World History Exam 2

Timur the Lame

(ca. 1336-1405) Also known in English as Tamerlane. Successor to the Chaghatai khanate, he also conquered a large swath of Central Asia south and east of the Caspian Sea.

Mauryan Dynasty

(ca. 320-185 b.c.e.) A dynasty that unified much of the Indian sub- continent. Relying on trunk roads, it exercised more control in the cities than in the countryside

Gupta Dynasty

(ca. 320-600) Indian dynasty based in north India; emulated the ear- lier Mauryan dynasty and revived the use of the Sanskrit language. The Gupta kings pioneered a new type of religious gift: land grants to Brah- min priests and Hindu temples.

Muhammad

(ca. 570-632) Believed by Muslims to be the last prophet who received God's revela- tions directly from the angel Gabriel. The first leader of the Muslim community.

A Debate Among Christians, Buddhists, and Muslims at the Mongol Court

The Christians then placed me in the middle, tell- ing the tuins to discuss with me. The tuins, of whom there was a great gathering there, began to murmur against Möngke Khan, saying that never before had any Chan attempted to find out about their secrets. They then chose as my opponent one who had come from Cathay and he had an inter- preter with him. I had Master William's son. He [the opponent] opened by saying to me: "Friend, if you are brought to a standstill, seek one wiser than yourself." I held my peace. Next he asked what I wanted to discuss first, how the world had been made or what happens to souls after death. I replied: "Friend, that ought not to be the begin- ning of our disputation. All things are from God and He is the source and head of all things; therefore we ought first to speak of God, concerning Whom you have different beliefs from us and Möngke wishes to know whose are the best." The judges decided that this was right. They wanted to begin with the points men- tioned above, because they consider them the most important, for they are all followers of the Manichean heresy that half of creation is evil and the other half good, and that there are at least two principles; and concerning souls they believe that all migrate from one body to another. Even the wisest priest among the Nestorians asked me if the souls of dumb animals could escape anywhere after death where they would not be com- pelled to work. As a proof of this false doctrine, so Master William told me, a boy was brought from Cathay, who, judging by his size, was not yet three years old, nevertheless his reasoning powers were fully developed, and he himself said that he had had three reincarnations; he knew also how to read and write. So I said to the tuin: "We firmly believe in our hearts and profess with our lips that God exists and that there is but one God and that He is one with a perfect unity. What do you believe?" He answered: "Fools say that there is but one God, but wise men say that there are many. In your country are there not mighty lords, and here is not the chief lord Möngke Khan? So it is with the gods; in the different regions there are different gods." To this I gave answer: "That is a bad illustration or simile you put forward, arguing from men to God; for, according to this, any powerful man could be called a god in his own territory." When I wanted to refute the comparison, he pre- vented me by inquiring, "What is your God like, of Whom you say there is but one?" I replied: "Our God, besides Whom there is none other, is omnipotent, and therefore He has no need of anyone's help, rather do we all need His help. It is not so with men. No man can do all things, consequently there have to be many lords on the earth, for no single man can bear everything. Also He knows everything, and therefore has no need of a councillor; but rather all wisdom is from Him. Again, He is the supreme good and has no need of our goods, but in Him we live and move and have our being. Such is our God and therefore no other ought to be considered." "It is not so," said he. "On the contrary there is one supreme god in heaven, of whose origin we are still ignorant, below him are ten, and under them is one lower. On earth there is an infinite num- ber." When he wanted to weave other fairy tales, I questioned him about this supreme god, whether he believed he was omnipotent or dependent on another god. He, fearing to reply, asked: "If your God is such as you say, why did He make half of creation evil?" "It is untrue," said I, "it is not God who made evil; and all things that are, are good." All the tuins were astonished at this saying and put it down in writing as something untrue and impossible. Then he began to ask, "That being so, where does evil come from?" "You ask the wrong thing," I replied. "First you ought to ask what evil is, before asking where it comes from; but go back to the first question, whether you believe that any god is omnipotent, and afterwards I will answer all the questions you wish to put." He sat for a long time unwilling to reply, so that the scribes who were listening on behalf of the Khan had to order him to give an answer. At length he said that no god was omnipotent. At that all the Saracens burst into loud laughter. When there was silence again I said: "And so not one of your gods can save you in every danger, for a mishap may occur over which he has no power; moreover 'no man can serve two masters,' how there- fore can you serve so many gods in heaven and on earth?" The audience told him to reply, but he remained silent. When I wanted to put forward the arguments for the Unity of the divine essence and the Trinity in the hearing of all, the Nestorians belonging to the country told me I had said enough, for they wished to speak. I then gave place to them and when they wanted to dispute with the Saracens, the latter replied: "We grant that your faith is true and that whatever is in the Gospel is true, therefore we do not wish to argue on any point with you." They admitted that in all their prayers they beseech God to grant that they may die a Christian death. . . . Yet not one of them said, "I believe, I wish to become a Christian." When this was finished the Nestorians and Sara- cens alike sang loudly while the tuins kept silence, and afterwards they all drank their fill.

Heloise

(ca. 1090-1163/64) French nun who exchanged many let- ters with Peter Abelard, her former lover and the father of her child Astrolabe.

Aztec Empire

An empire based in Tenochtitlan (modern- day Mexico City) that ruled over 4 to 6 million people in modern-day Mexico and Guatemala.

Prince Gautama

1. The rise of Buddhism 1.1. The historical Buddha 1.1.1. Prince Gautama (ca. 563-483) Siddartha Gautama or Sakyamuni (sage of the Sakya clan), the founder of Buddhism. Born into a rich chieftain's family (in today Nepal). Saw some individuals' suffering, wanted to understand.

The Fourth Crusade

A Crusade from 1202 to 1204 that was diverted into a battle for Constantinople and failed to recapture Jerusalem causing damage to Byzantine Empire. The appeal from Pope Innocent III (to retake the Holy Land from the Muslims); But this time the European rulers had no interest in it; The leaders were some aristocrats The involvement of the Venetians The crusaders' negotiation of transportation with the Venetians; The crusaders failed to pay the Venetians; The crusaders turned to take Zara (a Christian city) for the Venetians; The angered Pope excommunicated both the Venetians and the crusaders. A new target But the crusaders still failed to pay the Venetians; Alexius Angelus of Byzantium agreed to pay off the crusaders' debt to the Venetians if they help him to restore his family to throne; But citizens of Constantinople were Christians too; Finding an excuse—the crusaders thought the Eastern Christians did not support their previous crusades that much and wanted to teach them a lesson; The crusaders marched to Christian lands. The fall of Constantinople The tensions within the city (people hated the crusaders); Someone murdered Alexius Angelus (Alexius IV); The crusaders angered, they attacked and ransacked the city of Constantinople.

Qadi

A Muslim jurist.

Zheng He Expeditions

A fleet of Chinese junks under the leadership of the eunuch Admiral Zheng He (1371-1433) that traveled on well- established hajj routes from China to Southeast Asia, India, the Islamic world, and East Africa from 1405 to 1433.

Iqta Grant

A grant given by the caliph to someone who promised to collect taxes and pay the caliph a certain amount of money from their region, over which the caliph retained only nominal control.

Sanskrit

A language, such as Latin, Greek, and Eng- lish, belonging to the Indo-European language family and spoken by Indo-Aryan migrants to north India around 1500-1000 b.c.e.

Principality of Kiev

A new state that began as a trading post on the Dnieper River and evolved into a principality around 900.

The Fourth Crusade: A New Target

A new target But the crusaders still failed to pay the Venetians; Alexius Angelus of Byzantium agreed to pay off the crusaders' debt to the Venetians if they help him to restore his family to throne; But citizens of Constantinople were Christians too; Finding an excuse—the crusaders thought the Eastern Christians did not support their previous crusades that much and wanted to teach them a lesson; The crusaders marched to Christian lands.

Jainism

An Indian religion founded around the same time as Buddhism that emphasizes right faith, right knowledge, and right conduct: a key tenet is not to harm any living beings.

The First Crusade: A Request from the East

A request from the East Byzantine emperor asked help from Pope Urban II to hire about 1200 well-trained knights.

Legalism

A school of thought, originating in the fourth century b.c.e. and associ- ated with Qin dynasty rulers, that emphasized promotion for officials and soldiers alike on the basis of merit and job performance, not heredity

Nomads

A term for people who migrate seasonally from place to place to find grass for their animals. They do not usually farm but tend their herds full-time

Monsoon

A term referring both to seasonal winds in South Asia blowing northeast in spring and early summer and southwest in fall and winter, and to the heavy seasonal rains they bring.

Feudal

A term that came into use after 1600 as a legal concept and refers to the legal and social system in Europe from 1000 to 1400, in which serfs worked the land and subordinates performed military service for their lords in return for protection

Japan: Early History

According to Japanese legend: Emperor Jimmu founded Japan in 660 BCE. But the record of Japan's earliest history, like Korea's, is first known from Chinese records [in 57 CE].

Zheng He's Voyages, 1405-1433

Admiral Zheng He led a Ming dynasty fleet on seven different voyages to Southeast Asia, South Asia, the Arabian peninsula, and the East Cengage Learning TEXT BLOCK MAP African coast. Although the voyages covered 7,000 miles (11,000 km), the sailors were not Ms00732 No bleeds The Voyages of Zheng He exploring but traveling on well-known hajj routes. The route from the Arabian peninsula to China Trim: 30p0 x 18p0 was the longest sea route in regular use before Columbus crossed the Atlantic in 1492.

Columbian Exchange

All the plants, animals, goods, and diseases that crossed the Atlantic, and sometimes the Pacific, after 1492.

Bodhisattva

Buddhist term denoting a being headed for Bud- dhahood who postpones it to help others.

Tenochtitlan

Capital city of the Aztec empire, which the Mexica reclaimed from swampland, with a population of some two hundred thousand people.

Shang Dynasty

China's first historic dynasty. The earliest sur- viving records date to 1200 b.c.e., during the Shang. The Shang king ruled a small area in the vicinity of modern Any- ang, in Henan province, and granted lands to allies in noble families.

China's Influence in East Asia

China had strong influence in medieval East Asia. A. A common literary culture Chinese writing system became lingua franca (mixed language) in East Asia; Confucian ideology and Buddhist religions spread throughout East Asia through Chinese language; Classic Chinese was adopted as language of government in Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. B. China as the center of the Buddhist realm Reconfiguration of Buddhist universe with China at its center; Mt.Wutai became one Buddhist center for Buddhism of Japan and Korea. C. Medieval China and East Asia East Asia countries shared common culture that rooted in Chinese intellectual, religious, and political traditions, but diverged into distinctive and independent national forms. At the time the Mongol empire broke apart in 1260, Chinggis's grandson Khubilai Khan (r. 1260-1294) controlled the traditional homeland of Mon- golia as well as north China. Conquering south China, where the wet terrain proved extremely difficult for the Mongol horsemen to traverse, posed a genu- ine challenge. Only after building a Chinese-style navy did the Mongols suc- ceed in taking south China, but they never conquered Japan or Southeast Asia. The Mongols ruled China for nearly one hundred years until, in 1368, a peasant uprising overthrew them. The cultural exchanges of the Mongols continued to influence Ming dynasty (1368-1644) China, most clearly in the sea voyages of the 1400s. Of the Mongol rulers who took over after 1260, Khubilai Khan (1215-1294) lived the longest and is the most famous. Suspicious of classical Chinese learning, Khubilai learned to speak some Chinese but not to read Chinese characters. The Mongol administration in China absorbed many local customs. For example, in 1271 Khubilai adopted a Chinese name for his dynasty, the Yuan, meaning "origin." Khubilai Khan's most significant accomplishment was the conquest of south China, resulting in the unification of north and south China for the first time since the tenth century. Demonstrating a genuine willingness to learn from other peoples, Khubilai Khan commissioned a giant Chinese-style navy that conquered all of south China by 1276. The Mongols became the first non-Chinese people in history to conquer and unify north and south China. When Khubilai Khan died in 1294, a new generation of leaders took over who had grown up in China, spoke and wrote Chinese, and knew little of life on the steppes. The fourth emperor in the Yuan dynasty, Renzong (r. 1312-1321), received a classical Chinese education and reinstated the civil service exams in 1315. The founder of the Ming dynasty, Ming Taizu, prided himself on founding a native Chinese dynasty but in fact continued many Mongol practices. In addition to the core areas ruled earlier by the Northern Song dynasty, the Ming realm included Manchuria, Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang in the northwest, and Tibet, which had all been conquered by the Mongols. The Ming also took over the provincial administrative districts established by the Mongols, which still define modern China.

Decline of medieval Islamic empire

Decline of medieval Islamic civilization: • The spread of Christianity; • The decline of the Abbasid Caliphate (750-1258); • Although the Islamic empire declined, Islam itself continued to expand as a religious force.

Consequences of the Crusades: Economy

Economy The expensive cost of the campaigns; The tremendous amount of wealth looted from the East; The stimulation of trade between the East and the West (sugar, spice, silk, etc.); The development of modern tax system in Europe.

Imperial Academy

Established in 124 b.c.e. by the Han emperor, Emperor Wu (r. 140-87 b.c.e.), to encourage the study of Confucian texts.

Patriarchs

In the 400s and 500s, the highest-ranking bishop of the four major Christian church centers at Constantinople, Alexandria, Jerusalem, and Antioch.

The Significance of China in World History

In his huge compendium, the Grand Historian docu- ments how, following the lead of the First Emperor, the Qin and Han dynasties created a blueprint for imperial rule that lasted for two thousand years. In the centuries after the fall of the Han, China was not always unified. But subsequent Chinese rulers always aspired to reunify the empire and conceived of China's physical borders as largely those of the Han dynasty at its greatest extent. Held together by the Qin/Han blueprint for rule, China remained unified for most of its long history. Even before the Qin unified China, the Chinese shared a cui- sine, belief in the tenets of Confucianism, and a common writing system, which has remained in use, with some modifications, for over three thousand years. These com- monalities made China easier to unify than neighboring India. Just as a Chinese chef combines different precut ingredients to make distinctive dishes, other ancient innovations often made use of component parts to make final products that all varied slightly. The Qin dynasty begun by the First Emperor intro- duced a centralized administration headed by the emperor, recorded the population in household registers, systematized weights and measures, and promoted offi- cials strictly on the basis of merit. The Qin also had a ceremonial state, as the emperor's sacrifices showed, but the administrative measures affected everyone living in Qin territory and had far greater impact than any actions of the Mauryan dynasty in India (see Chapter 3). The Han dynasty made one important change: offi- cials had to pass examinations testing their knowledge of Confucianism before they could attain higher office. The Han extended its military control far to the west, establishing more sustained contacts with the peoples living along the silk Road. Use of this route continued in later periods, peaking in the sixth through eighth cen- turies (see Chapter 8). China's path to complex society followed the same pattern as in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and India, all societies on the Eurasian landmass (see Chapters 2 and 3). Agri- culture arose first in river valleys. In about 8000 b.c.e. the Chinese began to cultivate rice in the Yangzi and Huai River Valleys and, one thousand years later, millet and wheat in the Yellow River Valley. Chinese farmers domesticated cattle, oxen, and horses to work the land, and they made agricultural implements—plows, shovels, machetes—first of stone and then, around 2000 b.c.e., of bronze. They used wheeled carts to carry things. In both China and India, iron replaced bronze around 500 b.c.e., the time when the first coins circulated. The next chapter will examine the experience of people living in the Americas and the Pacific islands, whose history took an entirely different course.

