women's Psyc exam 3

Historically, how have diagnostic labels been used against women?

Based on how different it is from the norm of a man

Does prevalence differ by race? (eating disorders)

Becoming a problem worldwide More common in whites and Asians than African Americans Some clinical features may vary according to culture

· Be familiar with hostile and benevolent sexism in the workplace

Benevolent sexist beliefs: shower a woman with unwanted sexual attention, but sees this as a sign of intimacy rather than harassment Thought to be "good" as long as you are keeping your goodness Disguised as kindness and complements Hostile sexist beliefs: is more likely to give women sexual insults or leave threatening/abusive messages for her Thinking they are justified by "protecting turf" or maintaining status quo

· Explain the principle of comparable worth. How is it usually implemented? Why has this approach developed, rather than the simpler approach of pay equity?

Comparable worth: women and men should be paid equal for work of equal value

Maternal Mortality:

Deaths caused by complications during pregnancy, delivery, or the 42-day period immediately following the end of the pregnancy

How does culture affect definitions of mental health?

Different cultures have different symptoms for disorders and define disorder differently

Gender Role Strain:

Difficulty in conforming to different aspects of expected gender roles (e.g., spouse, parent, worker) because such roles are often contradictory and inconsistent, so it is difficult not to violate them

Mental Illness:

Disordered behavior or thinking indicating ongoing distress and the inability to cope

Given this history, why is medicine not a female-dominated profession in the United States?

Doctors oppose it because of their weak and delicate nature, but they can be nurses

What is proposed by the Development Hypothesis?

Early risk factors interact with the challenges posed by early adolescence to produce gender differences in depression Challenges: Peer pressure, focus on body image, sexual harassment, greater restrictions by parents on activites (trying to conform to gender stereotypes)

· Be familiar with the feminist ethno-specific approach. What are the reasons it might be a good idea for a therapist to be matched to a client in terms of gender and ethnicity?

Ethno-Specific Approach — a therapeutic context in which the therapist is a woman from the same ethnic/racial background as the client the therapist has understanding of the client's background, based on first-hand experience the therapist provides a good role model of what a woman from that particular background can accomplish the therapeutic relationship does not reproduce the balance of power in which a White, Anglo person is the authority or expert the therapist is more likely to feel a personal stake in the client's success

What factors impact women's life expectancy? Discuss both positive and negative factors.

Factors that impact women's health include anemia, autoimmune diseases, tropical diseases (particularly women who are pregnant // i.e. malaria), reproductive health problems, sexually transmitted infections, heart diseases, cancer, osteoporosis, and Alzheimer's disease. Only disease women have higher percentage of than men: Alzheimer's -poverty -ability to leave the house or exercise (cultural)

· What percentage of the labor force is women? Globally and in the US?

In the United States, women's share of the labor force is greater than 47 percent. Globally, the women's labor force participation rate is about 52 percent.

· Be familiar with the concepts of insidious trauma and oppression artifact disorder.

Insidious trauma: the continuous stresses of racism, sexism, emotional abuse, class discrimination, and other negative social forces that can erode an individual's well-being over the course of a lifetime oppression artifact disorder: the lack of resilience that might occur in a woman of color who is worn down from dealing with small or large instances of racism on a daily basis

glass ceiling:

Invisible institutional barriers preventing women from rising to top positions

Psychotherapy:

Involves a client and therapist talking with each other about the issues and/or symptoms that are bothering the client, with the therapist trying to provide the help, support, and guidance the client needs to deal with painful, difficult feelings

Panic Disorder:

Involves the experience of panic attacks that occur without warning and without any obvious reason. These attacks are bouts of intense physiological arousal that may be characterized by symptoms such as a pounding and/or irregularly beating heart, chest pains, and difficulty breathing

· Why are women more likely to seek mental health treatment?

It's more socially acceptable for women to talk about mental health and a woman needs help to fix something. Seeking help is consistent with that gender expectation. It can be incredibly validating to the individual to receive a diagnosis.

Be familiar with gender & race/ethnic differences related to suicide.

Men commit suicide more than women. Could be because men have a higher success rate. Women attempt suicide usually by cutting or ovodosing and are often times able to be saved. highest rates are among non-Hispanic White women and American Indian women

· Be familiar with the theories about why sexual harassment occurs.

Men who have a strong association between sex and power are more likley to engage in sexual harassment Being in a position of power automatically activates thoughts of sex Likely due to socialization, but because this can happen, they still have control over their actions (no excuse for their behavior) Sexual harassment can also stem from ambivalent attitudes about gender stereotypes -- sexist beliefs can trigger different types of harassment

· What are the main sources of working women's stress? What changes would be necessary to address these problems?

