th century

reasons for the fall of the Roman Empire

high taxes/labor services on the citizens (hated by middle & lower class) - state = enemy - administration: hated and feared more than the barbarians - no technological innovation

Byzantium / Constantinople

historic city, port, & former capital - situated on the Bosporus - part EU, part Asia - rebuilt by Emperor Justinian who restored dignity/splendor (some) of the Empire - now Istanbul, Turkey

Quran (Koran)

holy book of Islam - memorized revelations written down - means "recite" - the reciting of revelations to Muhammad - viewed as the final revelation from God (given by Gabriel to M) & His revealed will which corrects/supersedes other revelations - Islam contends Jews & Christians corrupted earlier revelations

Jamestown

in 1607, John Smith helped establish it, England's first permanent settlement in the New World - it was permitted much self-government - cash crop: tobacco

Greek religion

in practice, it produced low moral standards (using biblical standards for comparison) - it was a preoccupation with precise ritual, not prescribed morals

Greek / Eastern Orthodox Church

in reality, not 1 church but a family of 13

Canonization

in the RCC, the definitive sentence by which the pope declares a particular dead person to have already entered into heavenly glory & ordains for the new "saint" a public cult throughout the Church.

Ancient/Classical Greece

included western Asia Minor (Ionia) & Crete - Greeks influenced by: mountains, sea, and climate - sum: a maritime character of life - few natural resources (led to colonization) - trade was critical

Baptism

infant is given a Christian name (christening) & has water poured on the forehead which washes away the stain of Adam's original sin - unites person with RCC - God parents

Western Civilization

influenced, if not dominated, world civilizations - by 1900, Europe had mastery over most of the globe & wide-ranging influence over other civilizations

Pope Boniface VIII

issued the papal bull Unam Sanctam - asserted that there was no salvation outside of the RCC & the pope sits in judgment over earthly power(s)

Northern Renaissance

lasted until c. 1600 - it was evident in: Germany, France, Luxembourg, Belgium, the Netherlands, England

Ulrich Zwingli

launched/led the reformation in Zurich, Switzerland by preaching Biblical sermons from the pulpit - this reform movement would spread rapidly in German-speaking Switzerland - in Zurich's city-state, every newborn child was baptized & considered a member of the church - church & society were identical - Zwingli had no part in the revolution of believer's baptism

Judas Maccabaeus

led a successful revolt around 165 BC & temple worship was restored - celebrated by the Feast of Dedication - known as Hanukkah

Pope Innocent III

likely the most powerful pope - the height of papal power - claimed authority to rule the whole world - all secular authority was derived from the pope - in 1215, he convened the Fourth Lateran Council

negative elements of monasticism

limited engagement with the world -> talent drained away - false standards of holiness develop -> celibacy, money, holiness by depravation - development of a hierarchal religious structure

corruption in the RCC

low clerical standards (ignorance among poor parish priests), a papacy (at times, other clergy) distracted by materialism, immorality, secular concerns (politics, art, etc.) - prior low periods had generated reforms from within, worldliness now permeated the church - on a 1510 trip to Rome, Luther observed wickedness, corruption, priests mocking their calling

Rome's Contributions to Western Civilization

military science, latin literature & Latin-based languages - architecture & engineering - Environment for Christianity's birth and expansion - Political/governmental administration and law - now codified - foundation for many countries

Peasants' Crusade

mobs destroyed villages & committed anti-Semitic atrocities en route to Constantinople - were massacred by the Turks before the arrival of the main force

divine right ruler

monarchy a divinely-ordained institution - answerable only to God

reality check on Sparta

newborns examined - sickly or deformed left to die (infanticide)

Dorians

nomadic shepherds and hunters from NW Greece who had mastered the use of iron (swords) - established Sparta

the Gospel

not a code of ethics that the general public can & at times does, admire; message that sin was atoned for and that salvation is granted through a risen Savior

Cosmopolitanism

not provincial, elements from many parts of the world

Franciscan

order of friars (aka Grey Friars) - founded by Francis of Assisi in Italy (1182-1226), they moved among the people ministering to needs, preaching, & teaching in schools - did most of the missionary work in the New World - California Missions

Ferdinand Magellan

original crew returned to Spain having circumnavigated the globe

Curia

originally a papal court composed of the seven bishops closest to Rome; after expansion (post-1059) it became the "College of Cardinals" - created to select a pope upon the death of the previous pope - lay influence was to be "eliminated" as the choice came under control of the clergy

Act of Supremacy

passed by Parliament - made the king the supreme head of the Church of England - break with Rome now complete

religion

polytheism - concerned with life "now" - afterlife was uncertain & gloomy - Mesopotamian people saw gods and demons everywhere - people hoped that appeasing the gods would bring security & prosperity to their cities - temples/priests were vital

Context of Greece

presently: Greece comprises an area of c. 51K square miles - roughly 20% of this constitutes the Greek islands - area is about the same as England or the state of Alabama - over 2, 000 islands, roughly 170 inhabited; easternmost islands just off the Turkish coast

iconoclasm

process of destroying icons

Results of the Crusades

promoted the rise of towns & trade (trade routes established, new markets opened) - undermined the feudal aristocracy and strengthened monarchs - increased conflict between Eastern and Western churches - left behind a long-standing legacy of bitterness within the Muslim community

Structure of Feudalism

relationship was between individuals, not between an individual and a state or kingdom - lord and vassal

Gaius Marius' reforms

restructured the army (c. 100 BC) by eliminating the land requirement of service - problem: soldier loyalty would lie with commanders who supplied & rewarded them, not the Roman govt.