The Portuguese Empire

It was the Portuguese who established the first European overseas Empire. The Portuguese Empire: consisted of small trading bases, not overseas colonies (huge states); dependent on sea power. The reasons the Portuguese won the Arabs: naval power—improved sails; deployed ships in squadrons; emphasized on fire power.

Context and Connections Chapt. 8.3

Like the decline of the Harappan and Maya states (see Chapters 3 and 5), the sudden collapse of the Angkor state in the 1300s and 1400s has puzzled scholars. New information suggests that overpopulation may have been the cause, while other scholars, citing evidence from sediment cores, think long-term drought is a more likely cause because it would have damaged the city's complex system of canals and rivers

Conquistador

Literally "conquerors," the term for the spaniards who con- quered Mexico, Peru, and Central America in the 1500s.

Wergeld

Literally "man-payment," an important legal concept that set the monetary value of a human life. The function of wergeld payments was to prevent an endless cycle of killing and counter-killing among feuding families.

Muhammad

Muhammad began to preach sometime around 613 and won a large following among the residents of the Arabian peninsula before his death in 632. The man who succeeded to the leadership of the Islamic religious community was called the caliph (KAY-lif), literally "successor." The caliph exercised political authority because the Muslim religious community was also a state, complete with its own government and a powerful army that conquered many neighboring regions. The first four caliphs were chosen from different clans on the basis of their ties to Muhammad, but after 661 all the caliphs came from a single clan, or dynasty, the Umayyads, who governed until 750. Muhammad was born into a family of merchants sometime around 570 in Mecca, a trading community in the Arabian peninsula far from any major urban center. At the time of his birth, the two major powers of the Mediterranean world were the Byzantine empire (see Chapter 10) and the Sasanian empire of the Persians (see Chapter 6). While in his forties and already a wealthy merchant, Muhammad had a series of visions in which he saw a figure. Muslims believe that God spoke to Muham- mad through the angel Gabriel, after which Muhammad called on everyone to submit to God. The religion founded on belief in this event is called Islam, mean- ing "submission" or "surrender." The Arabic word allah means "the god" and, by extension, "God." Early Muslims had contact with Jews, and their understanding of God considerably overlapped with Jewish and Christian conceptions. Muslims do not call Muhammad the founder of Islam because God's teach- ings, they believe, are timeless. Muslims consider Muhammad the last messenger of God, however, and historians place the beginning date for Islam in the 610s because no one thought of himself or herself as Muslim before Muhammad received his revelations. Muhammad's earliest followers came from his immediate family: his wife Khadijah (kah-DEE-juh) and his cousin Ali, whom he had raised since early childhood. Muhammad recognized the traditional right of men to repudiate their wives but introduced several measures aimed at improving the status of women, including limiting the number of wives a man could take to four. His supporters explained that Islamic marriage offered this limited number of secondary wives far more legal protection than multiple secondary wives had enjoyed before Muhammad's reforms. He also banned the Bedouin practice of female infanticide. Finally, he instructed his female relatives to veil themselves when receiving visitors. Because certain clan leaders of Mecca had become increasingly hostile to Islam, even threatening to kill Muham- mad, in 622 Muhammad and his followers moved to Medina. Every- one who submitted to God and accepted Muhammad as his messenger became a member of the umma (UM-muh), the community of Islamic believers. This migration, called the hijrah (HIJ-ruh), marked a major turning point in Islam. All dates in the Islamic calendar are calculated from the year of the hijrah (Anno Hegirae, a Latin term usually abbreviated a.h.). Muhammad began life as a merchant, became a religious prophet in middle age, and assumed the duties of a general at the end of his life. In 624, Muhammad and his followers fought their first battle against the residents of Mecca. Muham- mad said that he had received revelations that holy war, whose object was the expansion of Islam--or its defense--was justified. He used the word jihad (GEE-hahd) to mean struggle or fight in military campaigns against non-Muslims. In addition to its basic meaning, modern Muslims also use the term in a more spiritual or moral sense to indicate an individual's striving to fulfill all the teach- ings of Islam. In 630, Muhammad's troops conquered Mecca and removed all tribal images from the pilgrimage center at the Kaaba. Muhammad became ruler of the region and exercised his authority by adjudicating among feuding clans. The clans, Muhammad explained, had forgotten that the Kaaba had originally been a shrine to God dedicated by the prophet Abraham (Ibrahim in Arabic) and his son Ishmael.

Rus

Name given to them- selves by people who lived in the stretching from the Arctic to the north shore of the Black Sea and from the Baltic Sea to the Caspian Sea.

The Crusades: Political Situation in the East

Political situation in the East A. The Muslims They let pilgrims went across their land but imposed taxes; It is possible that the Byzantine Empire would be overrun by the Turks. B. The Byzantine Empire Its emperor needed mercenary soldiers to enlarge his army; He wrote to Pope Urban II asking for help (1095); He also hoped to bring the separated Eastern and Western Churches together.

Soga Clan

Powerful Japanese fam- ily of Korean descent that ruled in conjunction with the Yamato clan from 587 to 645; intro- duced Buddhism to Japan.

Scholasticism

Prevailing method of instruction in Europe between 1100 and 1500 that held students could arrive at a correct answer if they used their powers of reasoning and con- sulted the appropriate sources.

Tanistry

Process the Mongols used to choose a new leader. Under tanistry, all contenders for power had to prove their ability to lead by defeating their rivals in battle

Context and Connections Chapt. 3.1

Recently, scientists analyzed the DNA of aboriginal peoples liv- ing in Australia and confirmed that the first wave of settlers arrived around 50,000 b.c.e. from New Guinea and the Philippines; these were Mungo Man's forebears (key term in Chapter 1). More unexpectedly, the DNA analysis showed that a second wave of set- tlers had arrived from India sometime around 2200 b.c.e., at the peak of the Indus Valley civilization.

Mongol Success: The use of terror

Recruited new soldiers from the conquered people, put them in the front rank at battle; Destroy if not surrender.

Plague

Refers to two distinct illnesses, bubonic plague and the almost always fatal pneumonic plague, forming two phases of an outbreak.

Hinduism

Temple-based religious system that arose between 300 and 700 in India. Hinduism has two dimensions: public wor- ship in temples to dei- ties such as Shiva and Vishnu, and daily private worship in the home.

Chinggis Khan

Temujin, widely known as Chinggis Khan (1167-1227), was the leader of the Mongols, who united Mongol tribes in 1206, be recognized as Chinggis Khan or Genghis Khan (the supreme ruler or universal ruler).

Viking

Term used for those Scandinavians who left home to loot coastal towns and who were most active between 793 and 1066.

Two main sects of Islam

The Sunnis—those who supported the first three caliphs (the successor to Muhammad) as the legitimate successors to Muhammad [the majority of Muslim] • The Shia (the Shi'ites)—those who supported Ali (Muhammad's son-in-law) as the legitimate successor to Muhammad [the minority]

Quran

The book that Muslims believe is the direct word of God as revealed to Muhammad. Written sometime around 650.

Context and Connections Chapt. 4.1

The crops grown in China differed from those grown in other world regions: after cultivating figs, the Natufians focused on wheat and barley, the major crops grown in both Egypt and Mesopotamia, and the local peoples developed a cuisine based on bread and beer (see Chapters 1 and 2). The Indians grew wheat and barley, too, and cultivated rice as well, and this was the pattern in China. Chi- nese food is famous for rice, but even now in the north, as earlier, people eat gruel, bread, and noodles more often than rice.

Oracle Bones

The earliest surviving written records in China, scratched onto cattle shoulder blades and tur- tle shell bottoms, or plastrons, to record the diviners' interpretations of the future.

Christopher Columbus (1451-1506)

The following are some basic information about Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) and his voyage to the Americas: A. The first "modern man" He was credited as the first "modern man." Debate on his role (some scholars argued that his role in the discovery of the New World was not that important; others blamed him for the disasters brought to the Native Americans by the Europeans). His knowledge of the globe (it is round). B. Columbus' goals to sail west To spread Christianity; To find a new route to India or China; To occupy the lands he found; More ... C. The "discovery" of the New World Columbus arrived in the Bahamas on October 12, 1492; This was the beginning of the European conquest of the New World.

Buddha

The founder of the Bud- dhist religion, Siddhar- tha Gautama (ca. 630-550 b.c.e.); also called the Buddha, or the enlightened one.

Slavs

The people who, around 500, occupied much of the lower Danube River Valley near the Black Sea. They moved north and east for the next five hundred years and enlarged the area where their language, an ancestor of Russian, ukrainian, Polish, and Czech, was spoken

Context and Connections 10.4

The peoples living in Scandinavia had many of the same customs as the Franks: their leaders commanded the loyalty of war-bands, plunder was their main source of income, and they gradually adopted Christianity and gave up their traditional gods.

Three Kingdoms Period

The period of Korean history from 313 to 668 when the Koguryo, Paekche, and Silla king- doms all fought for con- trol of the Korean peninsula and exercised Regional Kingdoms profound cultural influence on Japan

To India and Beyond

To India and beyond Dias passed the Cape of Good Hope (1488); Portugal and Spain signed The Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) (to divide the rest of the non-Christian world); da Gama reached India (1497-8).

Treaty of Tordesillas

Treaty signed by the Portuguese and the spanish in 1494 that established a dividing line: all newly discovered territory west of the line belonged to Castile, while all of the islands to the east were reserved for Portugal

Context and Connections 9.7

Two thousand years earlier, Hatshepsut ruled as pharaoh in Egypt (see Chapter 2); from 690 to 705 c.e., Wu was the emperor of China (see Chapter 8); and Khaizuran's contemporary Irene reigned as the Byzantine emperor from 797 to 802 (see Chapter 10). Each of these women came to power under unusual circum- stances, usually when a young child ascended to the throne following the death of the ruler, and each chose a title (pharaoh or emperor) reserved for men. In the Islamic world, the word calipha (the female form of caliph) usually referred to the wife of the caliph, but it could also indicate a female ruler. The one woman in the Islamic world who ruled on her own right was the calipha Sitt al-Mulk. She became leader of the Mamluk empire, the state that succeeded the Abbasids in Egypt (Chapter 11), for a single month in 1021, until a new heir could be named, when she became regent.

Consequences of the Crusades: Warfare

Warfare Construction of stone castles (better than wood castles), ...; Improvement of military technologies (e.g., the use of catapults).

The Protestant Reformation

What- the formation of the Protestant religion due to the dislikes of the Roman Catholic Church Where- Germany When- 16th century Why~ people wanted to get rid of the corruption and restore the people's faith in the church who~ Martin Luther Henry the 8th

Context and Connections 14.5

Zheng He's father and grandfather both went on the hajj pilgrimage to Mecca (Chapter 9), and the family was well informed about the geography of the larger Islamic world. In leading China's navy to India and Africa, Admiral Zheng He was following well-established hajj routes taken by both pilgrims and Muslim merchants. His route from China to East Africa was simply the mirror image of Ibn Battuta's from East Africa to China.

The World of Europe's Commercial Revolution

heloise and Abelard, the direct contemporaries of Li Qingzhao and Zhao Mingcheng (see Chapter 12), also experienced great prosperity, but on the western edge of Eurasia. As the shift to rice cultivation under- pinned Chinese economic growth, cerealization sustained Europe's. Rotating crops and the use of horses and iron horseshoes, iron plow blades, and windmills allowed Europeans, particularly those living in France and Eng- land, to bring more land under cultivation. Between 1000 and 1340, Europe's population almost doubled to reach 75 million, making it the world region with the second- largest population, after China's 100 million. As the popu- lation boomed, Europe's cities grew dramatically, too. As a young man Abelard started lecturing in Paris in 1114, when the cathedral there was in the early stages of becoming a university, and returned several times over the following decades. In Abelard's day Paris did not grant degrees, but by the 1170s instructors determined read- ings, the content of examinations, and degree recipients. The independent granting of degrees distinguished European universities from Islamic madrasas, which did not grant degrees (see Chapters 9 and 11), and Chinese academies, which also did not grant them but prepared students for civil service examinations that could lead to a degree, such as advanced scholar, conferred by the central government on the top performers (see Chapter 12). Like Li Qingzhao, Heloise, the niece of a canon, had received an excellent education. she could read Latin and some Greek and Hebrew, and like Zhao Mingcheng and Li Qingzhao, Heloise and Abelard delighted in learned conversation. Heloise's education made her unusual for her time, but many girls managed to attend village schools for at least a few years. some also, like Heloise, joined Christian nunneries, which offered women an alternative to marriage, just as Buddhist nunneries did in Asia. The church was one of the most important institutions in Europe, although its titular heads, popes, continuously vied with monarchs to control church property, to choose bishops and other high-ranking clerics, and to decide legal disputes involving the church. In the late 1000s, Pope Gregory VII asserted the complete independence of the church; the actual separation of church and state was attained only several centuries later. This church-state division was not as sharp in the Islamic world or in China, where rulers often patronized religious institutions. In 1095, Pope Urban II called for Christians to recover Jerusalem from the Muslims. We should not over- estimate the impact of the Crusades: far more young men traveled within Europe to pursue their studies than joined the Crusades, and many fewer actually made it all the way to Jerusalem. still, disorganized as they were, the Crusaders managed to gain control of Jerusalem for eighty-eight years. The Crusades left a more important legacy: for the first time since the Roman empire, Europeans estab- lished colonies beyond Europe (Cyprus remained under European control until 1570). some Crusaders found much to admire and copy in the Islamic world. Even the Europeans who stayed home were affected by imports from Muslim regions: Latin translations via Arabic of Greek texts, eyeglasses, new medical ideas, and an entirely new and much more flexible numbering system. other imports to Europe that originated in China also came via the Islamic world: the adjustable rudder, the steel-needle compass, and most influential of all, paper, which displaced parchment by 1350. The increasing complexity of T-o maps reflected the growing European curiosity about and knowledge of the outside world. As European markets continued to expand, demand rose for different commodities, particularly those imported from Asia. The European appetite for spices was enormous. As we will learn in the next chapter, the most detailed account of the Mongol Empire that survives today was written by a Franciscan friar sent by a French king, a clear indication of European interest in the world beyond Europe.