Most women are on their own when it comes to finding a job-family balance that is workable for them = major stress

How is self-silencing related to acculturation?

The greater the acculturation, the less likelihood for depression. Immigrationa and acculturation: the degree to which an immigrant woman feels comfortable in a new culture, the likelihood that self-silencing is reduced. Men also self silence. The circumstances around why someone self-silences is what lead to depression

Feminine-Role Hypothesis:

The idea that the feminine role may predispose women to depression by encouraging them to feel and act helpless and to develop inadequate coping skills

Relationship Difficulties Hypothesis:

The idea that, because relationships are more central to women than to men, women have learned to behave in certain ways to protect their heterosexual relationships - ways that leave them vulnerable to depression

Oppression Artifact Disorder:

The lack of resilience that might occur in a woman of color who is worn down from dealing with small or large instances of racism on a daily basis

Learned Helplessness:

The learned conviction that one's actions do not make a difference

Double Standard of Mental Health:

The notion that there are different expectations for mentally healthy women and mentally healthy men

Social Support:

The perception that others are available to help when a person is having difficulties

Understand the association between poverty, nutrition, and stress. Who is most at risk for living in poverty in the United States? Why is poverty associated with increased health risks?

The poorer women are the worse their health, and their health care. Women are more likely than men to live in poverty. Being impoverished, includes inadequate nutrition, crowded and unsafe living conditions, lack of easy access to medical care, and lack of clean water. Women are more likely to live in poverty Even when poverty is equal between men and women, quality of care is going to be different by gender

Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT):

The prescription of supplemental estrogen, sometimes accompanied by progesterone, to menopausal women

Acculturation:

The process of identifying with and conforming to a new culture

What are the childhood factors?

The socially accepted prejudice against overweight people may also add to the "fear: and preoccupation about weight in children. As many as 50% of elementary girls and 61% of middle school girls are dieting

Caregiver Burden

The stress associated with caring for someone who cannot be left alone, such as an invalid or Alzheimer's disease patient

Heterosexism:

The tendency to view heterosexuality as the norm and to ignore or render invisible the alternatives of homosexuality and bisexuality

uman Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV):

The virus that causes AIDS Life Expectancy: The average number of years that a person in a particular category (e.g., African American women) can be expected to live

Silencing the Self:

Theory that posits that women's greater vulnerability to depression springs from their attempts to establish intimate and satisfying connections with male partners within the context of feminine role requirements that do not allow them to assert their own needs in such relationships

Feminist Therapies:

Therapies based on a philosophy that not only explicitly disavows traditional gender stereotypic assumptions about behavior, but also encourages open discussion and analysis of the stereotypes

Nonsexist Therapy:

Therapy based on the idea that gender stereotypes should not guide the therapeutic process - that clients should be treated as individuals first, rather than as women or men

· What is the evidence that women and men are treated differently by health care systems? What are the possible reasons for such differences?

There is an asymmetrical biases in male doctor-female patient interactions, especially for lesbian, poor, and/or racial minorities The physicians control the entry and exit of material. They control what topics are introduced and when they're introduced (can feel more like an interrogation) Women are socialized to take turns in conversations and be friendly & warm Doesn't bode well for how physicians communicate right now (interview model/approach) Women are also more likely to verbalize emotions more than men so they are taken less seriously Women who seek help for pain are less likely than males to be treated adequately and/or get adequate treatment. Exact same level of pain given, but many perceived that men would feel more pain than women Women are thought to have a higher pain tolerance because they go through childbirth. Men and women are insured at different rates Women tend to seek out medical insurance more often than men. Women have higher premiums Men and women will have different types of medications covered (men: erectile dysfunction medication is typically covered while it is harder or more expensive for women to get contraceptives)

What are the outcomes (of the interaction between childhood factors & challenges during adolescence)?

depression in adolescence interferes with performance, thus restricting opportunities for future choices depression creates negative self-perceptions and interpretations of events, influencing decision making about relationships and careers that can affect an individual's life for years into adulthood

What are the challenges experienced during adolescence?

girls are more vulnerable to a sense of defeat and distress when they encounter the challenges that come with female adolescence: greater restrictions on their activities by parents, greater peer pressure to narrow their activities to fit feminine norms, greater focus on body image, a dramatic increase in the risk of sexual abuse and harassment

quid pro quo harassment:

individual is pressured to submit to unwelcome sexual advances or other unwelcome conduct as a condition of employment, promotion, or raises

What are any arguments against this type of matching?

it is not always possible for an individual to find a therapist who is the same gender, race, and ethnicity; there is not guarantee that finding a good match based on these criteria will ensure success in therapy personal and social-context variables influence the success of any therapy; if the client and therapist cannot get comfortable with each other, the therapy will not succeed, even if the pair is a perfect match in terms of gender, race, and ethnicity

Be familiar with the argument of learned helplessness.

