World History

Sultan Suleyman I

"The Magnificent". He had financed massive expansion of the military and bureaucracy. Under his rule, there were about 18K Janissaries. He collected heavy taxes from people, but had strong interest in not destroying the productivity of villagers. He was the tenth and longest-reigning Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, from 1520 to his death in 1566. His reign was known as the Golden age of the ottoman empire

Vasco de Gama

(1469-1524)Commissioned by Portugal, found a way to India around Africa. He tried to trade woolen goods for pepper, but Muslim and Hindu merchants were uninterested

Safavid dynasty

(1501-1722) grew in mid 1400s from a Kurdish mystical brotherhood in N.W Iran into a Shiite warrior organization(similar to Sunni) that carried out raids against Christians in the Caucasus. In 1501, 14yr old Ismail was put in charge because according to Shiite doctrine, the Hidden Imam, or Messiah, was expected to arrive and establish a Muslim apocalyptic realm of justice at the end of time, before God's last judgement. This realm would replace the "unjust" Sunni Ottoman Empire. Ottomans countered the Safavid challenge in 1514 with the Battle of Chaldrin, and crushed underprepared Safavids.Ismail dropped his claim after loss. Safavids learned from their mistake and got firearms. They sponsored construction projects which made them greatly improve urbanism in the city of Isfahan. They attempted to force Shiite doctrines on the Afghanis, backfired because in 1722 Sunni tribes formed a coalition and defeated the Safavids and ended their regime.

Saadid Dynasty

(1509-1659) Defended themselves successfully against Ottomans and Portuguese occupation of Morocco's Atlantic ports which led to the conquest of Ceuta in 1415. In 1591, they sent firearmed equipped army to W. Africa in order to revive the gold trade in Ghana(it failed). They were unable to improve their finances and split into provincial realms. The Alaouite dynasty of Moroccan kings replaced them in 1659.

John Locke

(1632-1704). Individual rights were foundation of civil govt. Wrote "Second Treatises of Civil Govt." which stated govt had to protect life, liberty, and property, also said people have the right to rebel. He believed in popular sovereignty meaning that indiv. granted political rights to their rules but retained personal rights, rulers who violated this principle could be removed, consent of the governed.

Enlightenment:

(1700-1800) European intellectual movement growing out of the New Sciences and based on Descartes's concept of reality consisting of the two separate substances of matter and mind. applied methods of the scientific revolution to the study of human society

Jean Jacques Rousseau:

(1712-1778) Religious morality of the masses. Equality for all men! Wrote the Social Contract(1762) which stated that humans had suffered a steady decline in their natural state ever since civilization began and imposed its own arbitrary authority on them. Also said the will of the people is sacred and legitimacy of the monarchy rested on the consent of the people. Thought people should express their unity directly through a "general will" a sort of direct democracy. He believed in equality, before the law and having no aristocratic privileges.

Denis Diderot

(1713-1784) Editor of first alphabetically organized encyclopedia which appeared first in England in 1728. Under his editorship, it became a massively expanded work on its own rights. Contained all the new accumulated knowledge since the Renaissance and the advent of the New Sciences.

Napoleon Boneparte

(1769-1821) Popular dictatorship. He reformed the french legal system, promulgated in the Civil Code of 1804, which in theory made all male citizens equal before law, but in reality it took away many rev. rights(established slavery, took away women's rights, invited church back). He invaded most of Europe, but he failed in 1812 when we tried to invade Russia in the winter

The Reign of Terror:

(1793-1794) Made a mockery of the revs Declaration of the Rights of Man and universal male suffrage

Indian cotton accounted for

1/4 of world manufacturing output in 1750

When was mini ice age?

1300-1800

Janissaries

1395. Centrally paid, salaried, infantry soldiers recruited among the Christian population of the Ottoman Empire. Based off of devsirme(taking young boys and training them to be soldiers). Devsirme contradicted Islamic law which forebade the enslavement of "peoples of the Book"(Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians).Toward first half of 15 century, sultans equipped Janissaries with cannons and matchlock muskets. Janissaries were expensive, so Ottomans had to imperialize for precious metals.

