World History

Nationalism

Loyalty or devotion to well being of one's nation attitude which members of a nation have when they share national identity Western Civs: concept expanded by Napoleon 19th centuryh: various small sates united and transformed into one country ( Italy and Germany) grew out of intellectual reaction to enlightenment that emphasizes national identification and developed romantic view of cultural self expression through nationhood

French Philosopher Rene Descartes

truth gained though mathematics and logical deduction invented analytic geometry famous quote : I think therefore I am

India 500-end of 18th Century

Began recovering from Invasion of Alexander the Great Chandragupta Murayans- began country's most successful dynasties and conquered most of India Asoka: Mauryan's grandon more peaceful than his grandfather, but powerful great believer in power and practices buddhism sent missionaries throughout Asia spreading religion patriarchal society

Feudalism Europe differences

Christianity- monotheistic lower class couldn't move up in social class knights had heavy armor and swords were not as sharp as those of Samurai knights not very literate women had few rights

Middle East

Crosses three continents: Africa, Asia, Europe can influence trade, political relations due to location location has vast amount of oil modern economies require oil modern military power requires oil middle east has the power to hold the world hostage of oil

Rome

Culture started near Tiber River Tiber River provided trade routes Built around 7 mountains- advantage during war Land perfect for agriculture due to accessibility of fresh water from Tiber River Formed Roman Republic after rebelling against Tyrant kings of Estrucans Republic: citizens right to vote to select leader who then rules as representative for people Roman Republic also had senate to propose and vote new laws Patricians- wealthy upper class men who were only ones could sit on senate during early republic Plebians- ordinary citizens , could not sit in on senate Laws enforced by two officials called consuls Praetors- served as judges who settled disputes and arguments about money and contracts

Russian Revolution 1905

Czar Nicholas II came to power in 1884 The Russo-Japanese War of 1904 Japanese victory Russian troops killed due to poor leadership, lack of training, inferior weaponry inflation on the rise Czar Nicholas II refused to end war despite setbacks marked first Asian victory over Europeans following end of Russo-Japanese War more than 150,000 peasants joined a demonstration outside the winter palace before the demonstration guards opened fire on the crowd- bloody sunday massacre people lost trust in Czar Czar agrees to sign october manifesto- created constitutional monarchy extended some civil rights and gave parliament limited legislative power known as Duma

Soviet/Afghanistan War

Dec 24 1979-Feb 15 1989 Soviet's support new communist government in Afghanistan in April 1978 New government created a lot of laws against Muslim region- many people upset, rebels= mujahideen Sept 1979 events in Afghanistan became more unstable when Afghan leader Hafizullah Amin had current president killed and took control of the communist government The leaders of the Soviet union became concerned that President Amin was having discussions with the US Dec 24 1979 Soviet Union invades Afghanistan had president Amin put to death and installed own leader: President Babrak Karmal Many soviet soldiers were untested in battle and their gear was not designed for harsh environment

legalism

founded by Han Feizi peace and order through tightly centralized controlled state focused on achieving order mistrust on human nature resulted in tough laws- those who broke laws punished those following laws rewarded being a soldier or farmer 2 most worthy jobs completion of projects like Great Wall caused widespread resentment among common people leading to wider acceptance of confucianism and Daoism

Globalism

Principle of interdependence of the world's nations and their people financial and cultural exchange on a worldwide scale, plus more immigration from less developed nations to better places economic globalization began to accelerate quickly after WWII 1944 Bretton Woods Conference- held by capitalist victors ( led by US) goal was to avoid a world wide depression like the one following the first world war created many international agreements and institutions to maintain strong global economy world bank, international monetary fund negotiated rules for commercial and financial dealings among major capitalist countries, promoted free trade, stabilized currency values and linked them to US dollar, promotes highest levels of capital investments

Storming of the Bastille (July 14, 1789)

Prison in paris marks beginning of revolution prison fell and prisoners freed symbolized injustice of the monarchy

Industrial Revolution Science and industry

Samuel Morse invents the telegraph Alexander Graham Bell invents telephone Thomas Edison invents light bulb by 1900s scientists harnessed electrical power, replaced coal as a source of energy Gotlieb Daimerer reinvented the internal combustion engine to run off gasoline Rudolf Diesel reinvented internal combustion engine to be oil burning- used in factories , ships, trains Ferdinand Von Zepplin invents blimp ( dirigible) Wilbur and Orville Wright took the first successful flight of a motorized plane

Phoenicians

Sea traders well known for manufacturing skills in glass and metals developed purple dye for clothing skilled in navigation- able to sail by stars at night devised first known alphabet using symbols to represent single sounds ( phonetic alphabet) System of writing consisted of alphabet of 22 characters to represent sounds of their language this helped for trading goods with people who spoke different languages, this would eventually be passed to the Greeks, then to the Romans who created alphabet we have today oldest form of government in the Phoenician cities seems to have been kingship—limited by the power of the wealthy merchant families known for winemaking Phoenicians never constituted a single, cohesive political unit, and it is unknown whether they viewed themselves as a nation in the modern sense city states that were fiercely independent in both domestic and foreign affairs system of courts and judges that resolved disputes and punished crimes based on a semi-codified body of law and traditional Religion:Canaanite religion was more of a public institution than of an individual experience

Eric the Red ( Netherlands)

first Europeans in the new world

Danish Astronomer Tycho Brahe

first to catalog observations of the night sky

Bartholomeu Diaz ( Portugal)

first to sail around the Cape of Good Hope in Africa

Industrial Revolution textile industry

flying shuttle: no longer had to push shuttle back and forth across loom- pulling of a cord would fly wider fabric at a faster rate- invented by John Kay Spinning jenny: allowed more threads to be spun at a time- inventor: James Hargraves Water Frame: huge spinning frame that ran continuously on waterpower- inventor Richard Arkwright Power loom: faster loom allowing weavers to keep up with amount of thread used cotton gin: Eli Whitney- mechanically cleaned and removed seeds from raw cotton

Vasco De Gama ( Portugal)

followed route from Diaz and reached India's port of Calicut proving Asia could be reached from Europe by sea successful in sailing around Africa to Asia

Han Dynasty

followed the great wall rebellion First Han Emperor Liu Bang- started out as a minor official under his Great Grandson Wudi the great wall and army strengthened trade began to western world though Silk Road

Buddhism continued

founded by Siddharta Guatama 500 BCE stressed being free of attachment to all things worldly devoting self to finding release from life's suffering 8 truths suffering- life always involves suffering even if things seem good the cause of suffering: cause of suffering is craving and fundamental ignorance end of suffering: suffering can be ended because our obscurations can be purified and awakened mind is always available to us the path- by living ethically, practicing meditation and developing wisdom, can take the journey of enlightenment Nirvana- state of perfect peace and harmony- may take several lifetimes to achieve Theravada: meditation no class system ( appealed to lower classman) not attached to social structure force of cultural diffusion via trade

Taoism

founded by philosopher Laozi 500s BCE happiness comes from leading balanced life in harmony with nature living simple and selfless lives considered philosophy rather than religion examine human behavior rather than search for divine meaning to universe over time, grew into organized religion practice ceremonies including meditation, prayer, magic, reciting scriptures, special diets, breath control, belief in witchcraft, fortune telling, communication with spirits of the dead ying-yang ( symbol of balance) ying- dark side, represents shade, water, west, tiger Yang ( light side) life, fire, east, dragon Separately ying and yang represent opposing ideas but together their balance brings harmony to universe self sufficient communities leads to gains in astronomy, botany, chemistry co-existed with confucianism, Buddhism, legalism

Nicolas Copernicus (1473-1543)

frontline of revolution believed earth was round and it rotated around the sun said the sun, not the earth was center of solar system other planets revolved around the sun challenged the idea that the earth was unique and at center of Gods attention

Reglobalization Transnational corporations

global businesses that produce goods or deliver services simultaneously in many countries Barbie made in factories in Indonesia and China using molds from the US, plastic and hair from Taiwan and Japan, cotton clothes from China

Rome First Triumvirate

government by 3 people with equal power Julius Ceasar's way of ruling along with Crassus and Pompey Many roman senators regretted having this new set of rulers senate decided Pompey should lead alone, Caesar refused ( Crassus had been killed) 45 BCE Caesar defeated Pompey and took over Roman govt to create own dictatorship Caesar tried to fill senate with his friends Ides of March- Caesar attended meeting of senate, senators pulled knives from Togas and killed him caused civil war to break out for 13 years

Great Fear

violence that followed storming of Bastille peasants armed themselves and prepared for revolution peasants attacked the castles of their lords fields and crops burned documents of dues and payments burned buildings attacked and destroyed

Napoleon and his empire

wanted to spread benefits of french revolution through military conquests and building of empire ending of feudalism equality of rights religious toleration uniform secular law codes by 1812 Napoleon controlled most of Europe Downfall: conquered countries resisting French rule and began revolting 1812 = failed invasion of Russia Napoleon's troops marched into Moscow, they could not handle harsh winter conditions after withdrawing Russia attacked 400,000 of 600,000 French troops died battle wounds, starvation, exposure to cold final defeat of Napoleon at Battle of Waterloo June 18 1815 exiled to an island in South atlantic where he died several years later marked an end to French Revolution legacy: spread ideas of revolution and sparked nationalistic feelings across Europe Louisiana Purchase: France's vast Louisiana territory sold to American govt doubling size of US and began age of American expansion

middle east politics Iraq

was a dictatorship taking power by force- some cases elected control of government framework of a federal parliamentary representative democratic republic executive power is exercised by the Prime Minister of the Council of Ministers as the head of government, as well as the President of Iraq, and legislative power is vested in the Council of Representatives and the Federation Council

Laissez Faire economics

meaning no interference from government; leave alone main prophet of this idea: Adam Smith- he asserted that free markets ( unregulated exchange of goods and services) would come to help everyone not just the rich free market would produce more goods at lower prices growing economy would encourage capitalism to reinvest profits in new ventures

French Republic 1792

republic style of govt created new constitution created king removed from office voted to abolish monarchy suffrage extended to all male citizens not just those who owned property demanded Louis XVI be tried for treason he was beheaded in 1793 January Marie Antoinette killed 1793 october

WWI Geography

reshaped borders in Europe collapse of Russian empire created Poland, Baltics, Finland Austro-Hungarian Empire dissolved into Austria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Yugoslavia Ottoman Empire collapsed and Turkey was established Germany had significant territory losses outside Europe

Industrial revolution continued

response to global energy crisis new fuels discovered and used ( coal, oil, natural gas) led to increased output and increased rate of technological innovations accelerated growth of manufacturing indusry raw materials seized from Africa and Asia

Socialism

stage between communism and capitalism economic philosophy that supports public rather than private ownership insisting on democratic procedures nationalizes means of production ( banks, corporations) giving control to government minimal class conflict and access to better products for less cost but not all equal- denies certain freedoms, deprives minorities of certain special economic privileges, people paid wages based on several factors so not everyone will make same earnings

imperialism technological advances

steam powered ships could now reach distant african and asian ports quickly underwater telegraph made it possible to have instant communication with far away posts of the emire discovery of quinine ( preventing malaria) rifles

Archaeolgy

the study of the past based on what people left behind study artifacts, tools, instruments, anything made by humans in past civilizations

Sumerian continued

theocracy priests held authoritarian role they believed Gods ruled the land successful agriculture and irrigation systems cuneiform- writing based on wedge making shaped impressions with reeds on soft clay tablets writing for record keeping, poems, stories started the first schools most important cultural achievements invented system of units we use for time began walled city states Cities acted as politically independent states each had own govt and army, king priests often collected rent from farmers and acted as tax collectors city states fought each other for land and water use of the wheel transportation

Catholic Reformation

undertaking by church to slow/stop Protestant revolution Council of Trent 1545-1563- council of Roman Catholic Church convened in Trento in 3 sessions examined and condemned teachings of Martin Luther and other Protestant reformers redefined Roman Catholic doctrine abolished various ecclesiastical abuse strengthened papacy founded Jesuit Order

Paths of Colonial Status Africa

up until 1800s Europeans knew very little about Africa 1830s George Goldie charted Niger River 1840s David Livingstone travels and explores around africa for 30 years- he lost contact with outside world for 6 years in 1860, set up Christian missions Journalist Henry Stanley USA was sent to look for him and ended up leading several explorations himself - discovered the congo river and followe dit into Atlantic Ocean 1870s journeys by livinstone and stanley increased interest in Africa Many European countries began to claim parts of Africa Berlin Conference 1855- several European nations met in Berlin to decide how to divide africa, no African leaders invited After king leopold II of belgium claims congo, France moves into west Africa and Britain gets rest of continent by 1914 Europeans control 90% of Africa