"I can't do anything to make this situation different or better." belief that they don't have the skills of competence. Helplessness can cause depression. You feel as though nothing can be done.

What is the Feminine Role Hypothesis?

"It's feminie to be depressed." Girls are taught to be submissive and gentle. Women are taught to more internalize symptoms (anxiety shown through an upset stomach) and boys are taught to externalize symptoms, such as aggression.

How are women discriminated against when applying for jobs? Once hired?

o Research findings on resume or piece of art being male vs female Women's work tends to be undervalued Job applications/resumes are most likely to trigger prejudiced evaluations (same resume but the one with male on it seen as more valuable/impressive) Women's success may be attributed to luck rather than skill Glass ceiling: a situation in which invisible institutional barriers prevent women from rising to top positions "Labyrinth": a complex situation women face when trying to advance in the workplace (path is unknown and complicated) Also a: Clustering of women in low-paying jobs Expectation that women will take on a greater share of unpaid activities

Be familiar with the differences and similarities between developed and developing countries in the types of health problems faced by women. What are the reasons for these differences?

rates of anemia higher in developing countries b/c no access to iron supplements Tropical diseases also more prominent in impoverished countries reproductive health problems more prominent and problematic in poorer countries (1 in 5 women who get pregnant die in developing countries) (hemorrhage (bleeding), obstructed labor (vaginal opening almost sewn closed), infection, botched abortion, hypertension) In Niger 1 in 7 women who have a kid will die; in Male 1 in 5 risk of dying in U.S. cardiovascular (heart) disease leading cause of death for women, african american and white women most likely to die from heart disease for developed countries: most common cancers are lung, breast, and colorectal In whole world, these and stomach cancer

affirmative action:

setting targets for the proportion of women or minorities in the workplace

Title IX:

1972 U.S. federal law that bars sex discrimination in educational programs receiving government financial assistance

Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)

: Infections that are transmitted from person to person through sexual contact (e.g., AIDS, gonorrhea, chlamydia)

pay equity:

: legislation that women and men should be paid equally for equivalent worth

Personal Space:

A "comfort zone" of space around a person, that others, unless they are intimates, may not breach without causing uneasiness

Acquired Immune Deficiency (AIDS):

A condition caused by the human immuno-deficiency virus (HIV), characterized by the destruction of the immune system and consequent vulnerability to life-threatening diseases

Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder (PMDD):

A formal (and controversial) diagnosis included in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the American Psychiatric Association, which lists a set of psychological symptoms that may occur during the week prior to menstruation

Women's Health Initiative:

A large-scale 15-year set of studies, sponsored by the National Institutes of Health in the United States, that focuses on identifying factors related to prevention of heart disease, breast and colorectal cancer, and osteoporosis in postmenopausal women

Osteoporosis:

A loss of bone density that puts individuals at increasing risk of serious fractures

Anorexia Nervosa:

A mental disorder that involves self-starvation in an effort to maintain an unrealistically low body weight. It is characterized by an intense fear of becoming obese and by a disturbed perception of body image - a tendency to "feel fat" even when severely underweight.

Bulimia Nervosa:

A mental disorder that is characterized by an obsession with food and with body weight and involves a pattern of binge overeating followed by self-induced purging through a variety of means, including dieting, vomiting, or laxatives

Neurasthenia:

A mental illness often diagnosed in women at the beginning of the 20th century but now rarely used, characterized by mind and body fatigue, depression, anxiety, headaches, and gastrointestinal disturbances

Depression:

A mental illness signaled by feelings of extreme sadness and hopelessness and by a loss of interest in most activities

Tend and Befriend:

A pattern of behavior postulated by some theorists to describe women's response to stress, in which they nurture their children and affiliate with others to reduce risk

Agoraphobia:

A persistent, irrational fear of being in public places from which escape might be difficult or help unavailable in case of sudden incapacitation

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD):

A person who has experienced one or more severe emotional traumas - such as physical attack, rape, war violence, serious accidents, and physical, sexual, or emotional abuse - may later, and over a considerable period of time, display a set of symptoms such as depression, insomnia, anxiety, nightmares, feelings of being in danger, and irritability