Coming out of Crusades

1453 Muslims took Constantinople and Europeans searched for a new route to riches of Asia

Hernan Cortes

1485-1547. Was a govt. scribe in Hispaniola to mayor of Santiago in Cuba. He became rich due to labor grants and then led an expedition for trade and exploration to Yucatan Penninsula. ___ founded the city of Veracruz. Here, his followers voted ___ their head chief justice, thus allowing him to claim legitimacy for his march inland. He allied with Tlaxacans(enemies of aztecs) and went to Tenochtitlan on November 2,1519. The conquest never happened because ___ got arrested by Cuban govt. 10months he returned and decimated native Aztec population. He captured and executed their emperor Cauhtemoc causing empire to end in 1525.

Protestant Reformation

1517 Martin Luther Link to imperialism: Race to proselytize in New World and Asia

Silver and Gold mines

1545. Two mining centers emerged: Potosí in S.E Peru and Zacatecas and Guananjuato in N. Mexico. Potosí used to produce over .5 of the silver of Spanish America, but in the 18 century Zacatecas and Guanajuato produced almost 3x as much of precious metal. Around the same time, gold mining in Chile and Colombia rose in importance, making the mining of precious metals the most important economic activity in the americas. Patio method: used mercury and exploited indigenous labor which made American silver highly competitive in world market. Few laborers lasted through more than 2 forced recruitment(repartimiento) cycles before they were incapacitated or dead. 1550-1750 Spanish America produced 150,000 tons of silver and gold. This quantity is roughly 85% of world production Extraordinary role of American silver for money of economies of Europe, Middle East, Asia, and especially China. Countries(Spain) organized their provinces around the needs of the mining centers

French and Indian War

1754-1763. Colonists and British v. French and Native American Indians. Fought to agree where their borders are

American Rev

1775-1783 Johseph Bryant: Indian who was Britishly educated July 4, 1776 Dec. of Indep.

Reign of Terror

1793-1794 Revolutionaries were paranoid about foreign invasion and declared war on austria, prussia, spain, britain, and netherlands. Declared the Convention govt. (Jacobins) First Republic Sept. 22, 1792

1794 National Convention in Paris

1794 Paris abolished slavery 1802, Napoleon reestablished slavery

The Directory

1795-1799 French Invited Church back. Responds to uprising with force. Napoleon- popular dictatorship. Napoleonic Code 1804

End of Slavery

1834 British 1848 French Empire 1863 USA 1869 Paraguay 1885 Egypt 1886 Cuba 1888 Brzail

Hai Phong Vietnam

1920, hotbed for human trafficing

Creoles:

30% of Latin American population. American born descendants of European, primarily Iberian immigrants. They replaced most admin. sent from Spain in governance of the Americas

Inca Empire

9-12 million inhabitants. was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. In 1520s, small pox disease ravaged through the empire killing the emperor and his heir. Which led to a protracted war of succession between two surviving sons. Atahualpa in the N sent his army S to the capital, Cuzco, where he defeated his half-brother, Huáscar. When Cortés Pizarro entered the Inca Empire, Atahualpa was encamped with an army of 40K men near N town of Cajamarca, on his way S to Cuzco to install himself as emperor. Pizarro ambushed Atahualpa on Nov. 16, 1532 and held him hostage. Atahualpa didn't order his generals to liberate him, but to pay the ransom. Spanish officers subjected Atahualpa to a mock trial and executed the hapless king on July 26, 1533, hoping to keep the Incas disorganized. Spaniards then took the capital against minimal resistance. In 1535 Pizarro moved the capital to Lima. At this time, Incas in the S learned from their mistakes and avoided mass battles, focused on deadly guerilla strikes, and rebuilt a kingdom that would last until 1572. Then the Spanish took over the Empire completely.