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

urged getting rid of civilization and returning to state of nature Government by the people influenced democracy social contract: belief that government existed because of the people gave subjects right to overthrow the ruler if he rules badly

treaty of versailles

used Wilson's fourteen point plan as framework many allies wanted to severely punish Germany specifically blamed Germany for war and forced them to pay approx 33 billion in reparations killed their economy signed June 28 1919

Impact of Geography Pre Columbian America South

Well known empires: Aztec, Inca, Maya each controlled by emperor traded with other people

contributions of Islam to other countries

Works of the greek and hellenistic philosophers were translated into Arabic and interpreted with commentaries Basis of Muslim philosophy was Aristotelian and Neo-platonic ideas works of Galen and Hippocrates translated into Arabic Al-Razi well known physician in the world and an author of a medical encyclopedia and handbook for smallpox and measles Muslims adopted heritage of Greek mathematics, borrowed a system of numerals from India, laying foundation for modern arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry and algebra borrowed from Byzantine, Persian and other sources for art and architecture Mosque floor plans based on Muhammad's house in Medina- interior design was in style called arabesque, paintings and other images of living creatures banned from being inside

Neoliberalism

an approach to world economy that favors: reduction in tariffs free global movement of capital mobile and temporary workforce privatization of state run stopping government efforts to regulate the economy cut in taxes and government spending

Communism

arises from Karl Marx government where people share work fairly and were paid equally collective ownership of land and means of production Goal: get rid of social classes and make everything fair for everyone everyone's basic needs would be met no survival of the fittest Cons: no rewards for being a better worker slackers got no punishment and faced lack of incentive and consequences everyone expected to be the same

industrial revolution societal changes

aristocracy class declined population increase due to death rate going down and birth rate rising agricultural revolution decreased risk of famine and provided better nutrition middle class emerges: benefit most from industrialization, size, power, wealth increases believed in constitutional government, private property, free trade, social reform ( education, healthcare, prisons, sanitation) men gain influence in parliament- gain right to vote giving political power believed hard work and education key to success

ethnic cleansing

attempt to get rid of members of unwanted ethnic group in order to establish an ethnically homogenous geographic area can be through: deportation, displacement, mass killing expulsion of undesirable population from given territory result of extreme nationalism

20th century arts and literature

authors disliked industrialized society George Orwell, John Steinbeck, Ernest Hemingway Dadaism- explored formlessness and mocked materialism Andy Warhol

China Confucianism

based on teachings of Philosopher Confucius Five human relationships: ruler to ruled, friend to friend, husband to wife, older sibling to younger, father and son taught that we should treat each other justly in all relationships and our duty to be compassionate teachings were responsible for change in how govt positions were gained in the Han and Qin Dyansty social philosophy rather than religion no clergy, no organization, no belief in deity or life after death candidates for posts men only evaluated based on merit examine human behavior rather than search for divine meaning rulers expected to govern according to high moral standards education valuable and everyone should be able to get one put aside personal ambition for the good of the state

Vietnam War

began as profitable French colony at beginning of WWII Indochina was captured by Japan - Northern part : Ho Chi Minh communist, gained power, supported by China and USSR Southern- led by Diem, democratic rule Mah 1954 communists surround the French army at Dien Bien Phu and forced them to surrender After the defeat Vietnam was divided at 17th parallel 1957-1963 - North Vietnam and Viet Cong fight south Vietnamese troops, hoping to stop the spread of communism in Southeast Asia the United States sends more aid and military advisers to help the South Vietnamese number of military advisers in Vietnam grows from 900 in 1960 to 11,000 in 1962 August 5 1964 Johnson asks congress for power to go to war against the North Vietnamese and communists for violating Geneva Accords against South Vietnam and Laos- request is granted August 7 1964 Congressional join resolution

Communication revolution

began in telecommunications and televisions through satellite, fiber optics, mobile, internet Emergence of global news networks- news over large territories, global in scope, reached large audience from all over presented huge impact on political, economic, social, and psychological life increased gap between advanced industrial countries and developing countries

Bangladesh Genocide

began on 26 March 1971 with the launch of Operation Searchlight, as West Pakistan (now Pakistan) began a military crackdown on the Eastern wing (now Bangladesh) of the nation to suppress Bengali calls for self-determination. During the nine-month-long Bangladesh War for Liberation, members of the Pakistani military and supporting Islamist militias from Jamaat-e-Islami killed between 300,000 and 3,000,000 people and raped between 200,000 and 400,000 Bangladeshi women

South America Pre columbian Aztecs

1200-1521 Present Day Mexico Grew crops in floating gardens in wet marshy lands complex social structure: emperor all powerful nobility served in govt, army, priesthood commoners: farmers, fisherman, craftsmen, warriors slaves Religion: polytheistic like the Mayans: built complex temples that aligned based on movements of sun and moon created accurate calendars based on sun built large empire with complex govt structure and large cities sacrificed humans to their main god ( sun god) believed this was needed to keep Universe in Line

500-18th Century Africa Mali

1235-1450 CE Muslim nobility and royalty Timbuktu grew as trading post on trans-saharan caravan road became political capital religion muslim no technological advances Kingdom of Zimbabwe- 1220-1450 CE located South Africa Capital of Great Zimbabwe successful trading center

China 600-18th Century Ming Dynasty

1368-1644 CE Focused on revival of Chinese culture neo-confucianism reestablished strict social structure Architecture becomes more complex imperial city, forbidden city built bureaucracy established China's population would double. Known for its trade expansion to the outside world that established cultural ties with the West, the Ming Dynasty is also remembered for its drama, literature and world-renowned porcelain publishing boom affordable books being produced for commoners. Reference books were popular, as well as religious tracts, school primers, Confucian literature and civil service examination guides Book illustration carve their illustrations on wood blocks for easily reproducible images

China 600-18th Century Qing Dynasty

166-1912-CE last imperial dynasty of China achievements focused on learning, farming, road building in order to keep up with expanding population also called Manchu Dynasty noted for its initial prosperity and tumultuous final years, and for being only the second time that China was not ruled by the Han people Qianlong-preoccupied with artistic pursuits. He published over 42,000 poems, and added his poetry by hand to hundreds of pieces of historical artwork in the palace

French Revolution

1789-1815 French society: Old reigme divided into 3 estates or classes 1st: clergy- enormous wealth and privileges jobs were in govt and church collected taxes but paid no taxes 2nd: Nobles ( bourgeoisie) top jobs in govt, church, army no income, but had land did not pay taxes 3rd: commoners rural peasants and poor workers paid taxes suffered from miserable wages

Decline of the monarchy

1791 King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette tried to escape Paris an go to Austria feared more violence were arrested before they got far forced to return to paris radicals took control of assembly calling for election of new legislative body called National Convention Jacobins- radical group of national assembly wanted to abolish all previous government laws and seize land of nobles

Armenian Genocide

1915-1917 attempted extermination of huge number of Armenians at the hands of the Young Turks who inherited Turkey from the Ottoman Empire because they were Christian they were believed to be disloyal to Muslim Ottoman Empire more than 1 million people died Armenians were blamed for early defeat at hands of Russia and its allies 35 concentration campus created 1.5 Armenians killed

Holodomor

1932 and 1933, estimates say that as many of 10 million Ukrainians - almost a third of the population at the time - were killed by a devastating famine. famine was man-made, designed by Soviet leader Joseph Stalin to either eradicate private landowners or perhaps the targeting of Ukrainians as an ethnic group

Domino Theory

1954 Coined by Eisenhower and Secretary of state John Foster Dulles contain communism or all countries will fall to it becomes basis of US policy and led to communist troops in South Vietnam

Vietnam continued

1968 Nixon runs on platform of pulling out of Vietnam if elected April 1970 Invasion of Cambodia US President Nixon orders US and south Vietnamese troops to invade border areas in Cambodia and destroy supply centers cent up by North Vietnamese Invasion sparks more anti-war protests May 5 1970 National Guard fires into a group of peaceful protestors at Kent State University- 4 students killed 9 wounded= more anti-war efforts June 3 1970 Nixon announces completion of troop withdrawal

Yugoslavia Genocide

200, 000 deaths muslims, croats massacred by Bosnian serbs muslims put into concentration camps Serbs referred to this as policy of ethnic cleansing US led NATO supported bombing raid

600-18th Century Africa Ghana

500-1220 CE located West Africa Muslim influence in Kingdom large farms where cattle elephants raised absorbed by neighbor Mali

China 500-18th century Tang Dyansty

618-907 CE age of reform and invention of civil service and block painting taoism was official religion, but both used Buddhism and Confucianism neoconfucianism develops ( mix of buddhism/Confucianism) China experienced time of peace and prosperity making it one of the most powerful nations in the world control extended into Tibet and Korea upper class women could own property, move in public, remarry equal field system- effort to distribute land

China 600-18th century Song Dynasty

960-1279 CE civil service exam tribute system military and economic weaknesses inflation, nomadic invasions caused problems economic revolution- rice doubled industrial, manufacturing center, cannons, moveable type, looms, porcelain, copper coins, letters of credit, checks capital : Hangzhou cotton sails and magnetic compasses women could keep dowries but footbinding common known most for production of porcelain pottery and some of the worlds greatest paintings failure to unite China against Mongols- provided instrumental takeover of China by Mongols Mongols were led by Ghengis Khan with Grandson Kublai

Holocaust

A methodical plan orchestrated by Hitler to ensure German supremacy. It called for the elimination of Jews, non-conformists, homosexuals, non-Aryans, and mentally and physically disabled. 1941-1944 genocide 6 million jews killed in concentration camps 6 million non jews murdered gypsies, slavics, mentally/physically disabled, homosexuals, political opponents Hitler Goal: exterminate all Jews in Europe ( final solution) Nuremberg Laws- Sept 15 1935 Antisemitic and racist laws in Germany jews no longer considered German citizens Jews could not marry Aryans Jews could not fly German flags Jews defined as anyone with 3 Jewish grandparents, someone with two Jewish grandparents who identify as Jewish Kristallnacht- night of Broken Glass Nov 9 1938 night of violence against Jews- resulting destruction of hundreds of synagogues, looting of thousands jewish owned businesses, 30,000 men sent to camps Jews forced to wear yellow star of david sep 1 1941 before being sent to concentration camps Jews placed in Ghettos large ghettos in Warsaw unsanitary housing, contagious disease, no food, tens of thousands died Concentration camps: largest death camp Auschwitz in Poland most killed in gas chambers, died of starvation/exhaustion, died from experiments Auschwitz evacuation and death march evacuation Jan 17 1945 Death march Nov 8 1944- 40,000 jews marched from Budapest to Austria Auschwitz liberated Jan27 1945 by soviet troops November 20 1945 Nazi leaders charged with crime against humanity

Buddhism

A religion based on the teachings of the Buddha. appears as a rival religion in 6th century BCE by Siddhartha Guatama Guatama became known as Buddha or enlightened one 4 noble truths which teach feelings of suffering in our lives will end when we stop trying to satisfy selfish goals, overcome desire of material objects and begin to see others as extensions of ourselves 8 fold path- teaches we must overcome selfish desires for power and wealth, learn to be wise so we may reach Nirvana everlasting peace where self ends and reunites with Great World Soul Principles: understanding, intention, speech, Action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, concentration

Scientific Method

A series of steps followed to solve problems including collecting data, formulating a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, and stating conclusions.

Persia

Achaemenid empire located east of Zagros Mountains ( modern Iran) Semi-Nomadic may have herded livestock Religion: Zoroastrianism- centered dualistic cosmology of good and evil Social: different governmental provinces each ruled by governor Darius: man who built collection of cities and satraps stretching from Egypt to India Head of persian empire and reigions Economic: crops traded for resources Politics: ruled by king, caste system created Achievement and values in Ethical, Scientific, Intellectual and art developed an alphabet allowed conquered people to retain their own customs, laws, religions

Kush

Aka Nubia South of Egypt At first under Egyptian Rule Major city: Meroe- main residence center of rulers made iron weapons and tools traded ivory, gold, ebony and slaves to India, Arabia, Roman Empire Rich soil adopted Egyptian royal titles female monarch elected from royal family and ruled though law of customs that were interpreted by priests Nok people lived south and west of Sahara desert Each town had it's own king who ruled over communities of large families modern day Sudan Kerma was the most powerful Nubian city-state between about 2450 BCE and 1450 BCE culture seems to have been primarily rural, as the city of Kerma only had about 2,000 residents practiced agriculture, hunted and fished, raised livestock such as cattle and sheep, and labored in workshops that produced ceramic and metal goods

Bantu

Ancient African civilization in 1500 BCE Large number of Bantu speaking people from W Africa moved slowly towards the south and east of continent fisherman and farmers villages composed of clans moved into areas with already inhabited areas to share culture and crops brought metal working techniques with them and iron tools and weapons used their weapons if needed on new neighbors millet, sorghum, dry rice, beans, oil palms, and melons, although they did so at a subsistence level, that is they grew only sufficient crops to meet their own needs formidable military opponents. They were also hunters, animal herders (goats, sheep, and cattle), potters, weavers and traders, exchanging such goods as salt, copper, and iron ore for those things they needed.