The Rise of a Multicentered Europe

n 1000, Gudrid and her husband Thorfinn Karlsefni visited Greenland and the Scandinavian settlement in modern-day Canada before returning to Iceland to live permanently. At the end of her life, her descendants claimed, she may have traveled to Rome to visit the pope, the head of the Roman Catholic Church. She did not visit Constantinople, still an important regional center but no longer the unchallenged leader of Europe as it had been in 500. The intervening centuries had taken their toll on Byzantium; plague had struck at least fifteen times, and incursions from its neighbors had reduced the empire to less than half its original size. In the centuries of Byzantine decline, two Frankish dynasties, the Merovingians and the Carolingians, tapped the dynamic energy of the war-band to form powerful new armies. The soldiers owed their allegiance to the military chiefs who shared the spoils of battle with them. The Merovingian king Clovis converted to Christianity in the early 500s, and Charlemagne was also Christian. In 500, Constantinople had dominated Christian Europe much as Baghdad shaped the Islamic world before the Abbasid empire broke apart (see Chapter 9). Just as Córdoba and Cairo became important Islamic centers, so too did new centers challenge Byzantium's supremacy. The residents of Constantinople looked down FOR Polynesian voyages of exploration (Ch. 5) COMPARISON (from 1000 B.C.E.) 304 on the rulers of the Frankish kingdom for their lower cultural level, but the pope saw Charlemagne as a power- ful ally and crowned him as emperor of Rome, much to the dismay of the Byzantine ruler Irene. other regions in Europe converted to Christianity and became new centers as well. The Anglo-Saxons adopted Christianity in the 500s and 600s. Farther to the north, the Scandinavians converted around 1000, at the same time as the leaders of the Magyars and Kievan Rus. The decision of these individual rulers to adopt Christianity, whether the Roman Catholicism of Rome or the orthodoxy of Constan- tinople, had long-term consequences as great as those resulting from the decisions of individual Asian rulers to patronize Buddhism or Hinduism (see Chapter 8). By the year 1000, almost all of Europe had become Christian, and it remained Christian for the next one thousand years. At around this time, the first Europeans began to explore the north Atlantic. After being exiled by the Thing assembly in Iceland, Erik the Red went to Greenland, where he founded a settlement in 985 or 986. In the year 1000, using information from Bjarni Herjolfsson, Erik's son Leif led his followers all the way to L'Anse aux Meadows and possibly as far south as Maine. Challenged by the Skrael- ings, the Scandinavians decided to return to Greenland. Their voyages amply demonstrated that it was easy to cross the Atlantic in their longboats, but because they did not stay in the Americas, their voyages—unlike Columbus's in the 1490s—had no lasting impact (see Chapter 15). The world became dramatically bigger in the year 1000—not, of course, because the earth changed size, but in the sense that people living in Europe found out about Iceland, Greenland, and the Americas for the first time. As the next chapter will show, a similar development occurred in the Islamic world as people living there learned about sub-Saharan Africa, India, and China. An important source of their information was an intrepid traveler who managed to visit all of these lands in the course of a single lifetime.

Inquisition

special court established by the pope to hear charges against those accused of heresy.

T-O Maps

stylized European maps of the world that showed Asia, Africa, and Europe with Jerusalem at the center.

The Mongol Empire and a Shrinking World

n 1253-1254, William of Rubruck traveled through the unified Mongol empire only a few years before it broke apart. Chinggis Khan and his descendants had led powerful armies fueled by the desire for plunder over huge distances. They were able to conquer so much territory because their cavalry overwhelmed the various sedentary peoples they defeated. The Mongols proved unusually willing to learn from conquered peoples and adopt their technologies. Although their empire lasted less than sixty years, the Mon- gols unified much of Eurasia for the first time. The Mongols created the largest contiguous land empire in human history. Rubruck traveled from France to Khara Khorum, the Mongol capital in modern Mongo- lia, and when he arrived, he met a small group of Euro- peans who had made similarly long journeys. Unlike the earlier Persian, Roman, and Chinese empires (see Chap- ters 6, 7, and 8), the Mongols did not invest in roads, but they built an empire-wide system of postal stations, where riders, including William of Rubruck, could get fresh mounts and continue on their journeys. On his trip William encountered many other Europeans who had left their homes, both voluntarily and not, to fight, to work as siege engineers, or to serve as envoys. The Mongols acted as a powerful filter for crafts- men, commodities, and ideas moving across Eurasia in an era when both China and Europe were undergoing commercial revolutions (see Chapters 12 and 13). They transmitted across great distances those items and ideas they prized, including gold, textiles, metallurgy, and geo- graphic knowledge. The resulting flow of people and information brought breakthroughs in multiple fields as the peoples on both sides of Eurasia learned of each other's discoveries. Gunpowder, which traveled from China west to Europe, played the determining role in the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople. Learning much from Islamic geographers (see Chapter 9), Chinese cartographers drew Europe and Africa on their maps for the first time. Also drawing on Islamic knowledge, the Zheng He voyages to Southeast Asia, the Islamic world, and Africa went farther than any earlier expeditions, traveling some 7,000 miles (11,000 km) from China, and were much larger in scale. When fully staffed, the fleet carried more than twenty-eight thousand men serving on over three hundred ships, some 200 feet (61 m) long (see page 456). These were not voyages of exploration: the navigators knew exactly where they were traveling on the hajj routes that linked China to Mecca and East Africa (see Chapter 11). With few exceptions, the ships stopped for only a few days before going on to the next port: the sailors who have left written records had minimal interactions with those they met, but they did record which commodities were available to trade at each port, a sign of the impor- tance of commerce in encouraging exploration. The primary purpose of the voyages was to awe China's neighbors and convince everyone inside and out- side the empire of the Yongle emperor's legitimate claim to succeed his nephew as emperor. As the Viking voyages informed Europeans about the Americas (see Chapter 10), so too did the Zheng He voyages increase Chinese knowledge of the outside world. The voyages contributed to the shrinking of the world as distant places grew more familiar and seemed closer. Otherwise they had little effect. Some sixty years after the final Zheng He voyage in 1433, Columbus's ships had far greater historic impact even though they traveled a shorter distance. The next chapter will explain why.

The Great Road Reunites Six Nations

n June 2014, the World Heritage Committee of UNESCO recognized the Incan road network, Qhapaq-Ñan (kah-pahk ni-ahn), or the Great Road, as a World Heritage site. The application was unusual for several reasons: Qhapaq-Ñan is not a single location but 273 individual temples, towers, forts, and hostels in 137 locations on a section of the road 435 miles (700 km) long. This is the World Heritage site. Although only a fraction of the original network, the road crosses six different Latin American countries—Peru, Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina—that have warred in the past and even recently over contested borders. (Peru and Ecuador fought intermittently for over 150 years before they agreed to a new border in 1995.) Attracted by the potential increase in tourists that World Heritage sites bring, the six nations came together to make a joint application some twelve years in the making. "We are all very happy," said Luis Jaime Castillo Butters, an archaeologist and a deputy culture minister in Peru, on hearing of the UNESCO approval. A marvel of engineering, the original network's roads run up and down rain forests, deserts, and high mountains. They reached maximum use under the Inca empire in the 1400s, when the network extended across and along the full extent of the Andes Moun- tains. The transportation system played a key role in holding the Inca empire together, because it linked the capital at Cuzco with all outlying towns. Supplies could reach the remote site of Machu Picchu only because of the Qhapaq-Ñan road network. Although one Inca bridge made of braided grass survives even today (a drive about four hours away from Cuzco), the road network is badly damaged in many areas. Tractor farming and cellphone towers pose the greatest threat to the existing sections of the original road. Other sections have already been paved over and converted into highways. The participating governments hope that the granting of World Heritage status will make it possible to raise the funds for necessary repairs and conservation measures.

Peter Albelard

(1079-1142/44) Promi- nent scholastic thinker who wrote about his affair with Heloise in his autobiography, The Story of His Misfortunes.

Ibn Jubayr

(1145-1217) Spanish courtier from Granada, Spain, who went on the hajj pilgrimage in 1183- 1185. Wrote The Travels describing his trip to Mecca—the most famous example of a travel book, called a rihla in Arabic.

Khubilai Khan

(1215-1294) Grandson of Chinggis Khan who became ruler of Mongolia and north China in 1260 and who succeeded in conquering south China in 1276, but not Japan or Vietnam.

Thomas Aquinas

(1224/25-1274) one of the most famous scho- lastic thinkers and a member of the Domini- can order; author of Summa Theologiae, which interpreted diffi- cult theological questions.

Hundred Years War

(1337-1453) War between the English and French fought entirely on French soil; it enhanced the powers of the kings of England and France to tax and to maintain a standing army.

Ming Dynasty

(1368-1644) A native Chinese dynasty that overthrew the Mongols but continued many of their practices.

Henry The Navigator

(1394-1460) Portu- guese prince who sup- ported Portuguese explorations in the Medi- terranean, Atlantic, and along the West African coast.

Sima Qian

(145-86 b.c.e.) Author of Records of the Grand Historian, a history of China from ancient leg- endary times to the first century b.c.e.. Lived dur- ing the Han dynasty.

Han Dynasty

(206 b.c.e.-220 c.e.) The immediate succes- sor to the Qin dynasty. Han rulers denounced Legalist governance but adopted much of the Qin blueprint for empire. Because of its long rule, the Han dynasty was a model for all subsequent dynasties.

Qin Dynasty

(221-207 b.c.e.) The first dynasty to rule over a unified China; heavily influenced by Legalist teachings that promoted soldiers and officials strictly on the basis of accomplishment, not birth.

Ban Zhao

(45-120 c.e.) A historian and the author of Les- sons for Women, a book that counseled women to serve men and advocated education for girls start- ing at the age of seven.

Byzantine Empire

(476-1453) Eastern half of the Roman Empire after the loss of the Western half in 476. Sometimes simply called Byzantium.

Confucius

(551-479 b.c.e.) A teacher who made his living by tutoring stu- dents. Known only through The Analects, the record of conversa- tions with his students that they wrote down after his death.

Carolingian Dynasty

(751-ca. 1000) An important aristocratic family that overthrew the Merovingian rulers in 751. Their most powerful ruler was Charlemagne. After his death, the empire split into three sections, each under a different Carolingian ruler.

Ennin

(793-864) A Japanese monk who traveled to China between 838 and 847 to obtain original Buddhist texts.

Jihad

(Arabic root for "striv- ing" or "effort") A strug- gle or fight against non-Muslims.

The Devil, Ishmael, and Hagar Trick Isaac

(Demon enters dressed as an angel or an old man.) Demon: O young man, what are you doing? You appear to me to have very great cares. Ishmael: Yes, there is much that worries me. But how do you know if I have some cares? Who told you? Demon: Do you not see that I am a resident of heaven? I was sent here from there in order to tell you what you are to do here on earth. Ishmael: Let me hear your commands. Demon: Listen, here is what has you so occupied today. It concerns the high-born noble Isaac, who is of such good life. He always gives credence to the commands of his father. But you have been think- ing that you want him to no longer obey his father and his mother. I will tell you how to do it. Ishmael: How very content I am to hear your words. Let me enjoy your help since you are a resident of heaven and you are a helper of people. Demon: Take right to heart my commands. Look. Today his father and his mother have invited people to a banquet. There will be great content- ment and enjoyment. But you are to oblige him to abandon his father and his mother by you and him going somewhere to play. And if he so ruin- ously obeys you they will despise their child for it even though they greatly love him. Ishmael: I will carry out your command in that fashion. Demon: As for me, I am going into heaven for I came to console you and to tell you what you are to do.... (Hagar the slave enters along with her child Ishmael.) Hagar: Today the great ruler Abraham has yet again invited people to a banquet because of the great esteem he has for his child. But as for us, since we are lowly servants, we are held in no regard. And as for you, my child, you are doubly luckless. Would that I could find relief in you, that you could give relief to all my earthly torments, for in truth your birth and your lot are eternal weeping. (At that point she and her child weep together.) Ishmael: You, sun, who are very high up, warm us with your very great radiance everywhere in the world, with which you are able to please all the people of the earth. But as for us, the two of us are suffering. We are doubly luckless. But now know, O my mother, what I will do today when all are eat- ing. Perhaps I can sneak [Isaac] out so that we will go play somewhere. Thus he will violate the orders of his father so that he will no longer love him with his heart. Hagar: What you are thinking is very good. Do it so.

Encomienda System

(Literally "entrusted") system established in 1503 by the spanish in the hope of clarifying arrangements with the colonists and of ending the abuse of indigenous peoples of the Americas.

Janissaries

(Turkish word meaning "new soldiers") Soldiers of the Ottomans, recruited from con- quered Christians and required to be celibate.

Chinngis Khan

(ca. 1167-1227) Founder of the Mongol Empire who united the different peoples living in modern-day Mongolia in 1206, when he took the title Chinggis Khan

William of Rubruck

(ca. 1215-ca. 1295) Franciscan monk from France who visited the court of the Mongol khan Möngke in 1253-1254 and sent back one of the most detailed surviving sources about the Mongols.

Songsten Gampo

(ca. 617-649/650) Founder of the Yarlung dynasty in Tibet who introduced Buddhism and an alphabet to his subjects.

Fotudeng

(d. 349) Central Asian Buddhist missionary who persuaded the ruler Shi Le to convert to Bud- dhism; Shi Le's decision to grant tax-free land to Buddhist monasteries was a crucial first step in the establishment of Buddhism in China.

Parliament

(literally "to talk") Name for the different councils that advised the English kings and approved their requests for taxation.

Mehmed the Conqueror

(r. 1451-1481) Leader of the Ottomans who conquered Constantino- ple in 1453 and patron- ized scholars from different countries.

Ivan III

(r. 1462-1505) Muscovy's most impor- tant leader, who over- threw the Qipchaq khanate in 1502.

Ashoka

(r. 268-232 b.c.e.) The third king of the Mauryan dynasty (ca. 320-185 b.c.e.), the first Indian ruler to support Buddhism.

Emperor Wu

(r. 685-705) The sole woman to rule China as emperor in her own right; she called herself emperor and founded a new dynasty, the Zhou (690-705), that replaced the Tang dynasty until her death in 705, when the Tang dynasty was restored.

Salic Law "On Killing Pregnant Women"

1. He who kills a pregnant woman shall be liable to pay twenty-four thousand denarii [600 solidi, or 6 pounds, or 2.73 kg, of gold]. And if it is proved that the fetus was a boy, he shall also be liable to pay six hundred solidi for the child. 2. He who kills a girl less than twelve years old or up to the end of her twelfth year shall be liable to pay two hundred solidi [2 pounds, or .9 kg, of gold]. 3. He who kills a woman of mature age up to her sixtieth year, as long as she is able to bear children, shall be liable to pay twenty-four thousand denarii [600 solidi, or 6 pounds, or 2.73 kg, of gold].* 4. But if she is killed afterwards when she is no longer able to bear children he shall be liable to pay two hundred solidi [2 pounds, or .9 kg, of gold].