Gullah:

A Creole language that has survived for centuries and is used by the isolated slave communities along the coastal islands of S. Carolina and Georgia.

Prester John:

A mythical Christian king believed to live in Ethiopia or India who could help Portugal in the reconquest of Jerusalem.

Creolization:

African Creole = Cultures in which some adaption to Catholicism occurred and in which Africans appropriated certain outside cultural elements into their own heritage. The process expressed itself in distinct languages or dialects as well as synthetic or hybrid religious customs.

Haciendas:

Agricultural estates. In order to support mining centers, Spanish colonial govt encouraged the development of haciendas. First emerged when conquistadors used their encomienda rights to round up Native American labor to produce subsistence crops. In latter part of the 16 century, the land grants gave way to rotating forced labor as well as wage labor. A land owner class eventually emerged. Through donations, the church acquired a lot of agricultural land. Secular and clerical owning interests supported a powerful upper social stratum of Creoles from 18 century onward.

Voltaire:

Atheist who was inspired by Chinese culture(Confucian ethic system, universe is orderly, rational, and intelligible, alternative to religion). Freedom of expression/religious tolerance. Favored an oriental despot because he thought it would've been the way to put order in society(predetermined order)

Comparing American and French Rev

Both drew from enlightenment. U.S went to rep govt, France went to Reign of Terror and eventually Napoleon Popular dictatorship. U.S wanted Indep from britain but maintained social and economic structure. France eliminated existing society(Acienregime) and created new political, economic structure, undermined monarchy, undermined Catholic Church, undermined hereditary aristocracy, couldn't be sustained.

Before 1800

China and India dominated

Most urbanized areas in 1300s

China, Japan, India

Which areas of the world influenced Enlightenment thinkers?

China-Fastest growing empire, modern and urbanized society, best educated, more industrialized, more equal than in Europe, possible oriental despot Japan-Urbanized and Industrialized, closed off to outsiders India- Strong economy, urbanized, medical practices(inoculation/vaccines), possible oriental despot Islamic World- Hygienic, art, education, benevolence towards minorities o How did enlightenment knowledge spread? Monarchs(some were sympathetic towards some of the ideas), Women(salon parties), and Middle Class(could buy books now)

Leaders of world trade:

Chinese, Arab, and Indian traders

Evangelical Christianity

Christ's message of universal love

The Great Mutiny/Sepoy Rebellion:

Civil war as pro- and anti- British Indian forces clashed. A rebellion in India against the rule of the East India Company, that ran from May 1857 to June 1858. The rebellion began as a mutiny of sepoys of the East India Company's army on 10 May 1857,

Ideologies to solve social problems

Communism and anti colonialism

Quesnay

Confucianism. Restrained Despot/ Enlightened despot. Wanted a strong ruler but not total oriental despot

The Directory:

Created during the 3rd phase of French Rev. and replaced French Committee of Public Safety in December 1795-1799. It was a bicameral legislature. It depended increasingly on the army to survive

Boers:

Dutch for farmer. 10K of them in 1750 in the Cape Colony.They destroyed the Khoi(local cattle breeders) through their relentless land expansions. Boers governed themselves and followed the model of Dutch representative institutions. Their descendants call themselves "Afrikaners" and fought and won the Zulu for land and British independence.

Aztec Empire

Ended in 1525.

Egalitarianism

Enlightenment idea that all people are equal

Revolution Causes

Enlightenment ideas. Cost of colonial trade. British and french rivalry/seven years war. People have nothing to lose/despiration

The Congress of Vienna

European leaders met in 1815 at Vienna after the fall of Napoleon in effort to restore order to a war torn continent. Driving principle at this session was monarchical conservatism(led by Austria's prime minister). He wanted 2 principles: legitimacy(recognizes monarchical rule in Europe and reestablish the borders of France as they were in 1789) and balance of power(preventing one state from rising to dominance over any other)

Columbia Exchange:

Exchange of plants, animals, and diseases between america and the rest of the world. Key players were Eurasia, Americas and Africa. Europeans brought over diseases to the Americas, which would wipe out the Indian population, allowing for easy take over. A drop in the Indian population along with the tropical climate of most of the Americas created the perfect conditions for the Atlantic slave trade to thrive.