South America pre columbian Geography

Andes Mountains

Islam

Arabia: vast desert of rock and sand Mecca: located near Red Sea, populated by nomadic wanderers called Bedouins who lived in scattered tribes near oases Religion mainly superstitious paganism and idolatry idea of monotheism foreign important square temple was called Kaaba ( cube) in Mecca Arabs made annual pilgrimages to Mecca during sacred months were warfare was prohibited Mecca considered center for Arab Religion

Greece western political and philosophical thought

Athenian form of democracy with each citizen having equal vote in his own govt ( all modern democracies based on this) Aristotle developed approach to learning that emphasized observation and thought socrates and plato contemplated the nature of being and origins of ideas of govt and political relations responsible for rise of independent strong city states during the renaissance, European scholars and artists would rediscover Ancient Greece's love for dedicated inquiry and artistic expression leading to surge in scientific discoveries and advancements in the arts

Domino effect after Archduke assassination

Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia for death and declares war July 28 1914 Germany pledges their support to Austria-Hungary Russia pledges support for Serbia Czar Nicholas II asks Kaiser Wilhelm II ( Germany) to urge Austria to soften its demands, when the plea fails, Russia begins to mobilize and prepare for war Germany declares war on Russia France pledges support for Russia Germany demands France keep out but France says no Germany declares war on France Schlieffen Plan: designed to avoid two front war against France in the West and Russia in the east- Germany first had to defeat France quickly then fight Russia Germany invades Belgium on their way to France 1914 Britain supports Belgium and declares War on Germany 1914

Industrial Revolution

Begins in Great Britain in 18th Century Life before industrial revolution: most people living in small communities in rural areas farming major economic sectors life expectacny 40 years disease common industry: domestic system, things made at home by hand private and public farmlands were not separated or fenced off- easy for many families and farmers to work land agricultural innovations: lighter plows, selective animal breeding, crop rotation, coal for energy

Persian Empire expansion

Begun under rule of Cyrus the Great later, Emperor Darius expanded Persian Empire stretching from Egypt to boundaries of India trying to conquer Greece Persian Wars: Marathon: Greeks won despite being vastly outnumbered Thermopylae- Valiant groups of Spartans held off thousands of Persian warriors for several days Salamis- Naval battle that Greeks won despite being outnumbered Platea- Greeks sealed deal by finally outnumbering Persians victories convinced the Persians not to attempt another invasion of Greece

Mesopotamia

Between Tigris and Euphrates River could support large populations because its location was idea for trade and agriculture earliest known human civilizations. Scholars believe the Agricultural Revolution started here lived in circular dwellings made of mud and brick along Tigris and Euphrates river valleys. began practicing agriculture domesticating sheep and pigs around 11,000 to 9,000 B.C. Domesticated plants, including flax, wheat, barley and lentils, first appeared around 9,500 B.C. aqueducts, temples, pottery, early systems of banking and credit, property ownership and the first codes of law.

Comparison and Contrasts French and American revolution

Both: fought for liberty of the common people against government turning points in history American: english colonists wanted freedom colonists striking back against taxation and no representation beacon of democracy French: revolt of middle and lower classes against economic excesses of rulers people starving revolted Beacon of emperor

reglobalization

Capital: foreign direct investments, company or firm in one country opens factory in another country

Berlin Wall

Built August 13 1961 Soviet Nikita Khrushchev devised E German troops to divide east and west Berlin with a concrete wall to keep country's people in

Cold War continued

By 1948 E Europe were soviet satellites, soviet dominated, communist countries W Europe were western democracies led by the US Berlin airlift June 48-Sept 49 Soviet disliked Marshall Plan and interrupted the course of food, coal, goods into Berlin soviets stopped food trains from western zones,reduced electricity and blocked shipments in response: US and Britain flew supplies to Berlin under operation Vittles results showed that the communist world was not going to grow and western countries were willing to carry out the principles of the Truman doctrine 1949 USSR develops own atomic bomb October 1 1949 Mao Zedong head of Chinese communism rebels defeats Chaing and creates alliance with Soviet's. Major defeat to US policy of containment

World War I

Causes: MANIA Militarism- policy of building strong military to prepare for war ( arms race)- race for creating more weapons of mass destruction amongst nations important build up of nations army and navy Alliance- agreements between nations to provide aid and protect one another- Europe divided into two armed and fearful camps Triple Alliance- Germany, Austria Hungary, Italy Triple Entante- France, Russia, Great Britain Nationalism- extreme pride in country first spread as result of French Revolution strong in balkan areas- each country struggled for their own independence from Ottoman Empire rule Serbia became newly independent and thought that Bosnia should be one of their territories ( Austria Hungary annexed it as one of their territories in 1908) this becomes area of conflict Imperialism- when one country takes over another country economically and politically- all most powerful nations emerged in scramble for empire to bolster economy fiercest competition between Britain and Germany, Germany and France Britain, Germany, France needed foreign markets after increase in manufacturing caused by industrial revolution crumbling of ottoman empire alluring to Austria Hungary the Balkans and Russia Assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand- Spark of WWI- killed in Bosnia by Serbian nationalist group the black hand who believed Bosnia belonged to Serbia

World war I continued

Central powers: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria Allied powers: Russia, France, Britain, Japan, US New Weapons: result from industrial revolution machine gun mustard gas- carried by wind, burned out lungs, deadly in trenches where it would sit at the bottom trench warfare- fighting in which both sides dig trenches protected by mines, barbed wire dug from the English channel to switzerland 6-8 feet deep immobilized both sides for 4 years Submarines: german subs- U Boats torpedoed enemy ships and neutral ships trading with enemies 1915 German Submarine torpedoed Lusitiania carrying 1200 people (british ship) Airplanes: SPAD VII, Curtis Jenny, Zepplins, tanks, hand grenades, flame throwers

Rome Achievements

Centralized govt Coliseum Gladiator Charity Professional army Pax Romana- long period of peace enabling free travel and trade spreading people, cultures, goods, ideas Aqueducts Roads 12 tables of law Economic: based on small holdings and paid labor slaves cheap source of labor coins made out of different metals used them for special people or events money stored in banks

Economy in the 1900s

Chemists created products such as medicine, soaps, chemical fertilizers- played big role in increasing food production assembly lines introduced in 1914 : method of production in which workers on an assembly line would add parts to a product that moves along a belt from one workstation to another- production faster and cheaper lowering price of goods 19th century brings rapid progression- begins with coaches and ended with automobiles 18th century- capitalism: economic system based on private ownership and on the investment of money in business ventures in order to make a profit free market

Nationalism China

China humiliated after being defeated in the Opium Wars and then by Japan before these defeats China thought of themselves as center of universe, idea was to strengthen China Anti-western sentiment central to movements like Boxer Rebellion destruction of anything foreign boxers killed many Europeans and Chinese Christians attacked foreign embassies in Beijing communist revolution deemed a nationalism revolution previous efforts to borrow from West to achieve wealth and power failed China becomes weaker and poorer continous civil wars main contribution to nationalism; frustration with Qing Dyansty's ineffectiveness in protecting China

Byzantine Empire continued

Christian Church became known as Eastern Orthodox Church 700 CE Byzantine emperor outlawed praying to icons because he thought it violated Gods commandments people outlawed the Byzantine empire from Church 2 forms of Christianity emerges: Roman Catholic in west and Eastern Orthodox in Byzantine Empire by 12th century Byzantine empire expands again Crusades start and growing threats from Turkish Ottoman empire eventually get the best of them Empire taken over by Turks in 1453 Major contributions: preservation of Greek and Roman achievements in architecture, the code of Justinian, Roman law Economic dev: constantinople center for silk road imports/exports Cultural dev: Eastern Orthodox Church emerges Pope and Patriarch mutually excommunicated each other 1054 Eastern Orthodoxy spreads to Russia and Slavic people of Eastern Europe

Political goals end of WWI

Democracy German Weimar Republic President- elected every 7 years , controlled armed forces, stayed out of day to day running of country, appoints chancellor who is responsible for day to day running of the country chosen from Reichstag ( parliament) by president, needed support of more than half Reichstage voted on new laws, members elected every 4 years through a system proportional representation( small parties chance to have say) members elected by the people- all men and women over age of 20 can vote, all adults have equal rights and right of free speech Russia: communism- socialist govt emerged by Vlad Lenin when Lenin died Stalin and Trotsky became top candidates for this position Stalin gains control of communist party introduces 5 year plan - course was to take place from 1928-1932 objective: rapid industrialization of Russia introduced socialized farming elimination of private enterprise development of education and transporation

India Hinduism

Developed in Indus Valley Reincarnation Dharma- rules and obligations Karma- fate based on how dharma was met Gods are manifestations from Brahman- first God of 3 that is responsible for creation, upkeep, destruction of world Brahman: creator Moshka- highest state of being Caste system: rigid social class one is born into and performing certain jhobs

Cuban Missile Crisis

Distrust between the US and USSR heightened by missile gap, Bay of Pigs, Berlin Wall October 14 1962 USSR missiles uncovered by U-2 Spy plane missiles being installed in Cuba Kennedy demanded Soviets withdraw missiles right away 8 days later and announced naval quarantine of Cuba Khrushchev agreed only in return for US not to invade Cuba and dismantle the missles Khrushchev and Kennedy signed Limited Test Ban Treaty- no nuclear testing allowed

Consequences of WWII

Divided Germany Decided at Yalta conference 1945 feb Berlin as well as rest of Germany to be divided into 4 pieces and controlled by Britain, France, United States, Soviet Union Western Half- democratic( fed republic germany)_ Eastern half- Communist ( german democratic republic) United nations created 1945- international organization aimed at resolving disputes and maintaining peace after war most powerful nations- US, France, Russia, China World Bank international monetary fund- designed to regulate global economy and prevent another world wide depression

Paleolithic Era 2,500, 000 BCE - 10,000BCE

Earliest period of human history Old Stone Age Simple tools made from hard stones: hand axes, spearheads bow and arrow harpoons & Fishhooks baskets to gather and carry food small statues from stone and ivory bone flutes hunter gatherers: men hunters, women gatherers moved from place to place in small groups: nomads had no permanent homes, built new shelters wherever they went, followed grazing animals art used for communication: telling stories, hunting strategies draw on cave walls animal fat for paint

Expansion and Role of Christianity in medieval and early modern Europe

Early Modern Europe became Christian with the fall of Rome, unified Europe, Church became powerful Roman Catholic: popes become leaders other members of church such as bishops retained great degree of power church battled for power with kings church was only place where people could become educated bible and other books were hand copied by monks in monastaries Cathedrals built and decorated with religious art

Byzantine Empire

Eastern Roman Empire that outlasted Roman Empire by hundreds of years Capital: constantinople powerful center of trade until its fall in 1400s Justinian one of greatest Emperors he had a team work together to sift through Roman laws to make sense of them team developed Justinian Code: organized collection of Roman laws with explanations basically how to manual on democracy and law making Byzantines preserved traditions of Greek and Roman cultures decorated churches with Frescoes, Paintings, mosaics, preserved ancient texts in libraries Justinian conquered North Africa, Palestine, Syria empire became too large to protect Rise of Islam 600s unified Arab groups grew throughout empire taking over Syria/Palestine 700s empire only included eastern Balkans and Asia minor Greek christian state

Russian Revolution 1917

Economic peasants are the majority food and fuel shortage workers striking inefficient transportation systems Political: enormous losses after WWI disbandment and violation of the promised civil liberties in the October Manifesto autocracy weakness of the czar- believed to be incompetent, listened to wife Alexandra who was influenced by Rasputin spread of marxist ideas characteristic leaders ( Lennon , Trotsky) Social: extreme in classes deprivation resulting from WWI prices went up and peasants could not afford to buy bread failure of first Duma Results: Lenin, Stalin, Trotsky won support of the peasants with the promise of peace, land, bread Lenin and Bolshevik party gained support of red guard and overthrew provisional government gaining control of Russia