The Five Pillars of Islam Chart

1. To bear witness to Allah as the sole god and to accept Muhammad as his messenger 2. To pray five times a day in the direction of Mecca 3. To pay a fixed share of one's income to the state in support of the poor and needy 4. To refrain from eating, drinking, and sexual activity during the daytime hours of the month of Ramadan 5. Provided one has the necessary resources, to do the hajj pilgrimage to Mecca

The Most Important Ritual Practices Performed by Hajj Pilgrims

1. To take off one's ordinary clothing and enter a state of purity by putting on the simple pilgrims' clothing 2. To circumambulate the Kaaba seven times in a clockwise direction 3. To participate in the Standing at Arafat, asking God for forgiveness, and then to spend the night there 4. To participate in the symbolic stoning of the devil on three separate days at three different locations where, Muslims believe, the Prophet Ishmael was tempted by Satan 5. To offer an animal sacrifice at Mina 6. To repeat the circumambulation at the Kaaba 7. To pray at the site where Ishmael and Abraham prayed after the Kaaba was built 8. To leave the state of purity by having one's head shaved or trimmed and then putting on one's own clothes

Chapter One of the Analects

1.1 The Master said: "To learn something and then to put it into practice at the right time: is this not a joy? To have friends coming from afar: is this not a delight? Not to be upset when one's merits are ignored: is this not the mark of a gentleman?" 1.2 Master You said: "A man who respects his par- ents and his elders would hardly be inclined to defy his superiors. A man who is not inclined to defy his superiors will never foment a rebellion. A gentleman works at the root. Once the root is secured, the Way unfolds. To respect parents and elders is the root of humanity." 1.3 The Master said: "Clever talk and affected man- ners are seldom signs of goodness." 1.4 Master Zeng said: "I examine myself three times a day. When dealing on behalf of others, have I been trustworthy? In intercourse with my friends, have I been faithful? Have I practiced what I was taught?" 1.5 The Master said: "To govern a state of middle size, one must dispatch business with dignity and good faith; be thrifty and love all men; mobilize the people only at the right times." 1.6 The Master said: "At home, a young man must respect his parents; abroad, he must respect his elders. He should talk little, but with good faith; love all people, but associate with the virtuous. Having done this, if he still has energy to spare, let him study literature." 1.7 Zixia said: "A man who values virtue more than good looks, who devotes all his energy to serving his father and mother, who is willing to give his life for his sovereign, who in intercourse with friends is true to his word—even though some may call him uneducated, I still maintain he is an educated man." 1.8 The Master said: "A gentleman who lacks gravity has no authority and his learning will remain shallow. A gentleman puts loyalty and faithful- ness foremost; he does not befriend his moral inferiors. When he commits a fault, he is not afraid to amend his ways." 1.9 Master Zeng said: "When the dead are honored and the memory of remote ancestors is kept alive, a people's virtue is at its fullest." 1.10 Ziqing asked Zigong: "When the Master arrives in another country, he always becomes informed about its politics. Does he ask for such informa- tion, or is it given him?" Zigong replied: "The Master obtains it by being cordial, kind, courteous, temperate, and deferential. The Master has a way of enquiring which is quite different from other people's, is it not?" 1.11 The Master said: "When the father is alive, watch the son's aspirations. When the father is dead, watch the son's actions. If three years later, the son has not veered from the father's way, he may be called a dutiful son indeed." 1.12 Master You said: "When practicing the ritual, what matters most is harmony. This is what made the beauty of the way of the ancient kings; it inspired their every move, great or small. Yet they knew where to stop: harmony cannot be sought for its own sake, it must always be subor- dinated to the ritual; otherwise it would not do." 1.13 Master You said: "If your promises conform to what is right, you will be able to keep your word. If your manners conform to the ritual, you will be able to keep shame and disgrace at bay. The best support is provided by one's own kinsmen." 1.14 The Master said: "A gentleman eats without stuffing his belly; chooses a dwelling without demanding comfort; is diligent in his office and prudent in his speech; seeks the company of the virtuous in order to straighten his own ways. Of such a man, one may truly say that he is fond of learning." 1.15 Zigong said: "'Poor without servility; rich with- out arrogance.' How is that?" The Master said: "Not bad, but better still: 'Poor, yet cheerful; rich, yet considerate.'" Zigong said: "In the Poems, it is said: 'Like carv- ing horn, like sculpting ivory, like cutting jade, like polishing stone.' Is this not the same idea?" The Master said: "Ah, one can really begin to discuss the Poems with you! I tell you one thing, and you can figure out the rest." 1.16 The Master said: "Don't worry if people don't recognize your merits; worry that you may not recognize theirs."

Gautama's Search for Enlightenment

1.1.2. Gautama's search for Enlightenment Left home to pursue religious quest at 29. Spent six years traveling around to find out reasons. Tradition of asceticism and retreat to forests.

Gautama became Buddha

1.1.3. Gautama became Buddha Sakyamuni meditated underneath a bo tree for forty-nine days. Achieved enlightenment at age 35, took the name Buddha ("The Awakened One" or "The Enlightened One"). Started to preach about 528 BCE

Appeal of Buddhism

1.2. Appeal of Buddhism Buddha insisted on that not only all human beings but also all other creations are equal (against the caste system). Emphasized on moral behavior (no need the help from the Brahmins); social inequality due to individual's behavior of last life. Popular among lower class people.

Ashoka's Support

1.3. Ashoka's support Ashoka (r. 270-232 BCE) converted to Buddhism. The rapid spread of Buddhism along the Ganges River and through north India. The popularity of Buddhism in India (and South Asia).

The Four Noble Truths

2. Doctrines and sects of Buddhism 2.1. Basic concepts of Buddhism 2.1.1. The "Four Noble Truths" a. All life involves suffering; b. Suffering arises from desires; c. The solution to suffering lies in curbing desire; d. Desire can be curbed if a person follows the "Eightfold Path".

Nirvana

2.1.2. Nirvana The goal of practice Buddhism is to overcome craving for sensual pleasure and achieve nirvana. Nirvana is a very abstract concept, which can be simply understood as the extinguishment of all desires.

The Concept of Karma

2.1.3. The concept of Karma Karma: every action causes a particular (good or evil) result, which determines your path in the process of transmigration. Therefore, everything you do has moral consequences. Not only the act, but also the intention of the act has moral consequences. Thus insincere ritual is useless.

Theravada Buddhism

2.2. Schism in Buddhist Teachings 2.2.1. Hinayana (Theravada) Buddhism (the Lesser Vehicle) "Canonical" Buddhism Emphasized on monastic vocation and personal salvation Popular in today Southeast Asia

Mahayana Buddhism

2.2.2. Mahayana Buddhism (the Greater Vehicle) All beings possess Buddha-nature; Buddha as god-like figure; Popular in East Asia. Tibetan Buddhism?

The decline of Buddhism in India

3. The spread of Buddhism outside of India 3.1. The decline of Buddhism in India Lost support from the rulers—rulers like it in peaceful time, dislike it in war time; The assimilation of Hinduism; The invasion of Islamic power.

The Spread of Buddhism to Southeast Asia

3.2. The spread of Buddhism to Southeast Asia The lesser Vehicle The importance of monastic vocation

The Silk Roads and the Spread of Buddhism to central Asia

3.3. The Silk Road and the spread of Buddhism to central Asia Kushan Empire: the great patrons of Buddhism Merchants and travelers: believers and spreaders of Buddhism

Early introduction of Buddhism into China

3.4. Buddhism in China 3.4.1. Early introduction of Buddhism into China Difficulties of the spread of Buddhism in China: language difficulty; against Chinese traditional values.

Chinese transformation of Buddhism

3.4.2. Chinese transformation of Buddhism Incorporated Chinese ideas such as filial piety, ancestor worship as basic value; Earned karma not only for oneself, but also for parents, other family members, relatives, even for anccestors; Monastic vocation was only one way of attaining enlightenment, lay practice can attain enlightenment as well; Rebirth in paradise; Self-supportive.

Political reasons for the success of Buddhism in China

3.4.3. Political reasons for the success of Buddhism in China The social disorder during the Period of Disunion drove people to dream a paradise to free their suffering. The nomadic people (non-Han Chinese) who ruled North China favored Buddhism, an "alien" religion.

Buddhism in East Asia

3.5. Buddhism in East Asia Chinese Buddhism became the model of Buddhism in other East Asian countries (Korea, Japan, Vietnam). Guanyin (a female Bodhisattva) as a savior.

Buddhism in the United States

3.6. Buddhism in the United States Asian immigrants brought Buddhism to the New World; Currently the majority of Buddhists in the United States are Asian Americans; The strong influence of Zen Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism.

Lay Buddhist

A Buddhist devotee who observes the five pre- cepts not to kill, steal, commit adultery, lie, or drink alcohol, but con- tinues to live at home and does not join the Buddhist order

Daoism

A Chinese belief system dating back to at least 300 b.c.e. that empha- sized the "Way," a con- cept expressed in Chinese as "dao." The Way of the early Daoist teachers included medi- tation, breathing tech- niques, and special eating regimes

Bernadino de Sahagun

A Franciscan friar, sahagún (1499-1590) worked with a team of researchers to record the history of the Aztec peo- ples before the spanish arrived in a long book entitled General History of the Things of New Spain, also known as the Florentine Codex

Merovingian Dynasty

A Frankish dynasty (481-751) in modern- day France and Germany whose founder, Clovis (r. 481-511), converted to Christianity and ruled as a war-band leader.

Al-bakri

A Muslim geographer based in Córdoba whose Book of Routes and Realms is one of the earliest written sources about Africa.

Malinche

A Nahua noblewoman, trilingual in spanish, Nahuatl, and Mayan, who served as translator for and adviser to Cortés.

Purohita

A Sanskrit name, mean- ing "chief priest," for the learned men who brought Hinduism and Buddhism from India to Southeast Asia.

Dharma

A Sanskrit term meaning correct conduct accord- ing to law or custom; Buddhists, including Ashoka, used this con- cept to refer to the teachings of the Buddha.

Nirvana

A Sanskrit word that lit- erally means "extinc- tion," as when the flame on a candle goes out. In Buddhism the term took on broader meaning: those who followed the Eightfold Path and understood the Four Noble Truths would gain true understanding.

Rig Veda

A collection of 1,028 Sanskrit hymns, com- posed around 1500- 1000 b.c.e. but written down around 1000 c.e. One of the most reveal- ing sources about Indo- Europeans who settled in north India.

Gudrid and Thorfinn Karlsefni

A couple originally from Iceland who settled in about 1000 in Green- land and then Canada and later returned to Iceland

Context and Connections 15.5

A critical difference between Columbus's voyages and the Chinese ones was that the navigators on the Chinese treasure ships followed the best- traveled oceanic route in the world before 1500. Muslim pilgrims from East Africa traveled up the East African coast to reach their holy city of Mecca, and Chinese pilgrims sailed around southeast Asia and India to reach the Arabian peninsula. The Zheng He voyages simply linked the two hajj routes together. In contrast, when Columbus and other European explorers set off, they were consciously exploring, looking for new places to colonize and going where no one else (or at least no one else that anyone remembered) had gone before

Jati

A term, sometimes trans- lated as "subcaste," for groups of five thousand to fifteen thousand peo- ple in modern India. Many, but not all, Indi- ans marry someone from the same jati and share meals on equal footing only with people of the same jati

Sui-Tang China and Silla Korea

A. China's military campaign against Korea Prolonged conflicts between Sui-Tang China and Korean kingdoms; The destroy of Koguryo kingdom in 668. B. The tribute relationship between Tang China and Silla Korea Cooperation and conflicts between Tang China and Silla Korea; A political compromise—the Chinese forces withdrawn from Korea, and Korea remained as a tribute state of China. C. The spread of Chinese political and cultural influences Adopted China's governmental system; Envoys/scholars were sent to China to learn Chinese culture; The spread of Confucianism (elite class) and Buddhism (popular interest). D. Differences between two cultures Aristocrats and royal houses had more power in government/society than in China; Korea did not establish a bureaucracy based on merit; Korean women did not bind their feet.

China and Vietnam

A. China's relations with Vietnam The occupation of central and northern Vietnam; The resistance from the indigenous people; Vietnam after the Tang. B. The adoption of Chinese culture An administrative system and bureaucracy modeled on that of China; The popularity of Confucianism and (Mahayana) Buddhism. C. Differences between two cultures The importance of indigenous religions; Vietnamese women did not bind their feet and played a much more important role in society than their Chinese peers.

The departures from Chinese practice

A. Decline of Chinese influence Becasue China fell into disorder, Japanese government no longer sent envoys/students to China (in the ninth century). B. The divergence between Japanese and Chinese cultures No need for the Mandate of Heaven; Had female emperors; Different exam systems; more...

The breakthroughs

A. Discoveries in anatomy and astronomy Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) found errors of Galen's work via dissection (1543); William Harvey (1578-1657) found the function of the heart (1628); Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) believed that the earth would circle the sun (1543); Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) found that Jupiter has satellites and the moon has mountains (1610). B. The climax of the Scientific Revolution: Isaac Newton Isaac Newton (1642-1727) made great contribution to many fields; The Principia (The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy)(1687); The theory of motion.

Factors behind Luther's success

A. Economic factors Peasants did not like the priests who were more interested in collecting money than in providing religious service; People did not want their church taxes and tithes all went to the Pope who lived in Italy. B. Political factors The decentralization of Germany, which consisted of many semi-independent territories; Each of them was religiously independent. C. Technological factors The development of printing press—which made Luther's ideas easily accessible to the public; The rise in literacy.

Japan: The Adoption of Continent Culture

A. Korea as bridge Korean immigrants brought continent culture to Japan. Korea-Japan cooperation. B. The adoption of Chinese culture Confucianism (loyalty, filial piety, the importance of agriculture, ...); Buddhism (sinicized Buddhism); Chinese style of governing (law, governmental organization, capital, ...).

The appearance of Muhammad

A. Muhammad (c. 570-632) and Mecca • Muhammad: orphaned at 6, raised by his uncle, married a wealthy widow at 25. • Mecca: commercial center (in western Arabia) and pilgrimage center (the cult of Ka'ba). B. Muhammad's preaching • He received his first revelations in 610 (heard the voice of the angel Gabriel speaking to him); then began to preach publicly about his teaching. • His threat to Mecca [threaten the position of Mecca as a pilgrimage and commercial center]. C. Hijra ("migration," 622) • 622, the year 1 of the Islamic calendar; • Medina (meaning "the city," i.e. the city of the prophet); • Umma—the community of faithful (a religious, military, and economic organization); • Muhammad as the leader of Medina. D. The success of Muhammad • His success at Medina • Returned to Mecca (630) • The new religion of Islam

Historical background

A. The spread of Christianity within Europe The origins of Christianity; The popularity of Christianity within the Roman Empire; The dominant religion in medieval Europe. B. The criticism of the Church The sale of Church officials; The under-education of the priests; The Church's pursuit of wealth and the Pope's struggle for secular power; ...

Abraham and Issac on the Mountain

Abraham: Now listen, O my beloved child. The All- powerful, God, has strictly ordered me to [make sure] that his precious sacred commands are real- ized so that he will see if we people of the earth love him and if we carry out his sacred commands, for he is the ruler of the living and the dead. Now receive death with great humility, for he speaks thusly: I will be able to raise the dead for I am eter- nal life everywhere in the world. May his will be done. (At that point Abraham weeps and the Misericordia is played on wind instruments.) Isaac: Do not cry, O my beloved honored father, for it is with very great happiness that I receive death. May the precious sacred commands of God be done as he has ordered you [to do them].... Angel: Abraham! Abraham! (He seizes his hand.) Abraham: Who are you that calls me? Angel: Now listen up! By the power of God and by his orders, he has thus seen how you love him and carry out his sacred commands so that you do not violate them. For today you brought your beloved child, whom you greatly love, to the top of the mountain here in order to make an offering of him to the All-powerful, God the Father. Now it is by his precious will that I have come to tell you to leave him alone so that your beloved child, Isaac, will not die. Abraham: May his precious commands be done as is his will. Come, O my beloved child, for you have now been saved from the hands of death. (At that point he loosens the cloth with which the eyes are wrapped and he undoes the rope with which the hands are bound.) Angel: Now know that the substitute for your beloved child will be a little lamb you are to make ready. Such is the will of God. Let us be on our way, for I am going to leave you at your home.