Montesquieu

Feared oriental Despot. theory of separation/balance of powers

French Rev. Causes

Fiscal crisis(from 7yrs war). Enlightenment ideals(conflicts over rep). poverty/famine/unemployment

Francois Dominque Toussaint

Former domestic slave never intended independence from France(only freedom from slavery and more rights for colonies)

Les Lumieres:

French for "The Enlightenment

Gens de couleur

French for People of Color

Mulattoes:

Had Iberian fathers and black mothers

most important rev

Haitian Rev 1789-1825 1st former free slave colony. 2nd free nation in the W. hemisphere

Bartolome de las Casas

He became the first resident Bishop of Chiapas, and the first officially appointed "Protector of the Indians". His extensive writings, the most famous being A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies and Historia de Las Indias, chronicle the first decades of colonization of the West Indies and focus particularly on the atrocities committed by the colonizers against the indigenous peoples. Bartolomé de las Casas spent 50 years of his life actively fighting slavery and the violent colonial abuse of indigenous peoples, especially by trying to convince the Spanish court to adopt a more humane policy of colonization.

Garibaldi

He, along with Mazzini led armed struggle and removed Hapsburgs. In 1861, he created the kingdom of Italy, minus Rome.

Fredrik Engels:

Helped write Communist Manifesto

Moriscos

Iberian Muslims ('little Moors"). Even though they were scattered about the world, they resisted conversion. The Catholic Church advocated the expulsion of moriscos, arguing that the allegedly high Muslim birthrate in a pop of 7.5 million Spaniards were a threat. 1609, 300,000 moriscos were forcibly expelled from Spain(Spanish landowners didn't want them to go because of the farm work they provide).

Otto Von Bismarck:

In the 1860s he engineered a series of wars that unified the German states (excluding Austria) into a powerful German Empire under Prussian leadership. In 1871 he formed the German Empire with himself as Chancellor, while retaining control of Prussia. His diplomacy of realpolitik and powerful rule at home gained him the nickname the "Iron Chancellor." German unification and its rapid economic growth was the foundation to his foreign policy. He disliked colonialism but reluctantly built an overseas empire when it was demanded by both elite and mass opinion. Juggling a very complex interlocking series of conferences, negotiations and alliances, he used his diplomatic skills to maintain Germany's position and used the balance of power to keep Europe at peace in the 1870s and 1880s. He created the first welfare state in the modern world, with the goal of gaining working class support that might otherwise go to his Socialist enemies.

Revolution Result

Industrial Rev. New Empires. Nationalism. Civil and Human Rights. Beginning of end of slavery

Middle Passage:

Infamous voyage from Africa to the Americas. Poor conditions on the boats they traveled in.

Romanticism:

Intellectual and artistic movement that emphasized emotion and imagination over reason and sought the sublime in nature. Early 1800s. In response to the Enlightenment.

Meiji Restoration 1868

Japan industrialized for military advancement first, and then to build economy. Expanded traditional economic activities(silk and tea) and reinvested profits in new industry. Heavy initial investment by state. Japanese style of industrialization

Date - Storm the Bastille

July 14, 1789

Jacobins

Led by Maximillian Robspierre. Aimed for a secular alternative to the church, social reforms(abolish slavery, working class rule, rights to women, divorce,and inheritance). New historical era, meaning that instead of 1792, it was year 1.