Greece Continued

Economic: relied on imported goods Political structure: four common systems of government though different city states Democracy- ruled by the people Monarchy- ruled by individual who inherited role Oligarchy- ruled by select group of individuals Tyranny- ruled by individual who seized power by unconstitutional means Achievements: philosophy- Socrates, Plato, Aristotle foundation for western Philosophy modern day Olympic Games Alphabet Military (from Sparta) Athletics ( from Sparta) Pythagros and Euclid laid foundation of Geometry Archimedes calculated value of Pi Herodotus and Thucydides first to apply research interpretation to written history art and sculptures

Vietnam War continued

Feb 8 1970 Invasion of Laos under orders from Nixon US and South Vietnamese ground troops with support of B-52 bombers invade southern Laos in effort to stop the North Vietnamese supply routes through Laos and South Vietnam This action is done without the consent of Congress and causes more anti-war protests January 27 1973 cease fire arranged after peace talks March 29 1973 last American ground troops leave, fighting begins again between North and South Vietnam but US does not return 58,000 Americans killed 1 million Vietnamese Killed April 30 1975 South Vietnam surrenders to North Vietnam as North Vietnamese troops entered Saigon, now Ho Chi Minh City

Sumeria 4000 BCE

First civilization in Mesopotamia Relied on annual floods to deposit rich soil into riverbanks every spring may have been the first human civilization anywhere in the world. They called themselves the Sag-giga, the "black-headed ones." among the first to use bronze. pioneered use of levees and canals for irrigation. Sumerians invented cuneiform script, one of the earliest forms of writing. built large stepped pyramids: ziggurats. Epic of Gilgamesh, surprise floods convinced other forces at works (gods) Polytheistic obeying and serving Gods= good harvest

The Mayans

First great civilization of Americas lasting 2000 years in Central America at southeast top of Mexico farmed using a slash and burn technique setting the tree stumps on fire, ashes used as fertilizer for new crops on cleared land successfully grew crops ( beans, papayas, avocado, corn) created large temple pyramids in present day Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Mexico topped the pyramids with shrines to the Gods and surrounded them with other temples and palaces believed all life came from hands of the divine and offered Gods human sacrifices planning religious festivals helped their development of calendar based on seasons developed system of hieroglyphics writing books made from barks of trees Diverse geography- Humid Tropics, dry desert, high mountain terrain, low costal plans polytheistic Social: city states, social structures political structure- Emperor Achievements: urbanization, irrigation, Monumental building

China 600-18th century Mongol Empire

Genghis Kahn conquerer and Kublai uniter both extended boarders of their empire at its height the empire was largest the world has ever seen encompassing all of China, Russia, Persia, Central Asia included tribes of Turkish descent major military achievements: superior strategy and tactics, chiefly composed of cavalry which afforded them a high degree of mobility and speed, directed by signals and a well-organized messenger service, bows and arrows man-to-man fighting after disorganizing the enemy's ranks customary for the Mongols to enslave a conquered tribe political divisions were entirely disregarded. central power rested with the khan highly hierarchized military organization no political or administrative counterpart.

North America Geography people

Geography: hospitable landscape to settlement and exploration few mountain ranges and handful of wide rivers people- hunter/gatherers- depending on region they hunted for buffalo, deer, small mammals some tribes grew food and established semi permanent communities- crops: corn, squash, pumpkin, beans tribes living near water fished

600-18th Century Japan

Geography: protected from invasion- Sea of Japan society focused on emperor and farm feudalism system developed- emperors became symbol where Shoguns had power economy flourished ruled by artisans most people worked on land some manufacturers and traders influenced by China- religion: buddhism, system of writing, Calendar shogunates distributed land to loyal followers and these estates (shoen) were then supervised by officials such as the jito (stewards) and shugo (constables)

Herero and Namaqua genocide

German campaign of racial extermination and collective punishment in Namibia. 1904 and 1908, tens of thousands of Herero and Namaqua people were killed in what is now Namibia German general in charge of the region ordered that the indigenous people should be "annihilated" or, if this was not possible, expelled from the land Unarmed men, women and children were killed by German troops, and huge numbers of Herero and Namaqua people were sent to concentration camps as a form of collective punishment. It's now thought that as many as 70,000 Herero and 7,000 Namaqua died

WWI Wilson Fourteen Point Plan

Goal: create lasting peace in Europe First Five Points: focused on eliminating the cause for war through: free trade, freedom of seas, disarmament, impartial adjustment of secret agreements Next 8: focus on right of national self determination- borders of countries should be base on ethnicity and national idenity believed that groups of people who feel that they were a nation should be allowed to be their own country called for all territory that had been taken from another nation to be returned Called for League of Nations: to preserve peace through mutual pledge to respect and protect each other's territory and political independence

Rome western political and philosophical thought

Greek civilization served as inspiration for Roman Republic which followed tradition of democracy and directly influenced by its achievements in art and science Judeo-Christian traditions: Roman emperors began to believe Christianity was dangerous cult that had broken away from Judaism the ancient Israelites and Christians created powerful legacy of political and philosophical traditions, much of which survives to today in law and religion especially we can draw more or less straight line from then to now 10 commandments: societal instructions, provided written record of laws so all knew what was prohibited civilization of Israel known as first to assume worship of just one God monotheism Christian communities built on this tradition and both faiths exist and are expanding today especially in western countries Israelites and Christians believed in just one God and the divine being was the one true God and lord over all, worship of one god more personal nature and result believers thought they were able to talk, pray directly to god

Hinduism

Hinduism: 1500 BCE from blending of Aryan beliefs with the cultures of original settlers of India, according to belief there is one prevailing spiritual power that lives in everything many gods and goddesses beliefs found in the Upanishads- collection of sacred texts that describe Hindu philosophy beliefs include reincarnation, karma determines how soul is reborn Perfect life= free from cycle of death and rebirth becoming one with Brahman (spiritual center of universe) believers must obey Dharma or divine law of religious and moral duties unique to each person

Bay of Pigs

In Cuba, Fidel Castro led revolution to end dictatorship in Cuba of Batista and set up a communist government in 1959 set up alliance with USSR January 1961 Eisenhower cut diplomatic relations with Cuba and began training Cuban soldiers in Guatemala to invade Cuba and lead uprising against communism April 17 1961 an invasion force landed on Bay of Pigs but Castro's forces quickly defeated the rebels killing 300 and capturing 1200 Kennedy refused to land US troops in Cuba and provide air support in order to avoid war

India

India separated from other countries in Asia by Himalayas- small gaps in the walls of mountains allowed people to pass though and settle in places like Indus River Valley Indus River and Ganges river create fertile land for farming and their banks became sites of 2 major cities Cities carefully laid out on a grid citadel ( fortress) on each of city's highest point protected most important buildings had advanced draining systems for cities traded with Sumer Aryans moved into the land 1500 BCE- moved from central Asia and mixed with original inhabitants of Indus valley creating new culture spreading to Ganges Sanskrit developed- rig verda oldest ext language in ( religious) document caste system organization- no upward mobility for individuals: people born to servant parents always servants caste system 4 parts: Brahman ( priests) Kshatriya( warriors) Vaisya ( merchants/landowners) Sudra ( commoners, peasants, servants)

Conflicts middle east

Iran and Iraq fight in a war 1980s Iraq invades Kuwait in the 1990s Iranian Revolution 1979 - transformed the constitutional monarchy into Islamic populist theocratic republic The Shah- protest from people 1978 revolution about less foreign influence and greater distribution of wealth ethnic strife make middle east unstable Religious conflicts: Israel and Palestine- goes back to the beginning of Islam in 7th century, muslims claim Jerusalem as holy city Conflict between Palestinians and Arabs of Egypt and Syria

Middle East Politics: Iran, Afghanistan, Taliban

Iran: republic in which the president, parliament (Majles) and judicial system share powers reserved to the national government, according to its Constitution, combines elements of theocracy and presidential democracy. Afghanistan: consists of the council of ministers, provincial governors and the national assembly, with a president serving as the head of state and commander-in-chief of the Afghan Armed Forces Taliban:Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan are a Sunni Islamic fundamentalist political movement and military organization in Afghanistan currently waging war (an insurgency, or jihad) within that country, ideology has been described as combining an "innovative" form of sharia Islamic law based on Deobandi fundamentalism and the militant Islamism and Salafi jihadism of Osama bin Laden

Zimmerman Telegram

January 1917 German official Arthur Zimmerman sent telegram to German's ambassador in Mexico telegram proposed a deal that if Mexico joined with Germany in the war with the US , Germany promised to restore Mexico's lost territory in Texas, NM, and Arizona British intelligence intercepted the letter and leaked it to the US papers Furious US concluded the war with Germany necessary April 2 1917 President Wilson appeared before special session of congress declaring world must be made safe for democracy congress passes the war resolution which allowed the US to officially enter the war

Korean War

June 25 1950- July 1953 At the Potsdam Conference big 3 agree to divide Korea at 38th parallel China claims any advances over 38th will be considered attack on China 1st conflict test for America and containment June 25 1950- North Korea makes a surprise attack Soviets back North Korea seeking to unify the nation as communist ( UN war) UN Forces under MacArthur were successful in driving N Korea forces at start of the war and wanted to rid China of communism Truman says no China upset by this decision pushes the US back into South July 1953 US Claims victory and UN says they will keep South Korea free of communism but the North stay with Soviet and communism

Umyyad Family

Later became Caliphs ruled for nearly a century strongest support in Syria, the capital later moved from Medina to Damascus More devout muslims unhappy with their rule people turned to Abbasid family

Feudalism Europe and Japan similarities

Lived by code- Knights: code of chivalry Samurai- Bushido code social classes: Europe: king- noble- knight- peasant Japan: Emperor-Shogun-Daiymo-Samurai-peasants Paid for service in land peasants guided by religious leaders art and architecture served both religion and powerful earthly leaders

Greece

Made up of little islands and slim peninsula bunched together in one big cluster made it hard for people from different islands to connect to each other Minoans- successful traders who lived on Island of Crete around 3000-1400BCE had elegant palaces in ancient city of Knossos civilization declined when invaders from mainland Greece tookover 1400 BCE Mycenaeans- lived on the mainland used writing, Linear B easiest from of written Greek Greeks worshipped family of Gods and Goddesses led by Zeus and Hera (king and queen of God) gods ruled different areas of life Greeks believed that most powerful gods formed family called the Olympians Greeks visited sacred sites : Oracles- shrine where a prophecy is revealed through a priest or priestess, an oracle also refers to priest or priestess who could speak with the Gods Greeks built temples in many cities and celebrated Gods in many festivals dominated by the male citizens, had full legal status, right to vote held public office, owned property

Decolonization

Many African and Asian colonies and protectorates gained independence of their colonizers independence of India, Pakistan from Britain 1045 marked beginning of decolonization movement that would last until 1960 role of nationalism was important in reorganizing to be politically and economically stable Nationalism Nation building- process of organizing new nations from remains of former colonies, not always stable, contains ethnic conflicts, lots of migration international organizations- United Nations- deployed peacekeeping troops and imposed sanctions as well as maintained restrictions on member states Global migration- many jews left Germany and and went to the US and Israle WWII let millions of people displaced and caused immense refugee populations

Rome: The Second Triumvirate

Marc Antony, Octavian, Lepidus Octavian given title of Augustus( highly respected) by senate in 27BCE Republic was over after 500 years and Rome had empire and Augustus first emperor

Karl Marx communism

Marx viewed industrial capitalism as unstable system that was doomed to collapse this would create a classless socialist society believed that this society would forever end the conflict between rich and poor idea inspired socialist movements of workers and intellectuals throughout Europe created socialist political parties Marxism: Communist Manifesto: theorizes that economics was the driving force in history haves and have nots would mark end of struggling because of the power would be equally shared contested elections and agitated for reform

Warsaw Pact 1955

May 14 1955 political and military alliance between Soviet Union and several E European countries formed counterbalance to NATO

U2 Crisis 1960

May 1st 1960 Soviets shoot down American U2 spy plane illegally flying in Russian airspace America's mission was to take picture of Soviet missile sites pilot Francis Gary Powers