· How does feminist therapy differ from traditional therapy?

they explicitly disavow traditional gender stereotypic assumptions about behavior, openly discuss and analyze the stereotypes, and aim for a client's empowerment acknowledges that women are harmed by living in a society that is often sexist, racist, and oppressive toward women based on their social class, age, or sexual orientation emphasizes the sociocultural context as an important factor in the client's experience and behavior

sexual harassment

unwelcome sexual advances or engaging in other conduct of a sexual nature

hostile environment:

unwelcome sexual advances or engaging in other conduct of a sexual nature that unreasonably interferes with an individual's work performance or creates an intimidating, hostile, or offensive atmosphere

hierarchy-enhancing values:

valuing the maintenance of status quo, wanting it to stay the same or increase for the benefit of the elite

hierarchy-attenuating values:

valuing the reduction or change in status quo for the benefit of the oppressed groups

Self-Disclosure:

Telling others about oneself and one's thoughts and feelings

What is the Gender Role Strain?

Tension that develops when expectations that accompany one's gender role have negative consequences for the individual

Mental Health:

The ability to function well, to cope with problems, or to be happy or satisfied with one's life

· Be familiar with the ways in which race and gender interact in corporate jobs (hint: slide 5)

The amount of women decrease as positions go up, and the trend continues for women of color For males of color vs females of color, there's a 6% difference for males of color from entry level to c-suite (from 16% to 6%) and a 14% difference for females of color from entry level to c-suite (from 18% to 4%) White men the majority all the way through, from 35% at entry to 68% at top level jobs

Insidious Trauma:

The continuous stresses of racism, sexism, emotional abuse, class discrimination, and other negative social forces that can erode and individual's well-being over the course of a lifetime

Are there places where medicine is a female-dominated profession, or medical jobs that are female-dominated?

Yes - Latvia (74%), Estonia (73%), and Slovenia (62%)

collective relative deprivatio

a feeling of dissatisfaction due to perceived inequities between own group and a more advanced group

personal relative deprivation:

a sense of dissatisfaction stemming from a comparison with others who are being more highly rewarded

· How is discrimination against women workers sometimes based on women's traditional roles as mothers and homemakers? What role does the notion of "entitlement" play in this situation?

"Motherhood penalty" - many employers reluctant to pay pregnancy-related benefits or accommodate women's reproductive role A man who would not be getting pregnant would be more desirable from an economic standpoint for the employer Women who do have children are viewed as less committed or competent in the workforce Also expectations that women should be at home, especially with children Men are the "providers" and women are the "nurturers" Women who violate this expectations are judged harshly both in the workplace and in their parenting role (women in this position report some resilience to this criticism) Hiring and firing decisions are illegal in most countries based on pregnancy (but, still happens) Some women will get poor performance ratings if pregnant -- get around these laws of decisions of hiring/firing based on pregnancy Even if not affecting hiring/firing decisions, women still feel they are being penalized for thinking about or becoming pregnant Very few countries in world that don't require paid maternity leave -- US is one of them US has a maximum 12 week FMLA (thats it -- even if something happens, can't take more paid time off)

· What are the kinds of situations that are conducive to stereotyping in the workplace?

"Token" person: single person of a certain category to be Person who was previously excluded is invited in to fill a roll A person is not "fit" for a job due to their social category (a woman shouldn't be assertive, so she will not do well as an attorney) Evaluation criteria is ambiguous Organizational norms and policies are tolerant of gender stereotypes

· What is meant by cultural competence and why is this so important in therapy? How can a clinician develop and demonstrate cultural competence?

"to be knowledgeable about cultural differences, to obtain the knowledge and training necessary to work competently with people from diverse backgrounds, and to respect the diverse values and attitudes of their clients" involves learning how to ask questions in ways that are most effective and nonthreatening, and also learning how to recognize when a "symptom" is actually just an example of culturally normative behavior cultural competence goes beyond "cultural sensitivity," by which we mean having an awareness of the behaviors, norms, and values of the culture of the client with whom one is working it encompasses flexibility in adapting and modifying one's behavior to achieve congruence with a client's behavior

What is the intended goal of affirmative action? What reactions do women have to it? o Be familiar with personal- and collective-relative deprivation. Under what conditions would a woman be more likely to support affirmative action?