Kingdom of Kongo:

Located S. of Congo River. Kongo was the oldest and most centralized kingdom in the region(emerged around 1400). It's capital M'banza, 60K inhabitants in 16 century making it equivalent to London in size. Kings collected a head tax in form of cowrie shells as an indication that farmers engaged in limited form of trading their ag. surplus on markets in the capital to obtain the shells for the tax. Kings of Kongo converted to christianity early on and sent members of their family to Portugal for their education. Mid 1500s, kings permitted sell of a few thousand slaves a year, but Portuguese wanted more. Led to a full scale war Portuguese war of conquest for slaves(1579-1657). Portuguese aligned themselves with Ibangala(fierce, cannibal warriors) and raided Kongo for slaves capturing about 15K a year.

Kingdom of Benin

Located in rainforest region W of Niger delta. Ruler Ewuare(1440-1473) was the first to rise to dominance over chiefs(azuma) and assume the title of king(obo). Ewuare acquired large number of slaves from conquests who were then employed in his army and for the construction of extensive earthworks protecting the capital Benin City. Ewuare granted Portuguese mariners to build a fort on the coast in 1487. The portuguese abandoned their fort a generation later when the sale of male slaves were prohibited. Kingdom still remained economically and ethnically diverse/complex. Two centuries later, Benin wasn't strong and started to decentralize. Provincial chiefs began competing with each other and in order to buy more firearms, they allowed slave trade.

Songhay Empire:

Mali's successor state (1460-1591). Songhay was initially a tributary state of Mali. Inhabitants were an ethnic grouping composed of herders, villagers, and fishermen. Homeland was located to the east and southeast of the Niger Bend. End of 11 century, the leading clans of Songhay converted to Islam and 2 centuries later, the warriors among them assumed positions of leadership as well as vassals of the mansa, or emperor, of Mali. The Songhay began their imperial expansion in the mid 1400s. At its height, the Songhay Empire stretched from Hauseland in the savanna southeast of Gao all the way westward to the Atlantic Coast. The Empire taxed the gold trade, and collected the taxes in terms of gold. After a century of dominance, the empire came to a sudden end in 1591 when a moroccan force invaded from the north. Moroccans wanted to occupy gold fields in the rain forest Songhay Emperors=askiyas

Karl Marx

Most famous social reformer. (1818-1883). "Scientific Socialism" that all of history involved class struggles. Dialectical materialism=materialist concept behind economic class struggle. Joined communist party and wrote The Communist Manifesto with Engels in 1848. It was designed to rally support of working class(proletariat) and encourage them to rise up and overthrow capitalist factory owners(bourgeoisie)

What countries/how were they effected by ice age?

N. America and Eurasia: shorter growing seasons/famine. China and N. Europe: cold heavy rains and destroyed crops. W. Africa: abundant rain until 1700, then no rain which created Sahara desert

Biological Old Regime

Necessities of life depended on land and rays captured form annual solar energy flows(no electricity). New Regime made possible: longer, healthier, richer, more productive lives

Reconquista

Reconquering. Christians wanted to recapture Jerusalem(according to the apocalypse, Christ's return could only happen in Jerusalem), In Portugal, political claims in the guise of apocalyptic expectations guided the military orders of reconquering Cueta. The Portuguese renewal of the Reconquista stimulated a similar revival in Castile. The Reconquista culminated in a 10yr campaign(1482-1492). Granada ultimately fell in the hands of the Christians

Lasting ideas of french rev

Republican Ideals(liberty, equality, fraternity) Anti-racism(minus Muslims) Birth of Nation State(citizenship/nationalism)

Ottoman Empire:

Rise of Ottomans was closely related to fall of Byzantium. 1299 a Turkish warlord Osman gathered Islamic holy warriors(gazis), and declared himself an independent ruler. In 1345 the Ottomans gain their first European foothold on a peninsula S.W of Constantinople. In 1402 Mongol Empire defeated Ottoman empire decisively. Ottomans need two decades to recover from their loss. Under Mehmet II "The Conqueror"(1451-1481) Ottomans assembled enough resources to lay siege to the Byzantium capital. They won Constantinople. By the second half of the 16 century, Ottoman Empire was a vast and multiethnic and multireligious state of about 15million inhabitants from Algeria to Maghreb to Yemen in Arabia and from Upper Egypt to the Balkans and the Northern Shore of the Black Sea.