Islam after Mohammed

Mohammed dies 632 Ce followers gather all writings based on his divine revelations ( surahs) delivered angel Gabriel Published Quran ( Koran) considered holy script of Islam 5 pillars: Shahada: The profession of Faith, oneness and omnipotence of God ( Allah) mohammed prophet of Allah to whom all truths have been revealed to each of the previous Prophets ( adam, noah, abraham, moses, jesus) a part of truth revealed Salat: one should pray 5 times a day ( dawn, noon, mid afternoon, sunset, after dark, facing mecca) Zakat: donating a fixed portion of income to community members in need Sawm: fasting from sunrise to sunset every day during holy month of Ramadan to clear spirit Hajj: pilgrimage to Mecca should be made at least once if possible if no one suffers thereby Mohammad successor Abu Bakr given title of Caliph became ruler of Islamic community

Rome Empire Expansion

Most successful ancient Empire building itself from Western coast of Italy to worldwide empire stretching from Scotland to middle east imported and exported goods fall of the Roman Empire: the emperor Commodus began ruling 180 BCE Commodus disregarded the senate bribed army to stand by him his successor followed this pattern Rome faced problems like having to pay mercenary armies who had no loyalty to empire, inflation, ( making too many valueless coins) fighting off plagues, and fighting to keep land they conquered Germanic Tribes conquered most of Europe 5 major tribes: Visigoths, Ostrogoths, Vandales, Saxons, Franks

Impact of Geography for medieval and early modern times

Mountains and rivers formed boundaries for ancient civilizations transportation began opening world

Soviet-Afghanistan War Continued

Mujahideen soldiers fighting for their homeland and their religion, they were fierce fighters and had many good places the hide in the mountains there was little success for the Soviet Union their army no longer seemed invincible to the world The Soviets came under increasing international pressure, The war was condemned by the UN, US pulled out of SALT ( strategic Arms Limitation Treaty) treaty talks, US boycotted 1980 Olympics in Moscow Mikhail Gorbachev became leader of Soviet Union and wanted the war to end 1st tried to increase Soviet troops to end war quickly did not work 1988 Gorbachev realized war was costing Soviet troops and hurting their economy, he signed a peace treaty to end the war. Soviet troops departed on Feb 15 1989

North America pre columbian religion

Myths and legends that explained creation of world polytheistic

John Locke

Natural rights rights are given to a person at birth life, liberty, pursuit of happiness put emphasis on human rights and believed that when government violated rights of the people they should rebel wrote Two Treatises of Government in 1680 that stated people create the government to protect their natural rights, government is responsible to the people if the government does not do its job then the people have a right to overthrow it

Neolithic Era 10,000-3000 BCE

New Stone Age systematic agriculture in this time marked change to more sedentary life style ( stay one place) Neolithic Revolution: agricultural revolution humans transitioned from hunting and gathering to agriculture led to sedentary communities, the establishment of social classes and rise of civilization fundamental change in the way humans live kept animals and grew food on regular basis recurring reliable harvests farmers started planting staple crops: rely the most on domestication of plants- farmers chose seeds from biggest and best looking/tasting plants, repeat for harvest Animal domestication irrigation systems- series of canals built to bring water to land food surplus- feeding more people so communities could expand, did not have to follow herds

Space Race

October 4 1957 USSR Sputnik launched into space to circle Earth US Failed in trying to keep up USSR puts dog in space and was looking to explore new frontier- America's priority under Kennedy 1961 USSR successfully launches Uri Gagarin into space Kennedy sees it as a threat to the US and commits US to do the same July 20 1969 Apollo 11 lands on the moon Neil Armstrong puts a flag on the moon

Middle East Strategic Importance

Oil Trade routes geography and terrain Northern Africa: Maghreb Region located in the Mediterranean Sea and serves as access point to the atlantic ocean Arabian Peninsula: contains oasis (fertile desert supporting animals and plants) contains large amount of oil, birth place of Islam and Mecca Fertile Crescent - rich soil, abundant water Nile Valley- Nile River protected by deserts making it hard to conquer the region, annual flooding Iranian Peninsula- birthplace of several empires Northern Tier: connects Europe and Asia, strategic location that controls the black sea faith and ideology

Assyria 1400 BCE

One of first empires in Mesopotamia began modestly at the city of Ashur located in Mesopotamia north-east of Babylon, merchants who traded in Anatolia became increasingly wealthy and that affluence allowed for the growth and prosperity of the city. Semitic people originally spoke/wrote Akkadian before the easier to use Aramaic language considered the greatest of the Mesopotamian empires due to its expanse and the development of the bureaucracy and military strategies which allowed it to grow and flourish trade colony of Karum Kanesh (the Port of Kanesh) was among the most lucrative centers for trade in the ancient Near East trade colony of Karum Kanesh (the Port of Kanesh) was among the most lucrative centers for trade in the ancient Near East Old Assyrian" period generally refers to the time after Assyria first gained independence-Erishum I,Ashur-nadin-ahhe II Middle Assyrian-Ashur-uballit I, Tiglath-Pileser II Neo-Assyrian-Adad-nirari II,Ashur-uballit II, first army to have a separate engineering unit, which would set up ladders and ramps, fill in moats, and dig tunnels to help the soldiers get into a walled city. They were also among the first to build chariots, which provided greater protection on the battlefield Sargon is recognized as one of the most important Neo-Assyrian kings due to his role in founding the Sargonid dynasty, which would rule the Neo-Assyrian Empire until its fall less than a century after Sargon's death. developed system of communication with horses and riders delivering messages across empire kept king in contact with governors Nineveh capital city center for learning defeated by Medes, Persians, Scythians

Paths to colonial status China and southern Asia and pacific

Opium War 1893 Britain defeated China 1842 China is forced to accept Treaty of Nanjing- Britain gets payment for losses and control of Hong Kong Taiping Rebellion- Quing Dynasty in decline, as poverty and misery increased peasants rebelled Sino-Japanese war causes Japan to take over Taiwan Boxer Uprising- Chinese wanted foreigners out of China Southern Asia and Pacific: America took over Hawaii by people's choice and overthrew the queen Spain seized Philippines to spread christianity, America got involved by accident when its ships destroyed Spain's led America in control of philippines

China

People settled around Yellow River/Valley of Huang He land was fertile throughout great monsoons successful agriculture used crop rotation and terrace farming became proficient in rice growing 1/3 mountains Vast Deserts- Gobi Desert this isolated China from other early civilization prevented cultural diffusion, promoted national identity Shang Dynasty- built first cities 1760 BCE, divided into territories and governed by officials dynasties passed down from ruling power from one generation to another Bronze work and expert toolmaking flourished First Chinese writing system invented: characters used to represent words Farming under aristocratic control- aristocrats relied on land for wealth and passed power on from generation to generation farmers supplied local food to noblemen in exchange for protection Chinese created sailboat rudder, manufactured steel, and made paper from wood pulp medical advances like acupuncture Religion: taoism, Confucianism, Daoism, Legalism Rulers believed they were destined to rule by mandate from heaven - rulers considered to be link between heaven and earth virtuous rule to please gods could be 5 generations living together

Solidarity movement

Poland was USSR's most troublesome satellite and wanted freedom Lech Walesa led political struggles against Poland's political regimes started a labor union = solidarity in sept 1980 as result of food shortages, low wages, poor working conditions called for a free election in 1981 Soviets warned Poland not to do this By end of 1981 Solidarity was outlawed

Formation of Islam

Prophet Muhammad born in 571 CE in Mecca 610 CE Mohammed began teaching and speaking publicly about the world of God and heard from the angel Gabriel called his new religion Islam Submission to the will of God followers called muslims- those who submit Muslims met with persecution from Pagan Arabians around Mecca 622 Mohammed and his close followers fled the city and found refuge in Medina ( later become political capital) his fight was called Hegira this event marks beginning of Muslim calendar 630 CE Muslims return to Mecca Mecca became religious center of Islam which all Muslims turn to pray

North America political pre columbian

Pueblo Tribe Southeast chose own chiefs and oldest representative government in the world Iroquois confederacy- aka league of 5 nations made up of Cayuga, Mowhak, Oneida, Onondaga, Senneca council of 50 chiefs elected by clan mothers agreed on laws and customs of confederacy called the Book of the Great Law Made decisions on how to deal with outsider tribes or Europeans each year tribe representatives would meet to restate laws and settle differences

Renaissance

Rebirth rekindling of interest in glory of ancient classical Roman and Greek civilizations Begins in Italy medici family referred to as Godfathers of the Renaissance because they encouraged great artists and thinkers Feudal system declined and replaced by a focus on arts and intellectual development cultural revolution expanded people's world views and encouraged exploration

Reformation

Reformation: separation of the Christian Church into Protestant and Catholic during 16th Century came due to dissatisfaction with Catholic Church reform the church Began in 1517 when German Monk Martin Luther protested about the Catholic Church, his followers became known as protestants Two phases: protestant revolution and Catholic Reformation

Egypt

Rich soil, gentle annual flooding established water management Due to limited rainfall, new irrigation techniques had to be developed to allow growth of food like barley, lentil, figs papyrus was important crop for paper, ropes, sandals Flax used to make linen for clothing ruled by 31 different dynasties over 3000 years Old Kingdom- Pyramids built for burial of pharos and families, great sphinx statue to protect pyramid Middle Kingdom: stable period of expansion- Kush conquered New Kingdom- Queen Hatsheput ruled encouraging trade with cities in other parts of Africa this exchange introduced ivory and incense Thutmose III ruled leading army of 20,000 to extend control into Syria and Palestine King Tut's body was mummified-believed that the soul could continue in life after death gained knowledge of anatomy and surgery new kingdom collapsed in 1070 BCE Alexander the Great conquered Egypt in 332 BCE Ramses the great signed first word peace treaty Pharaohs ruled Egypt with absolute power Polytheistic- Gods and Goddesses associated with heavenly bodies and natural forces sun and land held special status

Feudalism Japan Differences

Shintoism and Zen Buddhism Trade flourished and had surplus of food can move up in social class if you married someone higher up Samurai had light armor and swords very sharp Samurai committed suicide instead of being captured or facing defeat Women had many rights

Impact of Geography Africa

South of the Sahara developed the refining use of iron for farm implements and weapons trading overland and seaports Arabian influence contact with Indians, Christian Nubians and Persians was key to spread of assimilation and cultural growth

Impact of Geography Pre Columbian America North

Spread out more with occasional conflicts had thriving and connected society maintained sovereignty, unlike S America with strongest tribes assuming control of lives and resources nearby Natives: had spiritual and personal relationship with spirits of nature struggled against each other for control of resources such as food, water, but no concept of ownership of land, mastered growing crops

Plato

Studied under Socrates wrote "The Republic" believed society should be divided 3 groups: workers, soldiers, philosophy rulers taught students how to live by code of ethics that would lead to moral happy life wrote everything down about reality, objects, war, govt, justice, soceity founded and taught Athenian School " The Academy" to train govt leaders

Causes of WWII

Terms of Treaty of Versailles at end of WWI were harsh on Germany failure of appeasement rise of totalitarianism and aggression of expansion in Germany and Japan failure of League of Nations to keep world peace Global economic crisis of 1930s January 1933 Hitler becomes Chancellor of Germany- Nazi Party or Third Reich take power March 1936 Hitler enters Rhineland- previously demilitarized by Treaty of versailles October 1936 Hitler and Mussolini sign Rome-Berlin Axis 1937 Japan invades China March 1938 German Anschluss with Austria after invasion anschluss to unite Sep 1939 Germany invades Poland WWII begins September 1939 Britain and France declare war on Germany May 10-June 22 1940 Germany uses quick strikes blitzkrieg to take over much of western europe including netherlands, belgium, northern Freance May 30 1940 Winston Churchill becomes leader of britain June 10 1940 Italy enters war as member of axis powers July 10 1940 Germany launches air attack on Britain lasts until october June 22 1941 Germany, Italy, Japan, sign Tripartite Pact creating the axis Dec 7 1941 Japan attacks pearl harbor- US enters war next day June 4 1942 Us Navy defeats Japan at midway Sept 3 1943 italy surrenders to allies june 6 1944 D Day- allied forces invade beaches of normany and push back germans may 8 1945 V E Day- Germany surrenders to allies August 6 1945 US drops atomic bomb Heroshima August 9 1945 US drops bomb on Nagasaki Sept 2 1945 Japan Surrenders to US

reglobalization short term movement of capital

investors buy foreign currencies or stocks, likely to increase value and sell them quickly after

Jainism

The Jain religion teaches salvation by perfection through successive lives, and noninjury to living creatures, and is noted for its ascetics. religion of self-help. There are no gods or spiritual beings that will help human beings. The three guiding principles of Jainism, the 'three jewels', are right belief, right knowledge and right conduct. The supreme principle of Jain living is non violence (ahimsa).