The Sui Dynasty

After several centuries of disunification, China again reunited under the Sui dynasty (581-617). A. A diverse society Ethnical diversity (Han Chinese, Central Asian people); Cultural diversity (Confucianism, Daoism, Buddhism). B. The building of the Grand Canal Grains and commodities were shipped from the south to densely populated north; Easy for the movement of troops and the control of the empire. The Grand Canal of China.

Context and Connections Chapt. 9.3

Although believers see Muhammad's teachings as the direct product of his hearing the word of God, historians note the considerable borrowings from early Judaism in early Islam. The practice of fasting during the day and eating after sundown was a Jewish observance of holy days that Muhammad extended for the entire month of Ramadan. Initially Muhammad and his followers prayed five times a day toward Jerusalem, the holy city of the Jews; only later, in accordance with Muhammad's teachings, did they switch to praying toward Mecca. Sometime around 620, the Quran and later sources report, Muhammad had a night vision in which he traveled first to Jerusalem and then to the seven circles of heaven where he met Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets who acknowledged him as a prophet. Still, contemporary Jews found Muhammad's versions of Jewish teachings difficult to accept, and Muhammad expelled one group of Jews from Medina, an indication of the tensions between the two groups.

Kana

An alphabet developed in the ninth century that allowed the Japanese to write the pronunciation of words in Japanese.

European Expansion: An overview

An overview of European overseas expansion A. European pioneer explorers before the 1400s The Vikings; The Crusaders; Travelers [e.g., Marco Polo]; Sailors to Africa. B. Non-European expansion before 1450 The Mongol's conquest of Eurasia; Chinese overseas voyages to Indian Ocean and East Africa (1405-1433). C. European overseas voyages from 1450 to 1550 It dramatically changed the course of world history; Different parts of the world no longer isolated from each other; The Europeans began to dominate the world.

Inca Empire

Andean empire founded in 1438 by Pachakuti (d. 1471), which ruled over a peak population of 10 to 12 million

Ayllu

Andean kin groups of the Inca empire that worked the land in several adja- cent ecological zones as a hedge against crop failure in any one zone.

State-of-the-Art Cartography in the 1400s

Around the year 1400 a Korean mapmaker took on the task of making a map of the known world. Because of the extensive cultural exchanges under Mongol rule, this mapmaker had many more resources than Zhao Rugua did in 1225, when he wrote his Description of Foreign Peoples (see Chapter 12). Zhao was able to consult earlier Chinese maps and books and to speak with visitors to the Chinese port of Quanzhou, but by 1400 more maps, from more countries, were available, and the Kangnido mapmaker decided to use three maps. The first, based on an Arabic prototype, showed the latest information about Africa. The southern tip, what we now call the Cape of Good Hope, was surrounded by water, and the Nile had three sources, as shown on all Islamic maps. The Arabic map had the south on the top and had to be rotated 180 degrees to put the south on the bot- tom, as it appears on Chinese maps. The second map the mapmaker used was a historic map of China that showed both contemporary place names and earlier place names. And the third map was of Korea. Unfortunately, these three maps did not have a scale (or maybe they did and the cartographer simply ignored it), so the cartographer simply joined the three maps together. Judged from today's stand- point, the results are far from perfect. Korea is dis- proportionately large, Africa is tiny, and India is missing altogether. Even so, this is one of the earliest surviving maps portraying all of Eurasia. It includes both the Islamic world and Europe, a vivid illustra- tion of how the Mongol unification of Eurasia led to a dramatic increase in geographic knowledge.

[From the preface to Book of Calculation Composed by Leonardo Pisano, Family Bonaci, in the Year 1202]

As my father was a public official away from our homeland in the Bugia customshouse established for the Pisan merchants who frequently gathered there, he had me in my youth brought to him, looking to find for me a useful and comfortable future; there he wanted me to be in the study of mathematics and to be taught for some days. There from a marvelous instruction in the art of the nine Indian figures, the introduction and knowledge of the art pleased me so much above all else, and I learnt from them, whoever was learned in it, from nearby Egypt, Syria, Greece, Sicily and Provence, (France), and their various methods, to which loca- tions of business I traveled considerably afterwards for much study, and I learnt from the assembled disputations. But this, on the whole, the algorithm and even the Pythagorean arcs I still reckoned almost an error compared to the Indian method. Therefore strictly embracing the Indian method, and attentive to the study of it, from mine own sense adding some, and some more still from the subtle Euclidean geometric art, applying the sum that I was able to perceive to this book, I worked to put it together in xv distinct chapters, showing certain proof for almost every- thing that I put in, so that further, this method per- fected about the rest, this science is instructed to the eager, and to the Italian people above all others..

COntext and Connections Chapt. 3.5

As the second phase of construction at Kanaganahalli shows, beginning in the first and second centuries c.e., sculptors began to make images of the Buddha. One group in north India portrayed the Buddha as a young man, while another, active in the Gandhara (gahn-DAHR-ah) region of modern Pakistan and Afghanistan, was influenced by later copies of Greek statues brought by the armies of Alexander of Macedon, or Alexander the Great, in the fourth century b.c.e. (Chapter 6).

Context and Connections Chapt 3.6

Ashoka claimed to exercise influence over lands far from north India. One inscription composed between 256 and 254 b.c.e. claims that Ashoka brought about "victory by dharma" far beyond his frontiers, as far west as the realms of Greek rulers in Egypt and Greece, and as far south as the island of Ceylon, modern Sri Lanka. Modern scholars concur that he may have sent missionaries, particularly to Sri Lanka, where oral accounts record their names

Overall Chapt. 3 Context and Connections

Ashoka's decision to patronize Buddhism in 260 b.c.e. marked a key juncture in world history: after Buddhism became the state religion of the Mauryan dynasty, it spread throughout the Ganges, northern Indus, and Godavari River Valleys. A century later, as kings in Sri Lanka and Afghanistan emulated Ashoka's example as a chakravartin ruler, Buddhism extended even farther. Eventually it would become a major world religion with adherents in South, Southeast, and East Asia (see Chapter 8). The residents of the Indian subcontinent adopted agriculture sometime around 7000 b.c.e. Like the inhab- itants of Mesopotamia (see Chapter 2), the people of the Indus River Valley's complex society did not have a single ruler but multiple rulers in different cities. The ruins of these ancient cities had distinct neighborhoods for peo- ple of varying occupations and social levels, but because the Indus River Valley script has not been deciphered, we do not know how the residents conceived of these different social groupings. Most distinctive, the sophis- ticated water system of their largest settlement at Mohenjo-daro provided clean water for drinking and bath- ing as well as sewage facilities for all residents, regard- less of social level. The introduction of Sanskrit by Indo-Aryan migrants between 1500 and 1000 b.c.e. brings Indian ideas about social rank into clearer focus. The hymns of the Rig Veda explain the system of four ranked varna for different occupations. Local kings ruled by patronizing Brahmin priests who performed complex rituals on their behalf, a hallmark of complex societies whose members believed that their rulers were entitled to the surplus they produced. In a ceremonial state, the king patronized priests in the hope that his subjects would support his rule because of his ties to religious specialists. Ashoka's exercise of chakravartin rule made the Mauryans a full-fledged cer- emonial state. Both Egypt and ancient Mesopotamia also had elements of ceremonial states: the pharaoh was thought to be a god-king whose rituals ensured the well- being of his kingdom, and the rulers of ancient Sumer made regular offerings to the temples in their city-states. The Greek ambassador Megasthenes reported that the kingdom had three types of territory: that ruled directly by the Mauryan king, that governed by local rulers with reduced powers who acknowledged the sovereignty of the Mauryan king, and local republics. Even under Ashoka, one of ancient India's most powerful rulers, India was not politically united, but its different regions maintained shared cultural traditions. This pattern held for many periods in South Asian history. Although surrounded by water on two sides and bounded by mountains to the north, ancient India had extensive contacts with its neighbors. Trade of carnelian, lapis lazuli, and shells with Mesopo- tamia dated back to at least 2500 b.c.e. Sometime before the year 100 c.e., the understanding of the monsoon winds made it possible for ships to sail to India from Egypt and to sail west of India to China. In China, as the next chapter will show, only a few decades after Ashoka put up his stone pillars, a different ruler erected stones carved with texts asserting his virtue, but he exercised far greater control over his subjects than did Ashoka.

Guilds

Associations formed by members of the same trade or merchant group that regulated prices and working hours.

Liberal Arts

Basic core of the curric- ulum in Europe between 500 and 1500 that con- sisted of the trivium (logic, grammar, and rhetoric) and the qua- drivium (arithmetic, astronomy, geometry, and music theory).

Context and Connections 14.1

Because so few Europeans traveled to Mongolia at the time, and almost all were envoys sent by the pope and European rulers hoping to form an alliance against the Muslims in the Crusades, the Mongols assumed that William of Rubruck was a diplomat. Yet William was a missionary who wore a brown robe and went barefoot because he was a Franciscan friar (Chapter 13). The Franciscan order, founded by Saint Francis in the early 1200s, did not allow its friars to carry money, possess extra clothing, or own books. These rules imposed strict discipline on friars living in Europe, and they made William's trip to Mongolia especially arduous.

Translation Movement

Between 750 and 1000, the effort by Islamic scholars, many living in Baghdad, to translate books on astronomy, medicine, mathematics, and geography from ancient Greek, Sanskrit, and Persian into Arabic.

Longboat

Boat used by the Vikings to make raids; made of wood and equipped with both oars and sails, they were the fastest mode of transport before 1000

Context and COnnections Chapt. 8.4

Chang'an, although it probably had roughly the same num- ber of residents as Rome (somewhere between 500,000 and 1,000,000), was a very different city. As large as the Tang dynasty capital was, its only public spaces were markets. unlike Romans who went to the forum daily, the socially prominent in Chang'an avoided the markets because they thought merchants were unclean; the only officials who entered the markets were those who checked scales and who recorded the low, middle, and high prices of a long list of goods every two weeks. unlike in Rome, there was no amphitheater, hippodrome, or public bath. Like Rome, though, the main streets of the Tang capital had wide drainage channels to remove the rainwater pouring off roofs.

China's Influence in East Asia

China had strong influence in medieval East Asia. A. A common literary culture Chinese writing system became lingua franca (mixed language) in East Asia; Confucian ideology and Buddhist religions spread throughout East Asia through Chinese language; Classic Chinese was adopted as language of government in Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. B. China as the center of the Buddhist realm Reconfiguration of Buddhist universe with China at its center; Mt.Wutai became one Buddhist center for Buddhism of Japan and Korea. C. Medieval China and East Asia East Asia countries shared common culture that rooted in Chinese intellectual, religious, and political traditions, but diverged into distinctive and independent national forms.

Context and Connections Chapt. 4.3

China's writing system differed from Mesopo- tamia's, Egypt's, and India's in that the Chinese never developed a phonetic script. Chinese students have to learn thousands of charac- ters before they can read, even if today they use a phonetic script to input characters into their text messages

An Empire across Eurasia

Chinggis Khan died in 1227, his sons and grandsons continued to conquer more land, and eventually created an empire across Eurasia; the Mongol Empire was also the largest empire ever created by the human beings. A. The conquest of Eurasia Took Jin (north China) in 1234; Conquered south Russia plain in 1239; Attacked Poland and Hungary in 1240; The Great Khan Ogodei died in Dec. 1241, Mongol troops withdrawn from Europe. B. The breakup of the Mongol Empire After the death of Chinggis Khan, his sons and grandsons struggled for power; In the 1260s, one empire became four regional empires; Khubilai Khan (r. 1264-1294) united China and established the Yuan dynasty in 1279.

Cerealization

Collective term for many agricultural practices that allowed Europeans between 1000 and 1300 to cultivate most of the land in Europe

Astrolabe

Computational instru- ment that allowed observers to calculate their location on earth to determine the direction of Mecca for their prayers. Also functioned as a slide rule

Justinian Corpus of Civil Law

Consisting of the Code, the Digest, and the Institutes, this compen- dium preserved the core of Roman law for succeeding ages.

Tang Dynasty

Dynasty (618-907) that represented a political and cultural high point in Chinese history. The Tang emperors combined elements of the Qin/Han blueprint for empire with new measures to create a model of governance that spread to Tibet, Korea, and Japan

Abassid Caliphate

Dynasty of rulers (750-1258) who ruled a united empire from their capital at Baghdad until the empire fragmented in 945. They continued as religious leaders until 1258, when the last Abbasid caliph was killed by the Mongols.

Korea and Vietnam: Early History

Early history of Korea and Vietnam in Chinese records; The expansion of Chinese territory to Korea and Vietnam in the Qin and the Han dynasties; Chinese forces were ousted from Korea during the period of disunion; The borrowing of Chinese political and cultural traditions.

European motives and methods

European motives and methods A. Economic and religious motives Economic motives: searching for lands and finding alternate trade route to the Asian market; Religious motives: to spread Christianity. B. The improvement of maritime and military technologies Maritime technologies: knew the globe was round; the use of compass, astrolabe, and caravel. Military technologies: the use of new weapons--such as field cannon and hand-held muskets. C. The first phrase of western expansion The Portuguese and the Spaniards; Population pressure; To increase wealth and monarchies.

Context and COnnections Chapt 4.4

Even if modern historians do not share all of sima's assump- tions, the Records of the Grand Historian provides a detailed chronology for early Chinese history, something that historians of south Asia do not have. Mesopotamian and Egyptian sources list dynasties and sometimes individual rulers, but never with the detail that the Grand Historian provides

Consequences of the Crusades: Explorations

Explorations Cultural exchange (Arabic numbers [from India], paper making [from China], etc.); The spread of missionary activities; The desire to further explorations.

Context and Connections 14.6

Fei Xin's description of the known world ends with a description of Mecca, an indication that his account, although written in Chinese, was modeled on the Islamic genre of rihla travel accounts used by Ibn Jubayr, Ibn Fadlan, and Ibn Battuta to record their journeys (see Chapters 9, 10, and 11). This is further evidence that the Chinese of the Ming dynasty inherited the cartographic knowledge of the Mongols, who had learned so much from Islamic geographers.

The Great Wall Then and Now

Few people realize that the Great Wall that we see today (right) was built during the Ming dynasty (1368-1644), not during the Qin dynasty (221-207 b.c.e.). The Qin emperor ordered the construction of the Great Wall by linking together many pre-existing dirt walls. In the fifteenth through seventeenth centuries c.e., the Ming built with stone along the foundations of the Qin dirt walls. The remains of the Qin wall, which was made largely from pounded earth, survive in only a few places in China (left).