Affirmative action plans: set targets for the proportion of women or minorities (not quotas) Do not entail hiring unqualified people Goal is to increase the level of opportunity for underrepresented groups who are usually discouraged from various job opportunities Women are uneasy about supporting affirmative action; denial of personal descrimination: women feel they have not personally felt discriminate against, but see that the whole group has Because not see/feel personal and individual discrimination, they dont feel the need to support affirmative action Women uncomfortable with preferential treatment (socialization! Taught to be selfless and hold negative beliefs about self) Stronger personal relative deprivation, stronger support of affirmative action Personal relative deprivation is a sense of dissatisfaction stemming from a comparison with others who are being more highly rewarded Collective relative deprivation is a feeling of dissatisfaction due to perceived inequities between one's own group and more advantaged group

Binge Eating Disorder:

An eating disorder characterized by recurrent binge eating not followed by purging

Eating Disorders - be familiar with the gender differences; why is it so difficult to get an accurate gender comparison?

Anorexia nervosa: obsession with thinness leading to self-starvation Bulimia: pattern of binge overeating following by self-induced purging Binge eating disorder: pattern of binge overeating without purging Female:Male ratio around 3:1 More common in gay/bi men than hetero men Rates in men hard to capture: underreported, diagnostic criteria are biased Attitudes that lead to eating disorders are more common in whites and asians than African Americans

What are the reasons why psychological stress may have a particularly negative impact on women's health?

Body responds to all stress the same way biologically (pos itive stress or negative stress!) Psychological stress increases susceptibility to illness (especially chronic stress) Chronic stress increases cortisol longer → inflammation → more susceptibility to illnesses Some stressful life events are more likely for women such as rape, sexual harassment, spousal abuse, and sex discrimination Social support can counteract stress But this might also backfire (co rumination: fixation on a stressor) Despite mixed findings, the benefits are seen Social support is more important for women (mixed-sex twin study) Women use more Co ruminate means talking about the same thing repeatedly. Increase in stress if co rumination is present. (google definition of co-rumination is "extensively discussing and revisiting problems, speculating about problems, and focusing on negative feelings with peers" emphasis on maladaptive). Linked with depression and increased levels of physical pain

· What gender differences are evident regarding caregiving responsibilities? Why do these differences exist? What is the impact of caregiving on women's health and careers?

Caregiving is more likely for women because women tend to outlive men. ⅔ of caregivers are female Average caregiver is 49 years old Averages 20 hours per week of unpaid care Value providing: $148 billion per year Tend and befriend theory: nurturing their children and affiliating with others to reduce risk Caregiver burnout is not uncommon (usually they are also caring for their own immediate family and also working their own paying jobs) Usually because selfcare has gone completely out the window -- high depression, high rates of malnutrition, etc. For many women, they have to adjust their lives significantly to take on this caregiving role

What factors may put women at higher risk than men for health problems? What behaviors do women engage in that may help to put them at lower risk?

Factors that put women at a higher risk than men includes diet, exercise, smoking, and seeking help and advice. Even if women seek medical help more often, the help they receive is not always adequate Women's weight is linked to their worth. Trans fat, saturated fat, and sugar intake is directly linked to heart disease Women exercise less than men. Women wait longer than men to go to the doctor for heart disease symptoms (their symptoms are much more mild than the symptoms for men) Vagina is internal vs penis is external--easier for bacteria to penetrate tissues already inside the body (more prevalent for STDs) Women are far more likely to present for treatment thus they will receive a diagnosis earlier on Exception is for those heart disease symptoms (or those who cannot afford going in for diagnosis and treatment)

· Be familiar with hierarchy-attenuating and hierarchy-enhancing values. Which is assumed to be held by men and women? According to the research findings, how do these assumptions impact hiring decisions?

Falicia Pado: women are assumed to hold values that challenge status quo, where men assumed to hold values that maintain status quo -- therefore, these values are seen in jobs that are predominantly either women- or men-dominated Hierarchy-enhancing: maintaining status quo, want things to stay the same or increase Thought to be present in jobs that are promoting interests of elite and powerful Hierarchy-attenuating: values that would work to reduce or change the status quo Thought to be present in jobs that are dominated by oppressed groups Observed that females more likely to be hired for hierarchy-attenuating jobs, males more likely to be hired for hierarchy-enhancing jobs In the hierarchy-enhancing jobs, there is higher pay and status Does play out when apps are being reviewed! Even if there is information on the resume that shows the person does not hold these views

Psychological Stress

Feelings of threat, upset, worry, discomfort, and general distress associated with events such as spousal arguments, fear of job loss, and other problems

· Understand the role that women have played as healers.