south america pre columbian Mayans

The Olmecs were earliest people Mayans- most advanced civilization present day Guatemala each city had own chief who believed to be half man half god developed writing system, built pyramids, famous for calendar and math Social structure: hereditary nobility ( sacred ceremonies and assisted rulers) craftsman ( made goods for nobility) Farmers ( common people)

Invasion of Grenada

The small Caribbean island headed by Maurice Bishop begins to develop a relationship with Fidel Castro 1979 this was seen as threat to President Reagan Bishop was executed in October of 1983 Reagan ordered the invasion of Grenada to restore order and stop spread of communism American victory

Raping of Nanking

To break Chinese resistance after Sino-Japanese War, Japanese General Matsui Iwane ordered the city of Nanking to be destroyed 150,000 male war prisoners were murdered marched more than 60 miles with little food or water (Bataan Death March), beatings 20,000 women and girls were raped many mutilated and killed in the process after WWII Matsui was found guilty of war crime and executed

Zhou Dynasty

Took control around 1050 BCE and ruled nearly 800 years kings built forts and walls to defend their land against others divided into territories and governed by officials states fought each other for power during the Warring States (475-221BCE) First emperor of China the Qin Ruler Shih Huang-di Shih Huang Di began construction of great wall of China wall was built by millions of poor workers which led to uprising by both army and peasants after Shih's death

Rise of Totalitarianism

Totalitarian leaders are dictators who control all aspects of government and lives of citizens Nationalism tools for dictators to gain and maintain power state control of individual- demands loyalty, denies basic liberties/rights, expects personal sacrifice for good of the sate Ideology: sets goals for the state, glorified aims of the sate Dynamic leader- unites people, symbolizes govt, encourages popular support through force of will Dictatorship one party rule- exercises absolute authority, dominates govt, gets rid of any opposing political party state control of society- business, labor, housing, education modern technology- mass communication to spread propaganda, advanced military weapons methods of enforcement- police terror, indoctrination, censorship, persecution Leaders 20th century: Hitler, Mussolini, Stalin, Kim II Sung

Rwandan Genocide

Tutsi always favored by the Europeans over the Hutu- given better jobs, special treatment, education Rwanda given independence by Belgium in 1959 decolonization freed underlying ethnic tensions of the people Hutu majority wins the election and uses power to take away right/power from the Tutsi minority Violence Breaks out many Tutsi flee the nation 1985 Rwandan Patriotic Front is created to fight for the Tutsi's rights Civil war breaks out in the 1990 ends in 1993 Hutu army and government begin to gather arms and train military in preparation for mass killings April 6 1994 President Juvenal Habyariamana assassinated Radicals round up Tutusi's and some Hutus and kill 1 million in July 1994 RPF seizes control of the capital ending genocide

Paths colonial status Latin America

US interest because of bananas, coffee, sugar, tobacco British interested because of wool, wheat, beef, nitrates for fertilizers and explosives Power struggle in Mexico- mexico wins independence from Spain in 1821 and becomes republic in 1823 but political conflict causes violence- Santa Ana comes in, overthrown by group of reformers and exiled in 1855 Juarez Reform: leader of the reform, civil war errupts Second Mexican Empire: Napoleon wanted to restore French empire in Americas 1861 Napoleon sends french troops to Mexico and installs Austrial archduke Maximillian as emperor of Mexico Republic is restored and France withdraws troops, Maximillean does not have enough support to stay in power Juarez is reelcted and republic is restored US sends troops into several nations ( Haiti, Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, Cuba) 1900s to restore civil peace US takes financial control of these countries claiming to prevent financial chaos US used Roosevelt Corollary to become more politically involved in Latin America US Gains Puerto Rico, Guam, Philippines after Spanish AMerican war Panama Canal finished in 1914 Us gains control of economic holdings in Latin America, Latin America no longer totally independent US gains interests in other islands for economic goals

US Economy WWI

Us spends 32 billion raised income tax rates imposed extra taxes on arms factories profit

Prerequisites of civilization

Use of metal rather than stone for weapons and tools system of writing agriculture shared religion of philosophies labor or social division political organization territorial state or system organized on the basis of residence in the geographical region economic system record keeping

Discovery of the new world

a refugee from poverty, persecution, and better life increased traveling led to growth of cities first Europeans in the new world were Norsemen led by Eric the Red and later his son Lief the Lucky

WWI economy

allies blamed central powers ( mainly germany ) and ordered they pay reparations for war damage US after the War soldiers returned home as heroes, American Legion is created to aid vets 2 million men however now needed jobs war factories shutting down to retool for peace time production workers from war factories being to be laid off inflation: prices went up more than 15% in 1919

State of France ( French Revolution)

almost bankrupt, govt in serious debt supported American revolution which doubled their debt commoners upset with higher prices of goods and increased costs of living people dying of starvation riots breaking out over bread 2nd estate wanted more political power King Louis XVI wanted to reform the tax system to make it more equal and efficent called into session estates general: ancient representative body consisting of representatives from the 3 estates each estate got one vote 1st and 2nd estates could easily outvote third estate and voted against tax reforms 3rd estate thought unfair and wanted to reform govt so that votes based on each representative not on each estate king refused became he didnt want the lowest class to control everything 3rd estate breaks away forming its own organization called National Assembly

Reign of terror

begins after execution of Louis XVI led by Maximilien Robespierre and his committee of public safety committee of public safety: created by national convention to protect France against enemies ( foreign and domestic) and to oversee govt traitors and enemies of revolution beheaded 40,000 people killed in one year Robespierre arrested- accused of leading France into tyranny and dictatorship beheaded 1794 death marked end of reign of terror another constitution created 1795 restored order in France

Nationalism Japan

begins in second half of 19th century when Japan had its first contact with West before this time it had been isolated from outside world in attempt to shield its civilians from threat posed by Christianity 1853 American naval officer Matthew Perry arrives on shores of Japan with several US steamships determined to get Japan to open up for US trade intimidated by the ships and mindful about what happened in China when they attempted to resist the west, Tokugawa Yoshinobu ( ruler of Shogun) signs treaty of Kanagawa with the US 1854 Political power transferred from Meiji ( enlightened emperor) government promoted national unity Japan defeats China in Sino-Japense war promoting itself as world power with an empire

Thomas Hobbes

believed absolute monarchy was the best form of govt violence and disorder was natural to humans wrote book Leviathan about state in which people live without government results were brutal and total chaos believed that people did not have the right to rebel against the government or ruler

First Empire

believed to be in Mesopotamia started by Akkadians, led by Sargon Nebuchadnezzar leader of Chaldeans in Babylon known for capture and transport of ancient Israelites Hittites and Assyrians

English scientist Isaac Newton

below average student at Cambridge University explored most complicated mathematics of his day studied copernicus and Galileo 1655 plague closed his university and was forced to go home to his family sitting in his garden saw apple fall from tree helped him develop his theory of gravity 1687 published theories about gravity- gravity prevents objects from flying off the earth, also holds the solar system together formulated modern laws of motion and mechanics developed calculus- system of math calculating changing forces or quantities proved math could be used to explain the universe

Industrial Revolution industrial developments

bessemer process: converts iron to steel sturdier metal became more workable Steam locomotive: invented by Robert Fulton- eventually leads to building of railraods

Italian Mathematician Galileo Galilei

best known for his defense of the heliocentric ( sun centered ) idea improved the telescope to make it more powerful observed sunspots, mountains on the moon, jupiter's moons created pendulum clock 1636 published ideas on physics, astronomy book banned by Catholic Church faced heating opposition from the Catholic Church placed under house arrest for 50 years made most of his discoveries here

American Revolution continued

boston massacre- 5 colonists killed Boston tea party- dumping of tea into the harbor dressed as natives Declaration of Independence- inalienable rights: life, liberty, pursuit of happiness these rights cannot be taken away government created by contract between people and govt if govt fails, people can overthrow it listed the colonists grievances with King George III John Hancock was the first to sign the declaration

North America pre columbian Social

boundaries determined by treaties language: 200 languages and 1500 dialects, communication between tribes based on elaborate system of sign language no exact system of writing

India 500-18th Century Guptas

brought prosperity and international recognition to their people great believers in science, math- invented decimal system and used concept of zero first to make cotton and calico very advanced medical practices their inventions and innovations creating high demand for Indian goods throughout Asia and Europe patriarchal society

Akkadia 2234-2279 BCE

early inhabitants of this region were predominantly Semitic, and their speech is called Akkadian Sargon united the various city-states in the region and extended his rule to encompass much of Mesopotamia Akkadian is the oldest Semitic dialect still preserved. King Sargon I first great king of history government formed a "classical standard" with which all future Mesopotamian states compared themselves

Napoleon Bonaparte

comes to power french military leader seizes power in 1799 and ruled until 1814 he and group of men led coup de etat= quick seizure of power of govt tamed French Revolution in the face of growing issues with more radical features named himself emperor in 1804 Napoleon preserved many elements of French Revolution set up national school system created bank of France required all citizens pay taxes maintained civil equality secular (non-religious) law code religious freedom

20th century politics

communism: society was to be classless with private ownership replaced with public ownership

Springtime in Prague

communist leaders in Czech were replaced with Liberal Alexander Dubeck who wanted to create socialism with face censorship was lifted, businesses, arts and more flourished citizens had more freedom soviets worked alongside the Czech, fearful of liberal breakout into Warsaw pact nations August 1968- Soviet restore their dominance and Brezhnev Doctrine is introduced - gives USSR right to interfere in nations if the socialist state was going to collapse

Massacre at tiananmen Square

communist party chief in China Xiaopeng decided to institute a limited free market reform and allows Chinese students to study outside the country to expand technical knowledge Students who saw benefits of free society gathered at Tiananmen Square in Beijing for peaceful demonstrations against the government June 1984 communist party crashed the demonstration with tanks students fought back throwing rocks, bottles, but were gunned own massacre show China was not willing to stop ruling with communism ruining their relationship with the US

Renaissance art

completely revitalized entire concept of Art in Europe branched out beyond merely religious purpose of medieval artwork reflected new humanist philosophy engaged viewer in novel and natural way that had not been done since end of classical period new method of painting and sculpture portrayign real people and real events Giotto- development of perspective in painting Michaelangelo- sculptor, painter, architect portrayed real events and real people as they really looked, realism art- famous works: David statue, Sistine Chapel ceiling Leonardo Divinci- scientific inquiry and a mechanical inventiveness that were centuries ahead of their time famous works: mona lisa, last supper

Middle East Politics Saudi Arabia

context of a totalitarian absolute monarchy with Islamist lines, where the King is both the head of state and government leadership passed down economic control varies Decisions are, to a large extent, made on the basis of consultation among the senior princes of the royal family and the religious establishment The Qur'an is declared to be the constitution of the country, which is governed on the basis of Islamic law (Shari'a)

The Fall of the USSR

country broke up into 15 independent states Dec 25 1991 Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukrane, Uzbekistan

reglobalization Personal Funds of individuals

credit cards ( domestic /international) transferring funds across international borders

Christopher Columbus ( Spain)

credited with discovery of America although never set foot on its soil and America was already inhabited by Native Americas

Ferdinand Magellan ( Portugal)

credited with first circumnavigation of the earth

Fertile Crescent

crescent shaped area extending from Mediterranean Sea to Persian Gulf in Fertile Crescent ( modern day Iraq) rich soil produced abundant crops two rivers: tigris and euphrares 8000 BCE or earlier ancient countries of the Fertile Crescent, such as Sumer, Babylonia, Assyria, Egypt, and Phoenicia, are regarded as some of the world's earliest complex societies. Cradle of Civilization birthplace technological innovations, including writing, the wheel, agriculture, irrigation experiment with the cultivation of grains and cereals

Hebrews

departure from the city of Ur, Mesopotamia, this people traveled towards Palestine divided themselves into tribes, thus forming patriarchal clans which worshiped only one God governed by a Patriarch, and practiced an economy based on shepherding, which evolved towards agriculture three centuries in Palestine, until the occurrence of a severe drought Jacob, migrated toward Egypt settled four hundred years, a period which coincides with the domination of Egypt by the Hyksos, who cooperated with the Hebrews. When the Hyksos were expelled the Hebrews began to suffer persecutions, they were condemned to paying high taxes and were later made into slaves. This oppression ended with the rise of Moses who led the Hebrew people towards liberty on the way to Canaan (called the "Promised Land Ten Commandments, which contain ethical, moral, and religious principles which were to guide the conduct of the Hebrew people and, principally, reinforce the belief in only one God. Moses and the Hebrew people remained in the desert of Sinai for forty years. unite the people and centralize the religious, political, and military powers, the monarchy was founded. Saul (1117 B.C.) David (1077 B.C.) Solomon ( 1037 B.C.) Jeroboam (931 B.C.) valued music and employed it in religious ceremonies. The shofar was a typical Hebrew instrument, zithers, timbrels (tambourines) and flutes agriculture and raising livestock. characteristic crops :olives and grapevines, legumes and lentils. The shepherding of sheep, oxen, goats, horses and camels ceramics numerous textiles of wool and linen. contribution to humanity which stands out most is their religion, Patriarchy, The Monarchy Political Organization divided into tribes, without forming one state; when they were attacked they would eventually accept one chief, called a Judge, who was generally a military leader. This Judge would unite various tribes under his authority ten tribes of the north made up the Kingdom of Israel, larger and stronger, with its capital in Samari two tribes of the south made up the Kingdom of Judah, with its capital in Jerusalem The Bible (1657 B.C.)