Five Pillars of Islam

Five Pillars (principles) of Islam: • A. Avowal that there is only one god (Allah is the only God) and Muhammad is his messenger; • B. Prayer five times a day (facing Mecca); • C. Fasting during the lunar month of Ramadan (fasting from dawn to sunset); • D. Paying alms (donate 2.5% or more of income to build Mosque, help poor Muslim, etc.); • E. Making the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once during one's lifetime (Hajj)

The Rise of the Mongols

Founded by Chinggis Khan (ca. 1167-1227), the Mongol Empire came into being between 1200 and 1250. At the time of Chinggis's birth around 1167, the Mongols lived as nomads in modern-day Mongolia with their herds of sheep, cattle, and horses, trading with their sedentary neighbors primarily for grain, tea, textiles, and metal goods. After conquering the different peoples in Mongolia, Chinggis forged them into a fearsome fighting force that conquered gigantic sec- tions of Europe, Central Asia, and China. The Mongols' skill with horses and sys- tematic use of terror brought them unprecedented military success. Nomadic peoples lived in the Mongolian grasslands even before the Mongols moved into Central Asia around 1000. The Mongols spoke Mongolian and different Turkic languages that are the basis of modern Turkish. The only source in Mongolian about the Mongols' early history is The Origin of Chinggis Khan, an anonymous oral epic that took shape in 1228 and was commit- ted to writing a century or more later. (Many English translations are entitled The Secret History of the Mongols.) In 1206, Chinggis Khan ordered a Central Asian pris- oner of war to record something he said in Mongolian. The prisoner wrote in his native Uighur, a Central Asian language spoken in Central Asia and in modern- day Xinjiang in west China. After this incident, the Mongols used the Uighur script to write the Mongolian language. The Mongols worshiped a variety of nature spirits. Each of the Mongols' tents, William noticed, contained several of the Mongols felt figurines representing protective spirits. The supreme deities of the Mongols were the sky-god Tengri and his counterpart, the earth-goddess Itügen. Certain people, called shamans, special- ized in interceding with these gods, sometimes traveling to high mountains where the gods were thought to live. On other occasions, shamans burned bones and interpreted the cracks as indicators of the gods' will, much like Shang Dynasty diviners in ancient China. Mongol society had two basic levels: ordinary Mongols and Mongol society the families of the chiefs. The chief's sons and grandsons formed a privileged group from which all future rulers were chosen. Differences in wealth certainly existed, with some men having larger herds or better clothes than others, but no rigid social divisions or inherited ranks separated ordinary Mongols. Below them in rank, however, were slaves, who had often been captured in battle. The chiefs periodically collected a 1 percent tax simply by taking one of every hundred animals. Unlike sedentary peoples, who collected taxes once a year (usually in the fall after the harvest was in), Mongol chiefs imposed the tax whenever they chose. Sometime around 1167, The Origin of Chinggis Khan the Rise of Chinggis reports, a chieftain of a small Mongol tribe and his wife Khan gave birth to a son they named Temüjin, the future Chinggis Khan. When he was nine, a rival poisoned his father, and his widowed mother and her children were able to eke out a living only by grazing a small herd of nine horses and eating wild plants. Once he had united the Mongols, Chinggis weakened their Conquests under group loyalties by dividing all his soldiers into units that Chinggis crossed group lines. Each soldier belonged to four units: a unit of ten was part of a unit of one hundred, within a larger unit of one thousand, which finally belonged to one of ten thousand men. All able-bodied men between the ages of fifteen and seventy fought in the army, and women did so if necessary. Scholars estimate the total population of the Mongols at 1 million, far less than the populations of the lands they conquered and governed. Numbering only one hundred thousand in 1206, the Mongol forces reached several hundred thousand at the height of Chinggis's power in the 1220s. The Mongols started with only one significant advantage over the European and Asian powers they conquered: horses. Their grassy homeland provided them with an unending supply of horses, and, because Mongol children were raised on horseback, they matured into highly skilled riders who could shoot from horseback with their compound bows of wood, horn, and sinew. The Mongols had so many horses that they could change their mounts three times a day, and they frequently put dummies on riderless horses to make their army look larger. After conquering Bukhara, Chinggis appointed one man, usually a Mongol, to be governor, or darughachi (dah-roo-GAH-chee), of a con- quered region. The darughachi's main respon- sibility was to collect the required taxes. The darughachi were free to try different types of taxes in the various parts of the empire, as long as they produced sufficient revenue. The Mongols continued to levy irregular taxes, like their traditional 1 percent tax on herds, in addition to taxes on agriculture, and in many locations they also instituted a 5 percent tax on commercial transactions.

First Emperor of the Qin Dynasty

Founder of the Qin dynasty (221-207 b.c.e.) and the first ruler to unify ancient China. Eliminated regional dif- ferences by creating a single body of law and standardizing weights and measures.

Sanskrit Version

From afar, [Maudgalyayana's mother] Bhadrakanya [bud-DRAH-kahn-ee-ya] saw her son, and, as soon as she saw him, she rushed up to him exclaiming, "Ah! At long last I see my little boy!" Thereupon the crowd of people who had assembled said: "He is an aged wandering monk, and she is a young girl—how can she be his mother?" But the Venerable Maha Maudgalyayana replied, "Sirs, these skandhas* of mine were fostered by her; therefore she is my mother." Then the Blessed One, knowing the disposition, propensity, nature and circumstances of Bhadrakanya, preached a sermon fully penetrating the meaning of the Four Noble Truths. And when Bhadrakanya had heard it, she was brought to the realization of the fruit of entering the stream. *skandhas The five aggregates—form, feelings, percep- tions, karmic constituents, and consciousness—which in Buddhism are the basis of the personality

Varna

From the Sanskrit word for "color": the four major social groups of ancient Indian society, ranked in order of purity (not wealth or power): Brahmin priests at the top, then warriors, then farmers and merchants, and finally dependent laborers.

The Viking Raids, 793-1066

From their homeland in Scandinavia, the Vikings launched their first raid on Lindisfarne on the North Sea in 793 and moved on to attack Iceland, Greenland, France, Spain, and Russia for more than two hundred years. They often settled in the lands they raided. In around 1000, they even reached North America

Arawak

General name for a fam- ily of languages spoken in the 1500s over a large region spanning from modern Venezuela to Florida. Also refers to speakers of these languages

Ottomans

Group of Turkic Muslim nomads who gained control of the Anatolia region in modern Turkey around 1300. Their con- quest of Constantinople in 1453 marked the end of the Byzantine Empire.

The Columbian Exchange

Here are some basic information about the Columbian Exchange: A. The exchange of peoples and ideas The Europeans, Africans, and Asians moved to the Americas; Created ethnically mixed societies in the Americas; Christianity spread to and became the major religion in the Americas. B. The exchange of plants and animals From the Old World to the New World: wheat, olives, grapes, garden vegetables (from Europe); bananas, coconuts, breadfruit, and sugar cane...; horses, cattle, pigs, sheep, rats, and rabbits, ...; From the New World to the Old World: maize, squash, tomatoes, potatoes, peanuts, chocolate, cotton, and tobacco. C. The exchange of diseases From the Old World to the New World: smallpox, measles, influenza, ...; From the New World to the Old World: syphilis, ....

Henry the Navigator 1

Here are some brief information about Henry the Navigator: The motives of profits, religions, and curiosity spurred him to support overseas explorers, mostly Italians. They did not succeed in reaching India or China, but their exploration along the West African coast opened a new trade.

Ibn Fadlan's Description of a Rus Burial

I was told that when their chieftains die, the least they do is cremate them. I was very keen to verify this, when I learned of the death of one of their great men. They placed him in his grave and erected a canopy over it for ten days, until they had finished making and sewing his funeral garments. In the case of a poor man they build a small boat, place him inside and burn it. In the case of a rich man, they gather together his possessions and divide them into three, one third for his family, one third to use for his funeral garments, and one third with which they purchase alcohol which they drink on the day when his slave-girl kills herself and is cremated together with her master. (They are addicted to alcohol, which they drink night and day. Sometimes one of them dies with the cup still in his hand.) When their chieftain dies, his family ask his slave-girls and slave-boys, "Who among you will die with him?" and some of them reply, "I shall." Hav- ing said this, it becomes incumbent on the person and it is impossible ever to turn back. Should that person try to, he is not permitted to do so. It is usu- ally slave-girls who make this offer. When that man whom I mentioned earlier died, they said to his slave-girls, "Who will die with him?" and one of them said, "I shall." So they placed two slave-girls in charge of her to take care of her and accompany her wherever she went, even to the point of occasionally washing her feet with their own hands. They set about attending to the dead man, preparing his clothes for him and setting right all that he needed. Every day the slave-girl would drink alcohol and would sing merrily and cheerfully. On the day when he and the slave-girl were to be burned I arrived at the river where his ship was. To my surprise I discovered that it had been beached and that four planks of birch and other types of wood had been placed in such a way as to resemble scaffolding. Then the ship was hauled and placed on top of this wood. They advanced, going to and fro around the boat uttering words which I did not understand, while he was still in his grave and had not been exhumed. Then they produced a couch and placed it on the ship, covering it with quilts made of Byzantine silk brocade and cushions made of Byzantine silk brocade. Then a crone arrived whom they called the "Angel of Death" and she spread on the couch the coverings we have mentioned. She is responsible for having his garments sewn up and putting him in order and it is she who kills the slave-girls. I myself saw her: a gloomy, corpulent woman, neither young nor old. When they came to his grave, they removed the soil from the wood and then removed the wood, exhuming him still dressed in the izar [clothing] in which he had died. . . . They carried him inside the pavilion on the ship and laid him to rest on the quilt, propping him with cushions. . . . Next they brought bread, meat, and onions, which they cast in front of him, a dog, which they cut in two and which they threw onto the ship, and all of his weaponry, which they placed beside him. . . . At the time of the evening prayer on Friday, they brought the slave-girl to a thing they had constructed, like a door-frame. She placed her feet on the hands of the men and was raised above the door-frame. She said something and they brought her down. [This happened two more times.] They next handed her a hen. She cut off its head and threw it away. They took the hen and threw it on board the ship. I quizzed the interpreter about her actions and he said, "The first time they lifted her, she said, 'Behold, I see my father and my mother.' The sec- ond time she said, 'Behold, I see all of my dead kin- dred, seated.' The third time she said, 'Behold I see my master, seated in Paradise. Paradise is beautiful and verdant. He is accompanied by his men and his male-slaves. He summons me, so bring me to him.'"... The men came with their shields and sticks and handed her a cup of alcohol over which she chanted and then drank. Six men entered the pavilion and all had inter- course with the slave girl. They laid her down beside her master and two of them took hold of her feet, two her hands. The crone called the "Angel of Death" placed a rope around her neck in such a way that the ends crossed one another and handed it to two of the men to pull on it. She advanced with a broad-bladed dagger and began to thrust it in and out between her ribs, now here, now there, while the two men throttled her with the rope until she died. Then the deceased's next of kin approached and took hold of a piece of wood and set fire to it. . . . A dreadful wind arose and the flames leapt higher and blazed fiercely. One of the Rus stood beside me and I heard him speaking to my interpreter. I quizzed him about what he had said, and he replied, "He said, 'You Arabs are a foolish lot!'" So I said, "Why is that?" and he replied, "Because you purposely take those who are dearest to you and whom you hold in highest esteem and throw them under the earth, where they are eaten by the earth, by vermin and by worms, whereas we burn them in the fire there and then, so that they enter Paradise immediately." Then he laughed loud and long.

Context and Connections Chapter 4.5

If we define religion as the belief in the supernatural, then Confucianism does not seem to qualify. It differs from the religious systems of the ancient Mesopotamians, Egyptians, and Indians, who all believed in higher deities. But if we consider religion as the offering of rituals at different turning points in one's life—birth, marriage, and death—then Confucianism qualifies as a religion

The Scandinavian Settlement at L'Anse aux Meadows

In 1960, a Norwegian diplomat-turned-explorer, Helge Ingstad, and his archaeologist wife, Anne Stine Ingstad, explored the Canadian coastline hop- ing to find a place where, as The Vinland Sagas said, "the country was flat and wooded, with white sandy beaches wherever they went; and the land sloped gently down to the sea."* This description fit an inlet near the town of L'Anse aux Meadows on the northern tip of Newfoundland, where Helge and Anne Ingstad found a small settlement. Pollen analysis revealed that the climate in about 1000 was similar to today's and could have easily supported a settlement. Lumber, whether live trees or driftwood, was abundant. It was so cold that in most years the ice did not melt until June or July, an impossible climate for wild grapes. Caribou, wolves, and foxes lived on the land, while walruses, whales, and seals flourished in the bay. Still, the growing season was long enough for cloudberries, raspberries, blueberries, and red and black cur- rants to thrive. Butternuts, a kind of a walnut, were found at the site but do not grow that far north. The Scandinavians probably traveled south to collect them and possibly the grapes mentioned so often in the sagas. The small settlement contained eight houses that dated to between 980 and 1020, precisely the time of the Scandinavian exploration of Vinland. The most revealing artifact was a small ringed pin, identical in design to thirteen others found on Ice- land and one of a few indications that it was a Scandinavian settlement. Identical in structure to Icelandic buildings of the same period, the houses had walls and roofs made of sod that rested on wooden supports. Three were quite large halls, for perhaps fifty people, measuring 65 feet (20 m) long, with five smaller structures nearby. They formed three clusters of houses, each with a main dwelling for the group's leader and smaller, out- lying houses for his dependents and slaves. Perhaps a total of eighty or ninety people lived at the site. Archaeologists found no large objects, an indication that the residents of the site systematically packed their possessions and left for home. Many small artifacts indicate the kinds of tasks done on site. Needles and spindle whorls point to textile manufacture and mending, which, accord- ing to the sagas, were traditional women's work. The residents also collected iron ore, which forms naturally in bogs containing iron and manganese, and melted it in a furnace to obtain metal, which they hammered into nails for their boats. The place where the Scandinavians worked iron contained an anvil and a big stone for hammering iron. The pres- ence of a single locally produced iron nail makes this the earliest site of ironworking in the Americas (since none of the indigenous peoples living in the Americas could work iron). The settlement at L'Anse aux Meadows could not have been the main base camp for the Scandinavian settlers described in the sagas. on an exposed point, it was not in a protected cove, the preferred site for Viking landings. The shed for repairing ships was used only on a short-term basis, probably in winter, and the absence of any barns or enclosures for ani- mals means that none of the site's residents engaged in any farming. Most likely the site was a launching point for expeditions further inland. Still, this site provides undeniable evidence that the Scandinavians lived at L'Anse aux Meadows, however briefly, before deciding to return home.

Context and Connections Chapt 4.11

In 60 b.c.e. the huge Xiongnu confederation broke apart, ending the Xiongnu threat. Other nomadic peoples living in the grasslands to the north, like the Mongols (see Chapter 12), would intermittently threaten later dynasties.