Female healers have been healers in many different capacities, but have been blocked from entering the profession and persecuted (e.g. witches) Around the world, women have always been healers and regularly been shut out or kept on the margins. Women demonstrate more physical delicacy and weakness which are strangely supportive qualities to exhibit within their entry into nursing More than 90% of nurses are female in the US

· How are occupations segregated by gender? Has this changed over time and, if so, what occupations have seen an increase in female employees?

Few women are in top corporate or political positions Iran: more than 600 women serving as judges, but have to be approved by male judge Women, more often than men, are segregated into jobs that do not pay well. Women make up almost the entire workforce of preschool/kindergarten teachers, secretaries, and registered nurses. All over the world, women are concentrated in clerical and service occupations because these jobs are seen as "traditional" to women. Women are experiencing huge increases in enrollment in law school. Women are also beginning to make up more of the physician workforce Percentages of women as members of corporate boards of directors, board seats in stock index companies, directors, master of business and management recipients Women are also moving slowly into blue-collar/trade occupations traditionally occupied by men such as firefighters, construction laborers, telecommunications line installers, repairers crane and tower operators

· What are the characteristics of a family-friendly workplace?

Globally, the availability of childcare and provision of parental leave are associated with greater workforce participation by mothers "Best Practices" by U.S companies: things in place to make it easier to balance work and parenting

Developmental Hypothesis:

Grows out of the observation that it is at adolescence that young women begin to display much more depression than young men do. This hypothesis suggests that even before adolescence, girls and boys tend to differ on qualities that are risk factors for depression. For instance, girls are more ruminative and self-focused, are less aggressive, and favor an interaction style that is more cooperative and relationship-oriented and less competitive than boys' in many cultures.

Cultural Competence:

Having the knowledge and flexibility to adapt and modifying one's behavior to achieve congruence with a client's (or student's or friend's) behavior

What does it mean to say there is a double standard of mental health for women and men?

Health professionals are looking for how normal or abnormal someone is- but behavior is socialized and normal behaviors will look different in men and women

Computer-Mediated Communication:

Human communication that occurs through electronic devices such as computers. Examples include email, text messages, and live chats.

· What evidence exists that women are not necessarily physically weak? Why have so many women not developed strong bodies?

In Nepal, female Sherpas carry heavy packs up steep mountain paths in oxygen-thin air, using straps around their foreheads to secure the weight. Kenyan women who are accustomed to the task can easily carry on her head a load that is equal to 2/3rds her body weight Women in such traditionally female jobs as waiting on tables and child care repeatedly lift and carry heavy loads, and they must have the stamina to keep doing it for hours on end. Cultural forces have not encouraged them to develop their strength. Some cultures have equated feminine attractiveness with frailty. Women have also been kept from developing their strength by cultural and safety issues that have restricted their opportunities for even leaving the house alone

For each of the psychological disorders covered in lecture, be familiar with the gender differences in prevalence. For each, what factors might contribute to the gender differences?

Neurasthenia- thought to be a female specific disorder as a result of the reproductive system.. Symptoms were fatigue, headache, irritability, etc. Hysteria- thought to be a result of the uterus and that the uterus could move around the body and cause issues. Thought to only happen for women. Menstrual blood was thought to cause psychological problems, but was also able to heal and so they must have sex to fulfill their womanly duty and help heal their mental health issues. They believed that as long as the woman was married, menstrual blood wouldn't cause these psychological problems. Male semen was thought to have healing properties and could cure women's mental and physical health. Freud's "penis envy"- he recommded women must get married and have sex to heal them (from hysteria). Freud believed that women experienced hysteria because they could not get over their "penis envy". Anorexia nervosa- diagnostic criteria based on women's symptoms- doesn't present the right diagnosis in men (bias toward women). Depression-persistent feelings of sadness, worthlessness, inadequacy, helplessness, eating disturbances, social withdrawal, etc. Women are 2 to 3 times more likely than men to be diagnosed as depressed. Married women are more likely to be depressed. Number of children, poverty, stress from trauma, and acculturation also contribute to depression.

· In what ways is employment discrimination related to sexual orientation?

No blanket law that bans discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation in the U.S. Studies show that U.S gay and bisexual men earn 13-32% less than heterosexual men Less clear for lesbians (little evidence to show pay gap b/n lesbian and heterosexual women)

Chronically Stressful Conditions:

Ongoing conditions (such as poverty, role strain, sexual harassment at work) that put a strain on a person and require coping

· Understand the ways in which culture and social context can be related to post-traumatic stress disorder. Why are women more likely to be diagnosed with PTSD?