Islam

roughly 1 bil Muslims worldwide (4x US pop.) - means submission - a Muslim is one who submits to their god - demonstrated in prayer posture - Allah (god) -> not triune but "one" - they believe they are the true continuation of Abraham's faith - not a united, monolithic (huge/massive) entity - outward conformity, but inward dissension

Oligarchy

rule by a few

Republic

rule by elected leaders

Constitutional Republic

rule by elected leaders and limited by a constitution

Tyranny

rule by one who seized power

Aristocracy

rule by the "best"

Monarchy

rule by the monarch, a king or queen, may involve a royal family

Democracy

rule by the people

Philip II

ruled from 1556-1598 - by 1596, the monarchy was virtually bankrupt, overextended by the cost of foreign wars that were marked by military failure

veneration of saints & relics

saints - miracles were attributed to noted Christians (some may have been canonized); church members pray to dead saints to intercede for them with God -- relic - may be defined as a religious object associated with a religious leader, or the body part of such a person which is believed to have supernatural power (bones of saints might be viewed with awe)

Erasmus of Rotterdam (aka Desiderius Erasmus)

scholar & humanist, regarded as "the scholar" of Europe & the "prince of humanists" - not really a reformer, but a promoter of reform - In the Praise of Folly - he edited first printed Greek NT - never left the RCC & criticized Luther's theology (human will, etc.) - generally, humanists held an incomplete view of man's fall - he believed human effort could contribute to salvation

Anne Boleyn

second wife of Henry VIII - daughter: Elizabeth - she is executed for adultery in 1536

Glory

should an expedition succeed, all involved would be known throughout Europe - lands, titles, & power awaited explorers who could bring glory to the sponsor - monarchs sought the opportunity to extend their control overseas and ensure their state would not be left behind in the competition

Kabba (Kaaba, Ka'ba)

shrine in Mecca that Muslims believe was established by Abraham - it is a square structure built of granite which contains the black stone - it is the most important shrine of Islam - at the time of Muhammad's first revelation, it had been desecrated by pagans

Religion in Rome

similar to Greek model (Pantheon) - some names of deities altered

Sparta

similar to modern totalitarian states (DEF: subordination of the individual of the state) - "prided" itself on possessing one of the finest military "machines" - Spartans aspired to be "supermen" - the 300 hoplites at Thermopylae fought their death - no one should defeat them, Thebes did (371)

Mortal Sin

sin whose object is grave matter and which is also committed with full knowledge and deliberate consent

death of Muhammad

since then, the traditions of the Hadith, the Sunnah, & the Shariah have emerged to guide the community

Troy

site of 9 successive cities - destroyed by disaster/invasion - evidence found c. 1870/71 AD

Labor Strife

slave uprisings occurred at different points (Sicily 104 BC) but most notably in 73 BC under Spartacus

Reformation Spreads

so far, Luther has publicly challenged the RCC & has lived to tell about it - meanwhile, the revolt against Rome spread - princes, dukes, & electors defied the condemnation of Luther by giving support to the new movement

Pepin the Great

son of Martel - deposed the latest Merovingian king - gained legitimacy as the first Carolingian ruler recognized by the pope (pontiff needed protection) in 756, he invaded Italy, defeated the Lombards, & gave the pope territory in central Italy - this grant later became known as the "Papal States" (concept: papacy has material kingdom also)

Alexander the Great

son of Philip II - 336-323 BC - pupil of Aristotle - invaded Persia & liberated Greek cities in Asia Minor - then, he defeated the Persians in Egypt, Syria, & Mesopotamia - went on to conquer a huge empire - pushed east, eventually weary soldiers desired to turn back

Hellenistic Age

spans c. 300 years from the death of Alexander (323) until Ptolemaic Greece was defeated by Augustus at Actium which led to the establishment of the Roman Empire 27 BC - this era marked by economic expansion, cultural diffusion, intellectual/artistic achievement & cosmopolitanism