Context and Connections 10.3

In 800, during Irene's reign as Byzantine emperor, the pope crowned Charlemagne emperor of Rome, using the pretext that Irene could not be emperor because she was female. The Byzantines were horrified. They thought of Charlemagne as the unlettered leader of primitive peoples, not as a monarch comparable to their own. When Charlemagne accepted the title, the Frankish kingdom, in a great blow to the Byzantines, styled itself the legitimate heir to the Roman empire. The alliance between the Carolingians and the pope allowed both to increase their power over their rivals, whether the countries surrounding the Franks or the church in Byzantium

Preventing Disease Among Hajj Pilgrims

In recent years, the number of Muslims participating in the annual pilgrimage to Mecca has reached almost three million (one million Saudis and almost two million non-Saudis), but in 2013 the number fell sharply to under two million. Why? Fear of Middle East respiratory syndrome, or MERS, an often fatal respiratory virus. The first outbreak occurred in Saudi Arabia in 2012, and most of those who have fallen ill live in West Asia, whether in Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Qatar, or the United Arab Emirates. Scientists are not cer- tain where the disease originated or how it spreads. It may be associated with camels; some of those taken ill have either been in close contact with cam- els or drunk camel's milk. Twice as many men have fallen ill as women, and some speculate that the veil, worn by all Saudi women and many female Muslim visitors, helps prevent infection. In their attempt to manage the vast numbers of pilgrims, the Saudi authorities closely limit how many can come, granting one thousand visas for each one million Muslims who live in a given country. Twenty- three percent, or 1.57 billion, of the world's popula- tion is Muslim, and Islam is the world's second largest religion (see page 204). The four countries with the largest Muslim populations are far from Mecca, and their citizens must fly to Saudi Arabia: Indonesia with 210 million, Pakistan 178 million, India 177 million, and Bangladesh 149 million. Egypt (80 million) and Nigeria (76 million) are fifth and sixth on the list, reflecting that Africa is the world region with the larg- est number of recent converts to Islam. Growing rap- idly, the number of Muslims is projected to reach 26 percent of the world's population by 2030. In efforts to prevent outbreaks of illness, the Saudi authorities have banned the import of any fresh food and will spray mosquito repellent in the tempo- rary quarters for those from countries where dengue fever is frequent. They plan to give antibiotics to any- one coming from a country where meningitis occurs and to distribute polio vaccine to 500,000 others. But the uncertainty about the origins of MERS and the mechanisms of its spread makes it difficult to prevent. Hajj authorities express cautious optimism because MERS did not break out during the hajj of either 2012 or 2013. However, they have not yet publicized the hundreds of cases occurring in the first half of 2014 in Jeddah, the location of the airport where most pilgrims landed in October 2014

Pope

In the 400s and 500s, the pope was the highest-ranking bishop in Rome, and by 1000, the pope was recognized as leader of the Catholic Church in Rome.

The Fourth Major Rock Edict

In the past, the killing and injuring of living beings, lack of respect towards relatives, Brahmins and shra- manas had increased. But today, thanks to the prac- tice of dharma on the part of the Beloved of the Gods, the king Ashoka, the sound of the drum has become the sound of dharma, showing the people displays of heavenly chariots, elephants, balls of fire, and other divine forms. Through his instruction in dharma abstention from killing and non-injury to living beings, deference to relatives, Brahmins and shrama- nas, obedience to mother and father, and obedience to elders have all increased as never before for many centuries. These and many other forms of the practice of dharma have increased and will increase. The Beloved of the Gods, the king Ashoka, his sons, his grandsons and his great grandsons will advance the practice of dharma, until the end of the world and will instruct in the law, stand- ing firm in dharma. For this, the instruction in the law, is the most valuable activity. But there is no practice of dharma without goodness, and in these matters it is good to progress and not to fall back. For this purpose, the inscription has been engraved—that men should make progress in this matter, and not be satisfied with their shortcom- ings. This was engraved here when the Beloved of the Gods, the king Ashoka, had been consecrated twelve years.

Context and Connections Chapt. 3.7

In the second century b.c.e. a local chieftain unified the island of Ceylon for the first time. After being named king, he followed Ashoka's example and built a giant stupa as a monument to the Buddha. Also in the second century b.c.e., another patron of Buddhism, a ruler of Greek descent, unified a large territory in Afghanistan and Pakistan whose eastern edge included the former Mau- ryan capital at Pataliputra. These two rulers' patronage of Buddhism marked the first time Buddhism spread beyond the immediate territory of India.

The Place of Buddhism and Hinduism in World History

In the year 100, the only Buddhists in the world lived in India and Sri Lanka; by the year 1000, Buddhist teachings had spread throughout the entire region encompassing South, Southeast, Central, and East Asia. When the Japanese monk Ennin traveled in China between 838 and 847, he encountered Buddhist monks from north and south India, Sri Lanka, Central Asia, Japan, Korea, and of course, China. Between 380 and 400, the Roman woman Egeria had traveled as a Christian pilgrim to Jerusalem to see where Jesus had lived and to visit monasteries in Turkey (see Chapter 7). Ennin's reasons for going on pilgrimage differed. His purpose was not to see where the Buddha had lived (in any case, the Buddha had lived in India, not in China), but to study and obtain books so that he could understand complex Buddhist teachings more completely. Chinese monasteries hosted Indian monks who taught Sanskrit, the language of many texts from India, but as the centuries passed, more and more Buddhist texts were translated into Chinese. A beginning student of Sanskrit, Ennin read these texts in Chinese. Like Greek and Latin in the Christian world, Sanskrit and Chinese were spoken and written throughout the Buddhist world. unable to speak Chinese, Ennin found that he could brush-talk by writing Chinese characters to communicate with almost every Buddhist he met. Buddhism became a major world religion during the same centuries as Christianity did. No single event in Buddhist history marked a turning point like the Edict of Milan in 313 or the decree of 380 that declared Christianity the official religion of the Roman empire (see Chapter 7). Instead, drawn by the chakravartin ideal, different Asian rulers made a series of individual deci- sions to support Buddhism. First, sometime around 120, Kanishka, the Kushan ruler of north India, launched a missionary movement to introduce the teachings of Greater Vehicle Buddhism to Central Asia and China. Then, during the fourth and sixth centuries, rulers in different places converted to Bud- dhism: the Xiongnu leader Shi Le in north China, the rulers of the three Korean kingdoms of Koguryo, Silla, and Paekche, and the Yamato rulers of Japan. After the Sui emperor reunified the Chinese empire in 589, he financed the construction of Buddhist monasteries all over his empire. Many of these events involved an element of belief, as individual rulers embraced Buddhist teachings, and some—like the Empress Koken of Japan—even became Buddhist nuns or monks. But these decisions also turned on nonreligious elements. The Tang blueprint for rule, as written in the Tang Code, offered a guide for the heads of smaller, weaker states who wished to become rulers as powerful as the Tang emperor. Rulers in Korea, Tibet, and Japan all issued local versions of the Tang Code. In India, as more rulers endowed Hindu temples and patronized Brahmin priests, Hinduism gained in impor- tance as Buddhism declined. Southeast Asian rulers combined both Hindu and Buddhist elements and sponsored magnificent religious monuments like Angkor Wat in Cambodia. At the time of Ennin's visit, Buddhism had become so influential that the Chinese Emperor Wuzong ordered thousands of monks and nuns, who did not pay taxes, to return to lay life and generate income for his revenue- starved dynasty. On his death in 846, his successor immediately overturned all of his hostile measures, and Ennin was able to retrieve from his Korean interpreter friend the books he cared about so deeply and take them to Japan. By the year 1000, Buddhism, Hinduism, and Chris- tianity had all spread far beyond the lands of their origin. Each is one of the largest religions in the world today, and many Hindus and Buddhists live in Asia. In the next chapter we will consider yet another world religion that had spread over a large region by 1000 and that would have an equally profound impact on world history: Islam.

The Inca Empire

In1438,theIncarulerPachakutitook power in the capital at Cuzco and led his armies to conquer large chunks of territory along the Andes. Two north-south trunk routes, with subsidiary east-west routes, formed a system of over 18,000 miles (30,000 km) of roads. By 1532, the Inca ruled an empire of 1,500 square miles (4,000 sq km).

Quipu

Inca system of record keeping that used knots on strings to record the population.

Context and Connections Chapt. 3.4

Indian coins appeared at the same time as in China (see Chapter 4) and the Persian empire (see Chapter 6). Called punch-marked coins, the Indian coins were made by cutting silver bars into slices, weighing them, and cutting off corners until the coin reached the desired shape. Assayers, or the craftsmen who tested the coins, stamped them with their personal symbols to vouch for their quality. Because Indian coins from this time do not resemble either Chinese or Persian exam- ples, historians conclude that coinage did not diffuse from one center to the other two but arose independently in the three regions.

Humanism

Intellectual movement begun around 1350 in Italy by scholars who opposed scholasticism. Emphasized the study of the humanities, which included traditional fields like logic, gram- mar, arithmetic, and music and newer fields like language, history, literature, and philosophy.

Context and Connections 9.8

Iqta grants were a dangerous innovation, far riskier than any grants the Persians had made to satraps (Chapter 6) or the Romans had made to tax farmers, because the iqta holders had no reason to support the empire

Context and Connections 10.1

Irene became the first woman to rule the Byzantine empire in her own right and called herself emperor (not empress), just as Emperor Wu had in China a century earlier (key term in Chapter 8). Both women rulers wanted to be accepted as the equals of male rulers, but they did not see themselves as champions of women's rights, a concept that first appeared only in the late 1700s. ●

Allah and Koran

Islam ABC: • Allah ("the God") • Muhammad, the messenger of God • Koran (Quran) ("the Word of God") (the holy book of Islam) • Islam ("submission" [to the Will of Allah]) • Muslim (one who has submitted)

Angkor Dynasty

Khmer-speaking dynasty in what is now Cambodia founded by Jayavarman II. His combination of Hindu and Buddhist imagery proved so potent that it was used by all later Angkor kings.

Silla

Korean kingdom that adopted Buddhism and united with the Tang dynasty in 660 to defeat the Koguryo and Paekche kingdoms, uni- fying Korea for the first time in 668.

Bone Rank System

Korean social ranking system used by the Silla dynasty that divided Korean families into seven different catego- ries, with kings coming from only the top group.

Ulama

Learned Islamic scholars who studied the Quran, the hadith, and legal texts. They taught classes, preached, and heard legal disputes.

Context and Connections Chapt 4.2

Like the Mesopotamians, the early Chinese lived inside walled cities. Whereas the Mesopotamians made their walls of kiln-fired bricks, the first Chinese city dwellers made their walls of sun-dried loess, whose heavy clay con- tent made it particularly suitable as a construction material.

Context and Connections 10.5

Like the ancient Polynesians (see Chapter 5), the Scandina- vian navigators did not use navigational instruments. Instead, they used the shapes of different landmasses for orientation. unlike the Polynesians, however, the Scandi- navians did not designate certain individuals as navigators or transmit geographical knowledge secretly; all men knew how to steer the longboats, and they announced their discoveries to everyone in their war-band.

Bhakti

Literally "personal devo- tion or love," a term for Hindu poetry or cults that emphasize a strong personal tie between the deity and a devotee, and did not use priests as intermediaries.

Renaissance

Literally "rebirth." Term used to refer to the period of humanist revival in Europe. Most historians now play down this term, recognizing that the intellectual advances of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries underpinned those of the humanist era.

Caliph

Literally "successor." Before 945, the caliph was the successor to Muhammad and the supreme political and religious leader of the Islamic world. After 945, the caliph had no politi- cal power but served as the religious leader of all Muslims.

Chakravartin

Literally "turner of the wheel," a Buddhist term for the ideal ruler who patronized Buddhism but never became a monk.

Luther's impact

Luther attracted many followers in Germany and other countries, his ideas inspired other religious reformers to develop their own ideas--all broke with the Catholic Church—a movement known as the Protestant Reformation. Luther's actions eventually led to the separation of Western Christendom.

Luther's reform and beyond

Luther's reform and beyond A. A social-wide movement Peasant rebellion, the abolishment of the Catholic churches, and religious wars; etc.; Luther's reform was not only a religious reform, but also caused social, economic, and political changes, everyone in the society was involved. B. Other reform sects The Calvinists in France The Anglican in England The Catholic Reformation C. Fragmentation vs. uniformity This was the conflict within the Western Christendom; They were reformers, did not create new religions; Many believed there should be only one true religion.

Context and Connections 14.3

Many Qipchaq subjects in Russian cities to the north and west remained Eastern Orthodox Christians. One of the khan's wives was the daugh- ter of the Byzantine emperor (Chapter 10), and Ibn Battuta accompanied her to Constantinople, so she could give birth in her parents' home. In the 1300s it was common for Muslims to visit the Christian city of Constantinople, which was sur- rounded by different Muslim countries. Ibn Battuta stayed there for over a month and saw the beautiful Hagia Sophia church without entering it (see Chapter 10). He even met the Byzantine emperor, who used an Arabic-speaking Jewish interpreter to ask Ibn Battuta about Jerusalem and the other countries he had visited. Constantinople had once been one of the largest and most beautiful Christian cities in the world, with a population of 1 million, but the Byzantines ruled only a tiny slice of territory when Ibn Battuta visited. Hit hard by the Black Death, the city's population fell to about 50,000 after 1348.

Certificate of Pilgrimage to Mecca

Many pilgrims to Mecca purchased a document to show that they had completed the pilgrimage. The one here, written on paper, testifies that the bearer—a woman named Maymuna, pos- sibly a native of North Africa—completed the pilgrimage to Mecca in 1433 and thus fulfilled the Fifth Pillar of Islam. The certificate shows the Kaaba at Mecca (in the second frame from the top), the Prophet Muhammad's tomb at Medina (fourth frame from the top), and the sole of Muhammad's san- dal (bottom frame). The certificate also includes several passages from the Quran about the hajj.

Martin Luther and his ideas

Martin Luther and his ideas A. Martin Luther (1483-1546) Born to a miner's family (in today Germany); Became a monk when young; Later became a teacher in a university. B. Some of Luther's main ideas Called for an end to the sale of indulgences; Objected to the authority of the Church and the priests (and the Pope); Believed that the Bible was the only Christian religious authority (and the Bible should be available for all people in their languages); "Justification by faith alone"; ... ...

Iconoclasts

Members of a movement calling for the destruc- tion of images of Jesus, Mary, and the saints because they were believed to violate the Second Commandment of the Hebrew Bible.

Friars

Members of the begging orders established in Europe between 1100 and 1200, of which the Franciscans were the best known.

Il-khanate

Mongol government of the region of Iran (1256-1335), founded by Hülegü, who took the title il-khan ("subordi- nate khan" in Persian) to indicate that he was lower in rank than his brother Möngke.

Postal Relay Sytem

Mongol institution of fixed routes with regular stops where messengers could eat and get fresh mounts, which func- tioned as the central nervous system of the sprawling empire.

Shamans

Mongol religious specialists who con- tacted deities by burning bones and interpreting the cracks to determine the gods' wills.

Context and Connections Chapt. 3.3

Most outside observers tend to exaggerate the rigidity of caste in modern India. Castelike groups exist within other modern societies, too, although we often fail to recognize how many people in non-Indian societies, includ- ing the united States, also tend to marry spouses from similar social and economic backgrounds.

Context and Connections Chapt. 9.2

Muhammad taught that his predecessors included all the Hebrew prophets from the Hebrew Bible as well as Jesus (Chapter 7) and his disciples. The Quran "singles out Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus as prophets with whom God established a strong covenant."† God granted Jesus the ability to perform miracles, the Quran teaches, but Jesus was not divine. Scholars of religion refer to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam as Abrahamic religions because they all recognize figures from the Hebrew Bible, such as Abraham, as important. All three of the Abrahamic religions have a specific text they see as holy, whether the Hebrew Bible of the Jews, the New and Old Testaments of the Christians, or the Quran of the Muslims.

Context and Connections Chapt. 9.4

Muslims do not accept the version of Abraham's sacrifice given in the Old Testament, in which the elderly couple, Abraham and Sarah, have a son, Isaac, whom Abraham spares at God's command (see Chapter 2). In contrast, Muslims believe that Abraham offered God another of his sons: Ishmael, whose mother was the slave woman Hajar (Hagar in Hebrew)

Khubriltai

Name of the Mongols' assembly that gathered to acclaim the new leader after he had defeated his rivals. Not an electoral body.

Xiongnu

Nomadic people north of China whose military strength derived from brilliant horsemanship. Regularly defeated the Han armies in battle until 60 b.c.e., when their federation broke apart.