Peace of Paris

Sept. 1773. written constitution(Social Contract). Guaranteed indiv freedoms(speech, religion, press). Emphasized rights of the indiv. Did not guarentee legal equality(landless women, slaves), NJ was exception until 1807

Columbian Exchange:

Slave trade. Europe -> Africa -> Americas. Exchange of diseases, animals, and crops. From Old World(Africa and Europe): horses, small pox, citrus, banana, artichoke, coffee, From New World: Potatoes, tomatoes, chili peppers, corn, chocolate, rubber Key players were Eurasia, Americas and Africa. Europeans brought over diseases to the Americas, which would wipe out the Indian population, allowing for easy take over. A drop in the Indian population along with the tropical climate of most of the Americas created the perfect conditions for the Atlantic slave trade to thrive.

Mestizos:

Spanish who had Iberian fathers and Native American mothers

Slavery in North and South America

Sugar Empire-Brazil Sotweed- Jamestown Sugar, Rice, and Indigo- Carolinas and Georgia sugar, tobacco, cotton, and Indigo- Caribbean Chattel: literally an item of moveable personal property; chattel slavery is the reduction of the status of the slave to an item of personal property of the owner, to dispose of as he or she sees fit

3rd estate:

The poor people of France/commoners

Proclamation of 1763:

The proclamation, in effect, closed off the frontier to colonial expansion. The King and his council presented the proclamation as a measure to calm the fears of the Indians, who felt that the colonists would drive them from their lands as they expanded westward. Issued October 7, 1763, by King George III following Great Britain's acquisition of French territory in North America after the end of the French and Indian War/Seven Years' War, which forbade all settlement past a line drawn along the Appalachian Mountains. The Royal Proclamation continues to be of legal importance to First Nations in Canada and is significant for the variation of indigenous status in the United States.

Hausa kingdoms:

There are about half a dozen of Hausa kingdoms that formed during the height of the Mali dominated trans-Saharan trade as S.E extensions of trade into rainforest africa. During 1500-1800 they were under frequent attacks by Songhay and Kanem-Bornu but enjoyed periods of independence during which many of their clans converted to Islam.

Nationalism

Transcended from loyalty to family, village, religion, social class, monarch, ethnic group. The nation must be independent, have own government, share an identity separate from other nations. Us vs. Them mentality

Monroe Doctrine of 1823

U.S Warning European countries to stay out of N. and S. America

1804 Napoleonic Code

Undid Rev. took away womens rights church invited back restablished slavery

Ethiopian Kingdom:

Until end of 15 century, Ethiopia had been a powerful Coptic Christian kingdom in the highlands of N.E Africa. Its people productively produced grain and its kings controlled a rich trade of gold, ivory, animal skins, and slaves. Possession of the Sea port for this trade was a bone connection between Ethiopia and the kingdom of Adal during first half of 16century. 1529 A christian incursion into muslim territory in 1529 triggered a response by Adal in the form of a furiously destructive Muslim holy war. Ethiopia would've been destroyed had Portuguese not showed up in 1541 with their firearms. In 1632 Ethiopian king expelled the Jesuits and consolidated the kingdom as a shrunken power within much smaller borders. By 1700s, Ethiopia decentralized into provincial lordships with little interest in cultural heritage. Mid 19 century, in response to western challenge, the kings took back their power from provincial lords.