Caliph

successor - leader of the Muslim community

Black Death

term likely used to describe a combination of bubonic & pneumonic plagues - probably struck Mongolia in 1331-1332 & then it traveled to Caffa (in Crimea) - a major European point of entry was through the shipping ports of Sicily (Messina) in 1347 - by December 1350 it had crossed Europe & reached northern Scotland & southern Scandinavia - death estimates vary between 25-50% - millions of death caused the production of food & goods to plummet - economic impact significant - many forms but Bubonic & Pneumonic were the most common

Charlemagne

the Great - son of Pepin - established his rule over much of the former Roman Empire in EU - strong central govt. & maintained provincial control through court officials - enlisted missi dominici - result: law & order enforced after 3 centuries of disintegration - coronated on Christmas 800 in Rome by Pope Leo III, during mass

ideology of monasticism

the world is corrupt; spiritual people retreat and live life apart from the world - aspects: some monastics adopted asceticism - crucify the flesh & develop the spiritual life by meditation & ascetic acts (flesh: evil, spirit: good)

Purpose of Sacraments

to make interactions between people and God regular, systematic, & controlled during an age of mass illiteracy - the institutional church becomes a necessary mediator

Hinduism

traditional religion of India, characterized by a philosophy & a way of life rather than by a dogmatic structure - c. 80% of India are followers of this religion (close to c. 1 billion people) - over c. 1 B followers world-wide - founded not by any single individual - has been developing since c. 2000 BC - possesses a type of henotheistic (many gods, but one main god) trinity - has thousands of other deities - Brahma-the Creator, Vishnu-the Preserver, Shiva-the Destroyer

Suffering in purgatory

twofold - physical pain and separation from God - necessary because the person has not made complete satisfaction for sins & is not ready to see God because of imperfection - further, in forgiving baptized people, Christ chose to change the greater punishment to a lesser punishment (instead of abolishing sins entirely), "changing eternal suffering into temporal suffering," thereby requiring cleansing - the length of suffering is determined by the person's degree of sinfulness - can be shortened through prayers and good works of living adherents

Great Western Schism

under pressure from the locals, the College of Cardinals elected Urban VI (Roman) as pope - the splinter group of cardinals gathered again & elected a new pope: Clement VII (Avignon) and thus there were now two individuals elected pope by the same group of cardinals (save one) - Pope Clement took up arms against Pope Urban & attacked Rome; being repulsed, Clement fled to Avignon - one pope in Rome, one in Avignon, each with his own cardinals - lasts c. 40 years

Ferdinand & Isabella (SP)

united the largest provinces (Castile & Aragon) - in 1492... - supported the voyage of Christopher Columbus to the New World - expelled all Jews who refused to convert to Christianity - drove out the last Muslim Moors from Granada - believed in one king/queen, one law, one faith - they "completed" the Reconquista (re-conquest)

Jean Francois Champollion

unlocked the secrets of hieroglyphics in 1821-22 from the Rosetta Stone

Luther kidnapped

upon leaving the diet, Luther is saved from arrest & death via "kidnapping" by representatives of Frederick - he is taken to Wartburg Castle for a 10-month "captivity" (protection) - during this time, he translated the Greek New Testament into German

Acropolis

upper fortified part (citadel) of an Ancient Greek city (multiple cities possess one; Athens, etc.) - the Athenian citadel was destroyed by the invading Persians in 480 BC - Pericles instituted a rebuilding program

city-state

urban region and agricultural land under city control (UR a leader) - roughly 12 of them dotted the region - population of about 30K (maybe)

defects among the church fathers

vast doctrinal positions - sacerdotalism

Eastern Orthodoxy

veneration of icons was allowed again and now remains a part of this religion - it is central to their worship - believed to have a mediatory role

Why were Christians a target?

viewed as disloyal subjects - thought to be atheists - misunderstanding of Christian practices - lifestyle

Gregory I (the Great)

virtual ruler of parts of Italy - power for the papacy -> he acted as a ruler of Rome & surrounding territories temporally/spiritually - civil govt. was in disarray - under him: aqueducts repaired, hospices developed etc. - promoted clerical celibacy - tradition equality with Scripture - in mass or communion, Christ was sacrificed anew - affirmed the existence of a place of purification and thus gave impetus to the dev't of the doctrine of purgatory

Mary I (Mary Tudor)

wife of Philip II of SP - unhappy reign/life

Martin Luther

writes Ninety-Five Theses - drafted for Albrecht of Mainz, but at some point posted on the church door in Wittenberg - a university custom (exactly when/if they were posted is the cause of much scholarly debate) - Luther clearly upset

cuneiform

writing system that consisted of wedge marks on clay (in time c. 300 characters) - it was complex and usually practiced by specially trained scribes - 1st readable documents c. 3200 BC

Epic of Gilgamesh

written c. 2000 BC, before Genesis - relationship to address - the Epic and the Flood (Note: biblical account was chronologically written later c. 1445-1405 BC) - mentions there was a flood --> points of commonality or agreement with Scripture - some parts in disagreement with Scripture --> attributable to human error on the part of the Epic's author