Egypt and Islam

descendent of Muhammad's daughter founded caliphate of Cairo 945-1055Ce Caliphs of Baghdad completely dominated by Persian dynasty until they were conquered by Seljuk Turks who came from central Asia often hired by Muslim leaders as mercenaries Seljuk Turks invaded Baghdad in 1055 took over Abbasid Caliphate 1071 pushed the Byzantine Empire out of most of Anatolia

Abbasid Family

descendents from Muhammad's uncle overthrew Umyyad family in 750 CE capital was moved from Damascus to Baghdad Baghdad became learning and commerce hub under Abbasid rule, Baghdad became city of museums, hospitals, libraries, mosques by 800s Baghdad probably had nearly half a million people, largest city outside China this period of glory has become known as Golden Age of Islamic civilization when scholars of Muslim world made important contributions in both sciences and humanities, medicine, mathematics, astronomy, chemistry, literature, During this period dynasty ushered in a period of great prosperity and absolute power for 75 years Greatest power reign of Haroun Al Rashid after Rashid Caliph began to lose power and empire disintegrated

Marshall Plan

designed to rebuild shattered European economies 13 billion funneled into Europe from US Another desire to protect world wide depression wanted to undermine the appeal of communism in Europe very successful European economies grew rapidly between 1948-1970s USSR and Stalin however were fearful of Germany rebuilding NATO- North Atlantic Treaty Organization- created 1949, military and political ( collective security) alliance led by US with Canada, Western European nations created beacuse of communist threat as well as possibility of future german aggression

Black Plague

devastated Europe during middle ages came from Asia along trade routes were spread by fleas on rats was called a pandemic due to quick nature most victims died in a few days as a result population decreased significantly, caused labor shortages In Western Europe workers demanded higher wages and peasants rebelled leading to decrease in serfdom and weakening of feudal system

national assembly

drafted declaration of rights of man and citizen influenced by declaration of independence said all people created equal guaranteed freedoms of speech, press, religion Tennis Court Oath: oath together in which they promised not to disband until they wrote a constitution for France

19th century imperialism

during 1800s most of people in Asia, Africa, Latin America were facing internal problems and crises, powerful/expanding Europe some countries maintained formal independence from Europe ( China, Japan) imperialism: extending rule of an empire over foreign territories and acquiring colonies takes place between 1812-1914 colonies: territory separate from but ruled by another power main catalyst: industrial revolution

US WWI politics

espionage act 1917- illegal to aid enemy, give false reports, or interfere with wartime efforts sedition act 1918- illegal to speak out against war or government publicly supreme court ruled that govt could restrict speech when words constitute clear and present danger

Imperialism & White Man's Burden

europeans felt sense of responsibility to weaker races Rudyard Kipling " white man's burden" believed in civilizing missions meant to bring christianity, good government to disordered lands work discipline and production for markets to lazy natives education clothing

information Revolution

explosion of knowledge in huge forms of disciplines and many languages dependent primarily on basis of computer technology and use of communication institutes supporting information and payment services to reach all content

industrial revolution working class

grew in numbers worked in factories- dangerous conditions, accidents common, no worker compensation, 10-14 hour work days children work 12 hour shifts sometimes through the night wages extremely low- lower for women and children diseases like pneumonia common strict work schedules children as young as 6 could work some women enjoyed working and making their own money- mill girls lived in smoggy cities overcrowding apartments near factories- whole families living in 1-2 rooms few public services such as sanitation human and industrial waste contaminated water and spread disease

Babylonia 1800 BCE

grew into one of the largest cities of the ancient world under the rule of Hammurabi major military power under Amorite king Hammurabi, turned Babylon into a rich, powerful and influential city. He created one of the world's earliest and most complete written legal codes. Known as the Code of Hammurabi- eye for an eye Lived in western half of Fertile Crescent Hammurabi conquered N Sumerian cities: Sumer and Akkad to create empire famous for its impenetrable walls three rings of walls that were 40 feet tall

Globalization new technology

has contributed to the acceleration of economic globalization containerized shipping huge oil tankers air expense services fiber-optic cables internet

Castles and walled cities

housed kings, soldiers served as new high grounds advantage points good watchtowers, guardhouses, barracks best to take over castles so others have hard time fighting walled cities popular in defending countries not as easy to create castles landscape of world changed because of them

Renaissance Literature

humanists- group of people who advanced idea of human life on earth and opportunities it can bring rather than constant focus on Heaven and its rewards Peter Boccaccio, Erasmus, Sir Thomas More Shakespeare- wrote plays with common man in mind Dante Cervantes authors and writers wrote and prepared books and manuals that told people how to behave people begin thinking in new ways Gutenberg Printing Press- new tool allowing people to spread information quickly and accurately in large numbers

Reglobalization

involved in the acceleration of goods- world trade skyrocket= increased number of goods began to circulate around the globe shelves in stores stocked with products form all around the world

Cold War

ideological struggle between proponents of democracy and communism Major players: US, Soviet Union no large scale fighting Yalta conference - Stalin, Churchill, Roosevelt agree to finish war in Europe before moving their attention to Japan and the pacific Stalin 2 goals: spread communist ideology create buffer states in order to protect USSR from German Iron Curtain: Churchill called Soviet Control like "iron curtain" dividing continents Truman Doctrine - established in response to Stalin's aggressive intentions rooted in ideas of containment, limiting communism to areas under Soviet control stated any further spread of communism would be resisted

Industrial revolution improved conditions

improvements during 2nd half of 1800s led to working class movement away from revolution wages rose under pressure from unions cheap imported food improved working class diets infant mortality rates fell shops and chain stores catering to working class multiplied all male workers gradually earned right to vote child labor abolished factory conditions regulated and improved system of relief for unemployed sanitation reform industrialization allowed countries to be more accessible through transportation like railroads and steamboats, and communication from telegraphs and telephones

End of old order August 1789

in order to end violence nobles gave up their aristocratic privleges nobles gave up tax exemption feudalism abolished agreement that all male citizens could hold office in govt, army, church church lands sold to raise revenue and pay govt debts national assembly passed civil constitution of the clergy which put French church under govt control, weakening the Catholic Church

Revolution results

increased feelings of nationalism in France ideas of revolution and democracy spread to other places liberty equality and fraternity

Reglobalization People

increasing number of people continue to migrate seeking work, better life, or refuge from political oppression or civl war at home benefits: many of these workers provide much needed and sought after skills, services, intelligences problems: many migrate illegally, political and cultural tension, prejudice, discrimination, stereotypes, overpopulation

Decline of Roman Empire

increasing sprawl of the Empire, Germanic and other barbarian foes and dissatisfaction among non ruling classes 14th century split of the empire tipped in favor of Eastern Empire

results of revolution

initiated political breakdown of Europe's New World Empires inspired future revolutions and revolutionary leaders new market and trade relationships opened for Americans

Genocide 20th century

intended executions of people by another based on race or culture

French Constitution 1791

kept monarchy but limited power limited monarchy instead of absolute set up system of powers executive: king legislative: makes laws, collects taxes, made decisions for war and peace one house assembly members chosen by voters new constitution led to more unrest because some thought it went too far, others thought it did not go far enough violence continued throughout the countryside due to fear of breakdown of law and order

War of Independence

leader of colonial army George Washington begins April 5 1775 Battle of Lexington and Concord begins with shot heard round the world 1781 Britain surrenders to AMericans at Yorktown VA with considerable aid from France the colonists were victorious Battle of Saratoga: first American victory, gained support from France Marquis De Lafyette main aid like son to George Washington

Prince Henry the Navigator (portugal)

led search for water route to Asia Portuguese experimented with new maps, navigational methods and instruments such as: astrolabe and compass to help determine direction, latitude, longitude for exact locations

Islam influence and expansion

less than 100 years Islam spread across whole northern Africa and into Spain despite political division the Muslim world maintained strong economic, religious, cultural unity throughout this period creating literature, science, technology, art surpassing Western Christian world during early middle ages

18th century politics

liberalism: belief that government should support rapid social changes in order to correct social and economic inequalities Nationalism: ideology that promotes the welfare of the nation state over all other considerations American and French revolution spread ideas of representative government- state controlled most aspects of society including economics and religion colonization: carrying out in Africa and Asia in search of resources and power over people

contributions nationalism japan

main contributions: determination to transform Japan into western style power linked to desire for equality within western powers japan's belief in its destiny as leader of Asia the need to obtain raw materials and secure markets in east Asia to stop other countries from doing this need for strategic security the action of western powers growing popular support of militarism and expansion it had within Japan

Industrial Revolution starts in Britain because

many wealthy British aristocrats had money to invest in labor, machines, raw material lots of natural resources ( coal and iron) the harbors and rivers provided roadways for transportation as well as power large labor supply better farming-more food- more people religious toleration welcomed skilled workers of all faiths scientific revolution created close working relationships between scientists, inventors, entrepreneurs Geography of land protected from invasion agricultural revolution feeds many people in Britain = population boom- new demands for goods, new consumer goods become affordale to members of every social class

Incas

massive kingdom through the military strength of their emperors spanned the distance of northern Ecuador to central Chile and consisted of 12 million inhabitants from more than 100 different ethnic groups Well-devised agricultural and roadway systems, along with a centralized religion and language first appeared in what is today southeastern Peru form of Quechua became the primary dialect, and knotted cords known as quipu were used to keep track of historical and accounting records self-sufficient farmers who tended to corn, potatoes, squash, llamas, alpacas and dogs paid taxes through public labor system of roadways adding up to approximately 15,000 miles pantheon of gods massive Sun Temple in Cusco that measured more than 1,200 feet in circumference Powerful priests depended on divination to diagnose illness, solve crimes and predict the outcomes of warfare, in many cases requiring animal sacrifice

Age of Exploration

mid 1500s Age of Discovery beginning crusades and Renaissance new ideas from the enlightenment sparked interest in exploration invention of printing press made information of the world available to everyone, causing curiosity allowed people suffering from poverty and persecution to start over in New World led to development of better maps and charts, improved navigational instruments gave proof that Asia could be reached by Sea and earth was round cities began to grow and city govts developed and flourished

industrial revolution middle class

middle class emerges: benefit most from industrialization, size, power, wealth increases believed in constitutional government, private property, free trade, social reform ( education, healthcare, prisons, sanitation) men gain influence in parliament- gain right to vote giving political power believed hard work and education key to success

Major Results of reformation

more opportunities for education religious tolerance religious freedoms limited power and control of powers increase in religious wars increase in fanaticism and persecution

imperialism main reasons

motivations: new economic needs- raw material, agricultural products natural resources would help develop western civilization Humanitarian: missionaries, doctors, officials believed it was their duty to spread blessing of western civilization rising nationalism intensified rivalries between European states colonies and spheres of influence become symbols of national great power status nations tried to acquire as many territories as quickly as possible sphere of influence: area in which outside power claimed exclusive investment or trading privileges used to prevent conflict among themselves

South America pre columbian religious

multiple gods

Renaissance music, science, technology

music: style expanded and secular music began to be composed rather than music from the church Science: advanced considerably during this time, especially in area of physics and astronomy copernicus, Kepler, Galileo led scientific revolution- proving earth was round people saw world in new way technology- invention of printing press books produced quicker and cheaper more people able to afford them new information more accessible

19 th century politics

new sense of nationalism post french revolution colonization

Industrial revolution factory systems

new textile machines were large and costly production shifted from home to factor factory system: organized system of production that brings machines and workers together under control of manager most machines powered by water shifts 12-16 hours accidents common James Watt: invented steam engine- new source of power, factories did not have to be near rivers for energy, could be anywhere