Divergence Debate

When/how did Europe come to dominate? Camp A: 1500. Valued hard work, christian values of reason and growth, euros enjoyed political pluralism Camp B: 1500-1800 Because of aquistion of wealth(precious metals from americas) Camp C: 1700-1800 Industrialization gave Europe the adv. had better technology Camp D: 1800. Europe developed fossil fuels while reaping benefits of slavery. Coal deposits were closer to centers of industry

Estats Gerneraux

a general assembly representing the French estates of the realm: the clergy (First Estate), the nobles (Second Estate), and the common people (Third Estate). 3rd estate locked out. wanted king to accept constitution. Resulted in declaration of rights of man. Demanded royalty return to paris

Encomiendas

a grant by the Spanish Crown to a colonist in America conferring the right to demand tribute and forced labor from the Indian inhabitants of an area. AKA land labor grants. Through this, they amassed a sizeable quantities of gold.

important resources on industrial rev

coal, cotton(created demand for mechanized labor), iron&steel, steam(James Watt 1763), transportation, relationship to Americas

What caused ice age?

diminishing sun and increase in volcanic activity

weapons of the weak

foot dragging, change jobs(worked initially)

European and N. American economy grew and got better than china and india becauase....

growth of capitalism industrial rev.(wouldn't have succeeded w/o their colonies and resources) imperialism

Calico Mania

high quality, soft cotton, lightweight, less expensive, "demand for calico was greater than all the weavers in the country can manufacture"

Mass Migrations of 14-19 century:

more interaction because of increased trade (ex: colombian exchange) movement to frontiers (imperialism) increased urbanization (particularly China, India, and Japan) Increased populations disease immunity/ better medicine and medical practices

Maximilien Robespierre:

one of the best-known and most influential figures of the French Revolution and the Reign of Terror. As a member of the Estates-General, the Constituent Assembly and the Jacobin Club, he opposed the death penalty and advocated the abolition of slavery, while supporting equality of rights, universal male suffrage and the establishment of a republic. He opposed dechristianisation of France, war with Austria and the possibility of a coup by the Marquis de Lafayette. As a member of the Committee of Public Safety, he was an important figure during the period of the Revolution commonly known as the Reign of Terror, which ended a few months after his arrest and execution in July 1794 following the Thermidorian reaction.

economic liberalism

people work better with a financial incentive(wages)

Sans-culottes:

the common people of the lower classes in late 18th century France, a great many of whom became radical and militant partisans of the French Revolution in response to their poor quality of life under the Ancien Régime. The most fundamental political ideals of the sans-culottes were social equality, economic equality, and popular democracy. They supported the abolition of all the authority and privileges of the monarchy, nobility, and Roman Catholic clergy, the establishment of fixed wages, the implementation of price controls to ensure affordable food and other essentials, and vigilance against counter-revolutionaries.

Historical Conundrum: During mini iceage

the distribution of new food sources widened due to trade

Toussaint de Louverture:

the leader of the Haitian Revolution. His military genius and political acumen transformed an entire society of slaves into the independent state of Haiti. The success of the Haitian Revolution shook the institution of slavery throughout the New World. Toussaint Louverture began his military career as a leader of the 1791 slave rebellion in the French colony of Saint-Domingue; he was by then a free black man. Initially allied with the Spaniards of neighboring Santo Domingo, Toussaint switched allegiance to the French when they abolished slavery. Throughout his years in power, he worked to improve the economy and security of Saint-Domingue. He restored the plantation system using paid labour, negotiated trade treaties with Britain and the United States, and maintained a large and well-disciplined army. For a short period he has a coffee plantation using slaves. In 1801 he promulgated an autonomist constitution for the colony, with himself as governor for life. In 1802 he was forced to resign by forces sent by Napoleon Bonaparte to restore French authority in the former colony. He was deported to France, where he died in 1803. The Haitian Revolution continued under his lieutenant, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, who declared independence in early 1804.

Spanish Galleons

took silver and gold and took it to E. Asia for silk. Eventually ran out of S & G and so they started to trade otter pelets from Morro Bay