PTSD: reaction to severe emotional trauma, characterized by symptoms such as hypervigilance, nightmares, avoidance, detachment. Likely to also experience a depressive, anxiety, and/or substance use disorder Trauma can be non-interpersonal (ex. Car accident) or interpersonal (ex. Rape, assualt) Common among both women and men But more common for women: females have higher rates and longer durations of the disorder (9.7% vs 3.6% for males) Why?: females experience more interpersonal traumas = higher rate of PTSD

Stressful Life Events:

Particular, discrete events (such as the loss of a job, an automobile accident, the death of a family member) that cause strain and distress and require coping

· What is Title IX? What has been its impact?

Passed in 1972 and spearheaded by Representative Patsy Mink Title IX bars sex discrimination in education programs receiving government financial assistance. As a result of the changes, young women are far more likely now than they were four decades ago to participate formally in sports, and to aim for college athletic scholarships. However, women and girls still do not have an equal share of opportunities in competitive sports. Only 40% of money spent on sports at collegiate level are spent on women's sports

· What are the indications of progress for women in the world of work? What factors might lead us to feel cautious rather than completely optimistic about the future of women's work?

Progress: More women working in more diverse jobs Antidiscrimination laws and improved working conditions U.S. women access to most military positions Needs for Improvement Saudi Arabia: only 20% of women are employed Entry into leadership positions has been extremely slow in some contexts Continued progress toward equality cannot be guaranteed U.S. women's legal reproductive rights Sudden removal of the right to work from the women of Afghanistan Women are still often clustered at the lower end of the pay and status hierarchy at work From 2004 - 2019: increase of only 1% in the gender pay gap for doctoral professors at universities (frozen in time)

What is meant by the idea that, in mental illness, there is a "politics of diagnosis"?

Putting a label on a cluster of symptoms, providing a diagnosis, inevitably affects the way the person experiencing those symptoms views her problem. Affects the way others view her and the kind of solutions that are offered The use of diagnostic categories can influence and be influenced by stereotypes of whole groups. Our values and expectations tend to shape both what is considered "normal" for a given group of people and how we notice and label deviations from those norm

Be familiar with quid pro quo sexual harassment and hostile environment sexual harassment in the workplace.

Quid pro quo: an individual pressured to submit to unwelcome sexual advances as a condition of employment, promotion, or raises. Hostile environment: unwelcome sexual advances or engaging in other conduct of a sexual nature that unreasonably interferes with an individual's work performance or that creates an intimidating, hostile, or offensive atmosphere

What gender differences emerge related to rumination vs distraction, and how does this contribute to depression?

Rumination is more common among females, which contributes to depression. Rumination means thinking about something over and over again. Distraction is more common among males. Distract themselves from emotions. More likely to be depressed 3 years later: limited instrumentality, exaggerated expressiveness, tendency toward self focus, and suppression of angry feelings.

What is the self-silencing explanation for depression among women? Be familiar with the research that has tested this theory. How strongly is the theory supported by research?

Silencing the self to protect relationships leaves women vulnerable to depression. They believe speaking up about these problems isn't going to change things. Studies show that if a woman experiences sexism and self silences then she is more likely to experience depression later on.

What does research suggest about the importance of ideals and attitudes about femininity in leading to eating disorders? Be familiar with the cultural and familial influences

Societal pressures: western standards of attractiveness set ideals for both men and women that can lead to eating disorders Western standards have changed throughout history toward a thinner ideal for women and a muscular ideal for men Models, actors, dancer, and certain athletes are at higher risk for eating disorder Families that emphasize appearance, thinness, or dieting can also play an important role in the development of eating disorders (family therapy)

Be familiar with the Stress Hypothesis. How is stress associated with depression, and how does gender factor in?

Stress Hypothesis: Women experience more stress than men (they have more stressful life events) It's the type of stress that women go through that is different from men and why it is more present in women. (divorce, job loss, financial stress, etc.) Women are more likely to live in Chronically stressful conditions: violence, poverty, gender role strain Stress linked to depression

What is the gender pay gap? How does this differ by pay-level of jobs? o What jobs show no gender differences?

Undervaluing of women's work is one cause of the gender pay gap In high level jobs (lawyers, pharmacists, chief executives, etc), greatest pay gap Greater discrepancy of females in these positions and the amount paid In medium level jobs (RNs, Teachers, Social workers, etc.), approaching equal -- the amount of women in these positions also greatly increases (with the exception of postal workers) In low levels jobs (cooks, health aids, cashiers, etc.), also approaching equal -- the amount of women in these jobs is typically lower than the amount of men Women earn more than men in only one job: stock clerks and order filers Women's and men's earnings are the same in: health practitioner support technologists and technicians

What gender differences are observed regarding life expectancy? Why do these differences exist?