Aztecs

nomadic tribe in northern Mexico magnificent capital city, Tenochtitlan, the Aztecs emerged as the dominant force in central Mexico intricate social, political, religious and commercial organization that brought many of the region's city-states under their control by the 15th century tribe of hunter-gatherers Aztec crops included maize (corn), along with beans, squashes, potatoes, tomatoes and avocadoes; they also supported themselves through fishing and hunting local animals such as rabbits, armadillos, snakes, coyotes and wild turkey. powerful military

March to Versailles 1789

october 5 1789 despite changes King Louis XVI still refused to accept the declaration of rights and recognize national assembly march on versailles led by women who were upset with harsh economic conditions and bread shortages marched to the king's palace and demanded he move the court to Paris- wanted to show support for new assembly much anger directed at Marie Antoinette huge mob joined with pitchforks and torches guards could not fight off thousands of people King Louis XVI agrees to move to Paris

Protestant Revolution and Reformation

origin begins from religious, political, economic reasons Religious: reasons stemming from abuses in Catholic Church- clergy living scandalous lifestyles, general corruption, and indulgences ( purchase remission of sins) Political: increase in power of rulers who were considered absolute monarchs who desired power and control over church Economic: greed of ruling monarchs to possess and control all lands and wealth of the church, deep animosity against burdensome papal taxation, the rise of affluent middle class and increase of active system of intense capitalism gathered much momentum in England when the church denied King Henry VIII request for annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon 1543 Anglican church born with king as its leader

article of confederation

original constitution of 13 original states adopted in 1777 Nov 15 approved by second continental congress John Dickonson princpal writer

Paths of colonial status India

ottoman empire weakened an began to westernize british east india company began to control governments too became most powerful in India controlling 3/5 practiced commercial colonialism, built military forces, maintained armies of sepoys ( indian soldiers serving in England's Navy) Robert Clive- employee of EIC forced an army to fight against France with help of Britain and successfully drove France out of India 1850s EIC took unpopular steps required sepoys to serve anywhere created new law to allow hindus to remarry rumored cartridge smeared with animal fat triggered Indian/Sepoy Rebellion 1857-1858 hinduism- cows sacred muslims- pigs unclean viewed military innovation as a plot to harm the people and convert them to christianity rebellion crushed in 1858 resulting in British govt assumed direct control over india, sent more troops and taxed INdia for it farmers could now only grow cash crops not food crops, cotton

Mongols

overthrew Turks in middle of 13th century Mongols in the middle east converted to Islam 1295 Westward expansion into Africa stopped 1260 when halted by Mamluks of Egypt Decline: despite military accomplishments the Mongol Empire only lasted three to four generations they were great conquerers but horrible adminstrators Over expansion and over spending Rivalries among leaders By 1350 most Mongol territories had been conquered by other armies

Middle East Politics Israel

parliamentary democracy with universal suffrage leaders elected little government control governed by a 120-member parliament, known as the Knesset The Basic Laws of Israel function as an uncodified constitution. In 2003, the Knesset began to draft an official constitution based on these laws The president of Israel is head of state, with limited and largely ceremonial duties

Englightenment

period of intense self study that focused on ethics and logic over religion age of reason began to question government and society prompting social justice

Scotland scientist David Hume

pioneer of doctrine of empiricism suspicious of things that others deemed to be true constantly set out to discover truths himself

South America pre columbian Incas

present day Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, Chile terrace farming grew potatoes and root crops raised llamas and alpacas for food, wool, transportation built thousands of miles of roads to connect empires invented quipu: string based device to provide record keeping all income went to state coffers and all trade went through emperor excellent engineers built building out of fitted stones used system of knotted colored rope for communication instead of writings

German scientist Johannes Kepler

protestant used math formulas to show that planets revolved around the sun planets moved in ellipses planets don't always travel at the same speed, move faster as they approach the sun law of planetary movement using Brahe's data, Kepler confirmed Copernicus' observation that the earth revolves around the sun

19th century arts and literature

romanticism- emphasis on emotion and imagination direct reaction to logic reason stressed during enlightenment Authors: John Keats, William Wordsworth, Victor Hugo, Johann Wolfgang Von Goethe Impressionism- presenting impression of a moment in time- monet, van gogh, manet, renoir, picasso surrealism- aimed to depict subconscious mind writers sought to address and explore the theory that the world was now understood to be less comprehensible that it was imagined in the enlightenment

Turks

ruled for 200 years, reviving political strength of the empire for a time

imperialism new sense of racial superiority

science states that skulls of white people are larger and therefore more advanced hierarchy of races created with the white man on top and less developed races below it new theory: race determined human intelligences, moral development and destiny

The US and WWI

selective service act 1917 congress passed a new draft to fill war time military 2.8 million drafted 400,000 African Americans drafted 369th regiment known as Harlem Hell Fighters first American in combat Women served in the armed forces noncombatant positions in the navy- clerical workers, radio operators, electricians, pharmacists, chemists, photographers, nursing corp

The Crusades

series of Christian holy wars conducted against infidels in the holy land of Palestine led to opening of trade routes with arabic nations most significant was massive expedition by Catholic Church to recapture Palestine from Muslims Pope Urban II launched the Crusades in 1095 when he called for Christians to take up arms and seize Holy Land ( present day Israel) Pope encouraged recruitment by stating all those who fight would be spiritually cleansed after 1st crusade Christians captured territories including Jerusalem and established feudal states, but disorganized muslim forces reorganized and retook Jerusalem in 1187 Largest slaughters occurred in Speyer, Worms, Rhineland towns Fourth cursade went terribly wrong when crusaders conquered Constantinople and severely weakened Byzantine Empire and their ability to trade

Muslim Conquests

series of conquests that extended from empire from Indus River Valley to Spain

Scientific Revolution

shift in focus from belief to evidence scientists and philosophers wanted proof not just having faith in what people had always said intellectual and cultural transformation Begins in Europe mid 1500-early 1700s knowledge acquired through careful observations, controlled experiments, formulation of general laws, mathematical expressions no more reliance on the bible, the church, the speculations of ancient philosophers, or received wisdom of cultural tradition

US constitution

signed on Sept 17 1787 put political ideas of Enlightenment into practice federal system= power shared between national and sate govts three branches: executive, legislative, judicial system of checks and balances takes effect march 4 1789 George Washington becomes 1st president april 30 `1789

contributions of Islam to other countries continued

skilled craftsmen produced finest art in jewelry, ceramics, carpets, carved ivory produced sophisticated literature in prose and pottery best known are short stories Arabian Nights and poems of Omar Khayyam existing canals of the middle east extended bringing much needed resources to people living in arid areas of Arabian peninsula trade centers and goods became known in other parts of the world- distributed by boats, Arabian horses and camels some of the first businessmen to take checks and give receipts we can trace terms bazaar, tariff and caravan from them

Feudalism

social economic and political system in which power is decentralized and a varying number of lords hold land on which they allow others to live and work in return for loyalty and service King gives land to lords who swear oath of loyalty lords are the vassals of the king lords give land to their knights who swear oath to serve lords knights are vassals of lords knights give land to peasants who swear to provide food and serve peasants are vassals of knights

Art of WWI

soldiers as artists drew and painted what they saw and lived through Le Mirior May 2nd 1915 published the first snapshot of battle- the exploding of a shell while infantry dragoons carried out an assault in a landscape of meadows and woods soldiers became the inspiration for many artists wartime propaganda: information designed to influence political opinion

Greece and Alexander the Great expansion

spend much of his rule conquering Greece, Persia, Egypt, Phoenician cities and part of India resulted in cultural exchange known as Hellenization brought the Greek enlightened way of life to Eastern civilizations while also bringing exotic goods and customs of Greece

Roman Empire

stretched from parts of Europe to Egypt at one time most conquered people remained free provinces formed from areas of empire with its own governor and army Roman Laws: everything built around family and govt was structured to give support Women got special benefits if they had 3 or more kids unmarried men and couples with no children didn't get help from govt Rise of Christianity- At first most Romans were polytheistics and believed in mix of local myths and Greek Mythology but changed names of the Gods Christians believed in the teaching of Jesus some Romans believed Christians assumed their God was more important than Emperor Jesus Taught that there was one God who was kind, forgiving, people had to love God and each other, show forgiveness, lead responsible lives to have everlasting life worried Jesus might lead a revolt against gotv a Roman governor condemned him to death

American Revolution

struggle for independence from oppressive British rule an effort to preserve existing liberties of the colonies rather than create new ones up to this point British colonists had enjoyed local autonomy and little interference from Britain since the govt was : tied up in internal conflicts, tied up in European wars ( especially with France) more concerned with Caribbean colonies because those were more profitable Change: British govt started to tighten its control over the colonies and extract more revenue from them Why: British treasury was drained and national debt was through the roof due to its global struggles with France- Britain needed money Britain decided to impose a variety of taxes and tariffs on the colonies without their consent Tax act sugar act tea act stamp act

Aristotle

studied under Plato believed people's happiness connected to their behavior worked to define categories of logic and physics fascinated by nature and classified plants and animals in scientific method wrote about politics thought 3 good forms of govt: monarchy, aristocracy, democracy founded school Lyceum

Anthropology

study of human culture and and humanity patters of behavior similar and different through cross cultural research study: what people in particular cultures wore, what they ate, how they learned and created customs they followed, how they developed languages

Franks

successfully stopped muslim invasion of Europe by defeating them under leadership of Charles Martel at the Battle of Tours 732 BCE Charlemenge ( grandson) becomes king man of war, but respected and encouraged learning made great efforts to rule fairly and ensure just treatment of his people

Imperialism and social darwinism

survival of the fittest theory natural weeding out of the weaker people of the world allowing stronger to flourish belief that European dominance involved the displacement of unfit races

Socrates

taught people how to think and figure things out by asking questions sometimes disagreed with the rulers or doubted the existence of Gods

Crusades consequences

though the quest for the Holy Land was failure it led to great economic developments in Europe, encouraged trade with Muslim merchants and created an increase in European demands for Asian goods Italian merchants greatly profited Cities like Venice Genoa prospered and Europe in general was reintroduced to goods, technology, culture of the outside

Ottoman killings of Assyrians and Greeks

thought that as many as 250,000 Assyrians, mostly Christians, living in Mesopotamia were killed by Ottoman forces during the period around World War I same time, in Anatolia, the Ottoman Empire killed hundreds of thousands of Greek Christians

India 500-18th Century Muslim Invasion

took over India 11th century famous leader Tamerlane expanded India's borders Founded Mongol dyansty began series of conquests expanding borders of India Akbar considered greatest Mongol- believed freedom of religion and is best known for building mosques, palaces, forts, tombs hinduism was still well respected during this time but became a minority religion buddhism died out almost entirely imposing mountains in North served as deterrent to Chinese expansion vulnerable to invaders from West and sea to south vulnerable to powerful monsoons

Facism

totalitarian philosophy of government that glorifies the state and nation, giving state control of every aspect of national life arose as form of counter revolutionary politics in 20th century form of extreme right wing ideology that celebrates the nation or the race as a community that transcends all other loyalties often but not alway promotes: racial superiority, ethnic persecution, imperialistic expansion genocide

Silk Road

trade route from China to Mediterranean sea main export silk especially valuable to Rome merchants also sold tea, spice, jade, in exchange for gold sold silver, glass, precious stones, ivory, horses, elephants and wool ideas spread along silk road buddhism introduced to China during Han Dynasty by Indian Merchants 4000 mile long system of trade routes connecting China to Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa travel not safe- bandits, murders, mongol armies

Industrial revolution social protests from working class

workers begin to demand better working conditions labor union: organization of workers to pressure business owners to improve working conditions and wages workers forbidden to create this government saw unions as dangerous combination acts 1799-1800 outlawed unions- people refused to accept the laws and the law was repealed in 1820 protests met hard repression union tactics included: strikes, collective bargaining: union leaders and employers meet together to discuss problems and reach agreements threats of violence 1850-1900 wages begin to double as demand for mass production of goods grows, new factories opening, more jobs created = wages rise Local trade unions became involved in politics 1870s- unions successfully winning right to stirke and walk a picket line as long as peaceful government passed laws to form insurance funds to protect workers

Marco Polo ( Italy)

wrote about travels, experiences, found lands, people, culture, customs, goods ( spices)

German Philosopher Immanuel Kant

wrote famous essay Answering the Question: What is Enlightenment believed reason was source of morality lay not in grace of God but in human soul itself believed man believes in God for practical not religious reasons human beings capable of big creative thought and intense self evaluation rights of individual more important than aristocracy