Women are outliving men all around the world. Life expectancy is linked to poverty, nutrition, and access to medical care. Reasons: Male infants are more likely to suffer from congenital malformations and genetically transmitted diseases. The death rate form unintentional injuries, suicide, homicide, and accidents are higher for men. Women survive better than men do under conditions of starvation, exposure, fatigue, and shock. The age-adjusted death rate is twice as high for men as it is for women (from unintentional injuries). Men are less likely to seek medical care.

Be familiar with the reasons why women experience anxiety at such higher rates? Is there biological evidence to explain the gender differences? What environment factors contribute to the gender differences?

Women are significantly more likely than men to develop anxiety such as generalized anxiety disorder and social anxiety disorder. Panic disorder is the experience of panic attacks that occur without warning. Agoraphobia is the fear of being unable to escape a public place and idea that it would be safer to just stay home.

· According to research, what are the pluses and minuses for women in trying to combine employment and family roles?

Women doing both are found to be happier and healthier Combing employment and family roles can be good for women if they have support from friends and family Expansion of resources?

· What gender differences have been found related to alcohol use? Drug use (illegal vs prescription)? What factors are associated with substance use in adolescence? In what ways in substance use thought to be linked to the feminine role?

Women everywhere are less likely than men to use and abuse alcohol and illegal drugs Men use illegal drugs more than women but men and women use prescription drugs equally Initial use often starts during junior high school Substance during adolescence linked to higher depression rates, anxiety, lower aspirations Risks of drug/alcohol use during pregnancy Used as a way to rebel against the constraints of the feminine role By using these drugs like adderall, women were able to power through the day at a faster and more successful rate, if a mom had a lot to do that day she may turn to adderall to fulfill her "feminine role" successfully and quicker

· Understand the ways in which women's work is often unrecognized and unpaid.

Women's informal and unpaid work is often invisible and uncounted. Women do 2/3rds of the world's work, receive 10 percent of the world's income, and own 1 percent of the means of production. Women spend more hours a week working than men do. However, for women a larger proportion of time spent working is devoted to unpaid labor: housework, child care, and other domestic activities that are not counted when economists try to quantify work. In most countries, women do 60 percent or more of the housework and care activities. Women spend twice the amount of time men do in unpaid work

· How women's mental disorders are socially constructed. Consider women's experience of the disorder, diagnosis, and treatment.

we construct classifications of people's "disordered" behavior and experience according to what our culture dictates, and individuals may receive differing diagnosis depending on their gender, race, and social class women are reacting to real and often intolerable pressures from the environment — and they are reacting in ways that cultures have helped them to construct cultural messages often tell girls and women they are powerless, that they must fear victimization, that they must not express feelings of anger and competitiveness as young women absorb these messages, many of them become depressed women are taking the cultural prescriptions for femininity to extremes — they are getting sick in "approved" ways diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders often perpetuate sexist biases diagnoses are social constructions: mental diseases are created by label and categories yet therapists may sometimes apply these diagnoses without regard to the context in which the patient functions or to the patient's own interpretation of her distress

Stressful Events:

were defined as occurrences that were likely to bring about readjustment-requiring changes in people's usual activities.

How would a feminist therapist might differ in her or his approach to working with a woman who is being verbally abused by her husband and is feeling depressed?

will use an Egalitarian approach, and constant check-in with own values

comparable worth:

women and men should be paid equally for work of equal value (how do you define value?)

· What are the gender differences seen in drug therapy? What are some reasons these differences exist?

women are far more likely than men to be treated with drugs for emotional problems women are 2x as likely as men to be taking antidepressants 5.4% of women and 3.8% of men are taking anti anxiety drugs women are 48% more likely than men to use any "abusable" prescription drug may be the result of women seeking treatment more frequently than men do, and of drug companies taking advantage of this pattern by targeting drugs to women doctors appear more likely to prescribe mood-altering drugs for female than for male patients doctors who feel uncomfortable talking with their female patients about problems, or have little time to spend with their patients, may opt for the simpler and more efficient route of drug prescriptions drug advertisements promoted gender stereotypic notions that depression and anxiety in women are due solely to intrapsychic or biological factors, and offered the drugs as an easy solution to female unhappiness