The Inscription of the First Emperor

Now, in His twenty-sixth year, The Emperor created a beginning: He rectified the rules and measures As the guidelines for the ten thousand beings. In order to illuminate the human affairs He united and led to concord father and son. Sage, wise, humane, and right: He made manifest and clear the Way and its inner pattern! ... He worries for and takes pity on the black-haired people, From daybreak to dawn He is never remiss. He eliminates uncertainties, fixes the laws, And all know what to avoid. The chiefs of the regions are assigned separate duties, The various rulings are measured and smooth. Whatever one undertakes or rejects is invariably proper, There is nothing that does not conform to the scheme. The Emperor, He brightly shines, He looks down on and inspects the four quarters. The honored and the humble, the noble and the mean, They never exceed their position and rank. Evil and depravity are not tolerated, All are committed to honesty and goodness. To all affairs tiny or great they dedicate their utmost effort, No one dares to be idle or negligent. Distant and near, down to regions remote and obscure, They are single-minded in their efforts, reverential and respectful. They are upright and straight, solid and loyal - Duties and responsibilities have constancy.

The "Great Bath" at Mohenjo-daro, Pakistan

One of the most impressive ruins from the Harappan period (2600-1700 b.c.e.), the Great Bath is misnamed. Measuring 40 feet (12 m) high and 23 feet (7 m) wide, it was a water tank—not a pool or a bathing area. It held water for the ritual use of the city's residents, who bathed in a nearby building.

Mongol Success: Fast Moving SOliders

One soldier had four or more horses; He could ride for 3-4 days by switching his horses; Dummy soldiers sat on riderless horses.

Silk Routes

Overland routes through Central Asia connecting China and India, as well as the sea routes around Southeast Asia, along which were transmitted teachings, technologies, and languages

Context and Connections Chapt. 4.10

Paper was one of China's most important inventions because it was cheap to produce, durable, and lightweight. Only Egyptian papyrus (Chapter 2) was equally light, but papyrus did not grow everywhere. Every society that used stone, wood, or animal skins as writing material shifted to paper almost immediately after encountering it; paper spread from China to the Islamic world in the eighth century c.e. and to Europe in the eleventh century

Context and Connections 9.9

Pilgrimage was part of other religious traditions. Egeria (Chapter 7) traveled from Spain to Jerusalem to see the locations where Jesus had performed miracles, as well as to Egypt to see the first monasteries built there. Simi- larly, Ennin (Chapter 8) went to Mount Wutai in China so that he could obtain written copies of Buddhist texts whose Japanese versions were garbled and difficult to under- stand. Egeria and Ennin both made individual decisions to go on pilgrimage, and they chose their destinations to fulfill their own personal goals. No Christian or Bud- dhist teaching encouraged all believers to make a certain pilgrimage in the way that the Five Pillars enjoined Muslims, as long as they could afford it, to visit Mecca.

The Role of Prince Shotoku

Prince Shotoku (Shotoku Taishi, 574-622) played a key role in adopting continent culture. A. In favor of Buddhism He ruled Japan under a blend of Confucian, Shinto, and Buddhist ideas but favored Buddhism the most, built many state-sponsored temples throughout the country. B. Sent Japanese envoys to China He sent Japanese envoys [Imperial embassies to China] to China for importing the technologies and culture of China to Japan in the Sui dynasty (581-617). C. Reformed Japanese governmental system Established a system of 12 court ranks; Published the 17-article constitution.

Woodblock Printing

Printing technique devel- oped by the Chinese in which printers made an image in reverse on a block of wood and then pressed the block onto sheets of paper. An effi- cient way to print texts in Chinese characters.

Danelaw

Region including much of northern and eastern England, over which the Scandinavians maintained tenuous control between 866 and 954.

Darughachi

Regional governor appointed by the Mongols to administer a newly conquered region and to collect taxes.

Consequences of the Crusades: Religion

Religion The relationship between Christian world and Islamic world deteriorated; The Roman Catholics and Constantinople Orthodox split even farther.

Vedic Religion

Religious belief system of Indo-European migrants to north India; involved animal sacrifice and elaborate ceremo- nies to ensure that all transitions in the natural world—day to night, or one season to the next— proceeded smoothly.

Context and Connections Chapt. 4.8

Ruling a unified China from 221-207 b.c.e., the First Emperor had far greater power over his subjects than did India's Ashoka, who ruled slightly earlier, in 268-232 b.c.e. Ashoka governed a ceremonial state (Chapter 3) and erected monuments to win his subjects' support. The First Emperor also used monuments, but he was able to list everyone in his realm in household registers, col- lect taxes directly from them, and require able-bodied males to perform labor service and serve in the military.

Islam and women

Rural women had to work; • Urban or elite women lived in seclusion; • Man could have four wives but woman could have only one husband.

Context and Connections 15.1

Sahagún's research method was modeled on and expanded that of the Roman Pliny the Elder in his Natural History, completed more than one thousand years earlier between 77 and 79 c.e. After writing his long outline, Pliny consulted written sources and interviewed different scholars. He wrote entries on different topics, ranging from technological breakthroughs to the artists of his time, but he did not cross-check his information or use recorded questionnaires as Sahagún did.

Indus River Valley

Site of the earliest com- plex society on the Indian subcontinent (2600-1700 b.c.e.), characterized by brick cities, drainage systems, open plazas, and broad avenues.

Khaizuran

Slave girl (ca. 739-789) who became the wife of the caliph Mahdi (r. 775-785), the third ruler of the Abbasid caliphate. Khaizuran played an active role in court politics.

Dhows

Small sailboats used in the Indian Ocean made from teak planks laid edge to edge, fastened together with coconut fiber twine, and caulked to prevent leaking.

Soma

Soma was an intoxicating beverage, possibly made from ephedra (AY-fay-druh) leaves, that was drunk at ceremonies.

Spain: an Intimidating neighbor

Spain: an imitating neighbor Portugal's dominance of Europe's most valuable trade was challenged firstly by the Spaniards, later the Dutch, English, and French; The Spaniards founded their empire on conquest and colonization, not trade.

The Earliest Records of Chinese Writing

Starting around 1200 b.c.e., ancient Chinese kings used the clavicle bones of cattle (as shown here) and the bottom of turtle shells to ask their ancestors to advise them on the outcomes of future events, including battles, sacrifices, their wives' pregnancies, and even their own toothaches. After applying heat, the fortune-tellers interpreted the resulting cracks and wrote their predictions—in the most ancient form of Chinese characters— directly on the bones and turtle shells.

Ceremonial State

State whose ruler spon- sored religious obser- vances and construction of religious edifices in the hope that his sub- jects would willingly acknowledge him as ruler. Usually contrasted with rulers who depended on sheer force to govern.

The Mongol Empire: Steppe and the Nomads

Steppe is not just a geographic term, but also used by scholars to refer to the lifestyle of those nomads who lived in Mongolia (and central Asia). A. Harsh environment Flat grassland, scarcity of resources; Nomadic people continually move in order to find pastures and water for their livestock; low population density. B. Life style of nomadic people They engaged in animal husbandry; They got almost everything they needed from their livestock: meat, milk, felt (from wool), leather, and furs, etc; They traded with agricultural societies for whatever they could not produce themselves: iron, wood, cotton, silk, vegetables, tea, and grains, etc. C. Herdsman as well as warrior Constantly move and compete for resources made nomads frequently engaged in violence; Herdsman, hunter, and warrior; Powerful groups relied more on aggression than on animal husbandry. D. Never-ending competition between nomadic and agricultural peoples Nomadic people need more land for pasture; agricultural people need more land for farming. The invasion of agricultural societies by the nomads.

Principality of Muscovy

Successor to the Qipchaq khanate in modern-day Russia.

The Vinland Sagas

Term for Erik the Red's Saga and The Green- landers' Saga, composed in old Norse, that recount events around the year 1000. Both were written down between 1200 and 1400

Skraelings

Term in The Vinland Sagas for the Amerindi- ans living on the coast of Canada and possibly northern Maine, where the Scandinavians established temporary settlements.

Crusader

Term that indicated any- one who attached a cross to his or her clothes as a sign of belonging to a large, volunteer force against Muslims between 1095 and 1291

Hadith

Testimony recorded from Muhammad's friends and associates about his speech and actions. Formed an integral part of the Islamic textual tradition, second in importance only to the Quran.

Shi'ites

The "shia" or "party of Ali," one of the two main groups of Islam, who support Ali's claim to succeed Muhammad and believe that the grand- children born to Ali and Fatima should lead the community. Shi'ites deny the legitimacy of the first three caliphs

Altepetl

The 450 city-states of the Aztec empire that each had its own leader and government, a palace for its ruler, a pyramid-shaped temple, and a market

Maghrib

The African coastal region facing the Medi- terranean whose resi- dents largely converted to Islam by the 1100s

The Arabian Peninsula and the Arabs

The Arabian Peninsula and the Arabs• The harsh environment (deserts), the Arabs, and their nomadic life (sheep, camels);• The Arabs were proud of their family, race, language, and way of life.

Context and Connections Chapt 8.2

The Buddhists, like the Christians at the Council of Nicaea (see Chapter 7), met periodically to discuss their teachings, and Buddhist sources credit Kanishka with organizing the Fourth Buddhist Council, whose primary task was to determine which versions of orally transmitted texts were authoritative. Because the few writing materials available in ancient India, such as leaves and wooden tab- lets, decayed in the tropical climate, monks who specialized in specific texts taught their disciples to memorize them.

The Gothic Cathedral at Chartres

The Cathedral of Notre Dame at Chartres, France, is one of the best examples of the Gothic cathe- dral. It has an unusual front because the south tower (on the left) was built in 1160, while the much more opulent north tower was added in 1513 after a fire destroyed the original. High, arched ceilings inspired awe in those who entered cathedrals, but medieval builders faced a major engineering challenge. Arches built in the traditional manner required thick walls to support them. Two innovations allowed stoneworkers to deflect the pressure away from the walls and build taller structures: vaults with ribs inside the church and flying buttresses outside the walls. With the help of these supports, the ceiling of Chartres rises a glorious 121 feet (37 m) above the ground. since the walls did not bear the weight of the ceil- ing, they could be cut away to hold glass windows. The cathedral's dark shadowy corridors suddenly opened up into illuminated areas where beams of light poured through the stained glass, symbolizing the power of God to illuminate the imperfect world. Unlike many other cathedrals, Chartres preserves much of its original stained glass, which was made in multiple steps using state-of-the-art technology. The first step was to make a drawing with different colors marked. Using minerals to color the glass, glassmakers produced flat panes that could be cut to fit the outline of the original drawing. An artist painted metallic oxide onto the cut glass and then heated it in an annealing oven to fix the design. Then a metalworker used a soldering iron to melt lead strips that held together the different pieces of glass to form the window, which was then raised and inserted into the wall. The window shown here was dedicated to saint Lubin, the bishop of Chartres in 558, whose devotees believed that he performed miracles, including curing the afflicted. Wine merchants and local innkeepers paid for the window, which was completed in 1210.

Mandate of Heaven

The Chinese belief that Heaven, the generalized forces of the cosmos (not the abode of the dead), chose the rightful ruler. China's rulers believed that Heaven would send signs before withdrawing its mandate.

Context and Connections 10.8

The Eastern and Western churches differed on the issue of celibacy. Western church councils decided that all priests should be celibate in light of Augustine's teachings about ritual purity (Chapter 7) and the need for priests to be pure when giving communion. In actual practice, not all Western priests were; for example, the Christian cleric Peter Abelard had sex with Heloise even though they were not married (Chapter 12). Eastern church councils took the opposite position: their decrees held that most ordinary priests would have married before they were ordained. (only those living in monasteries would not marry.) Eastern priests, too, were supposed to be ritually pure when administering communion, but they could attain the necessary purity by temporarily abstaining from sex with their wives. The Eastern and Western churches concurred on two important points: already-ordained priests could not marry, and bishops had to be celibate.

The Han Empire at its Greatest Extent, ca 50 BCE

The Han dynasty inherited all the territory of its predecessor, the Qin dynasty, and its powerful armies conquered new territory to the north in the Korean peninsula, to the west in the Taklamakan Desert, and to the south in modern-day Vietnam

Context and Connections Chapt 9.1

The Kaaba was associated with Abraham, the patriarch described in the Hebrew Bible (see Chapter 2). In the 400s, one Egyptian observer, himself possibly an Arab, wrote that the Arabs believed they were descended from Abraham's son Ishmael (not Isaac, the man the Jews (key term in Chapter 2) believed to be their ancestor) and that they refrained from eating pork. These monotheists (Chapter 2), the Egyptian noted, were neither Jews nor Christians.*

Context and Connections Chapt. 4.9

The Legalist conception of law differed markedly from the Buddhist idea of dharma (Chapter 3), so often invoked in Ashoka's inscriptions. For Ashoka, dharma meant the correct way to do things, and by extension, law or custom. The Mauryan ruler could not determine the content of dharma, but the Qin emperor could and did issue new laws.

Conext and Connections 9.6

The Maghrib's fertile fields provided the entire Mediterra- nean with grain, olive oil, and fruits. Slaves and gold moved from the interior of Africa to the coastal ports, where they, too, were loaded into ships crossing the Mediterranean.

Context and Connections 14.2

The Mongol Empire was one of the largest and also the most loosely structured of the different empires of the past. The Mongols sought rev- enue from their subjects, but they had no policies that encouraged subjects to adopt Mongol ways, whether the Mongol language, religion, or lifestyle. If we arrayed the empires of the past on a continuum from most to least structured, the Chinese would be among the most structured (see Chapters 4 and 8), and the Mongols, the least. The Roman and Persian empires would fall somewhere in between (see Chapters 6 and 7).

Mongol Success: Creative Use of Calvary

The Mongols were master horse riders; Their creative use of cavalry in battle; The Mongol ponies.

The Mongols

The Mongols: A nomadic people originating in Mongolia; Raised sheep and horse; Organized as clans, clans as tribes.

The Tang Dynasty

The Sui dynasty was quickly replaced by the Tang dynasty (618-907), it was the heyday of medieval China; the Tang dynasty was also one of the greatest dynasties in Chinese history. A. The legacy of the Tang dynasty A golden age in Chinese history. B. Tang economy and society Economic prosperity and social peace in the High Tang (low tax, no banditry, ...); Cultural flourishing; One of the most powerful empires in the world. C. Chang'an (capital of Tang China): a cosmopolitan city A population of ca. 1 million (or about two million residents according to our textbook); People came from all over Asia; A well-managed city

Context and Connections 10.7

The Vikings' westward voyages are significant because the Scandinavians were the first Europeans to settle in the Americas, but their encounter had no long-term consequences, a result utterly different from that of Christopher Columbus's voyages in the 1490s (Chapter 15)

Early Chinese Bronzeworking

The ancient Chinese combined copper, tin, and lead to make intricate bronze vessels like this wine container, which dates to circa 1050 b.c.e. and was found buried in the hills of Hunan (HOO-nan), in southern China. Ana- lysts are not sure of the relationship between the tiger-like beast and the man it embraces. The man's serene face suggests that the beast is communicating some kind of teaching—not devour- ing him.

Equal-field system

The basis of the Tang dynasty tax system as prescribed in the Tang Code. Dividing house- holds into nine ranks on the basis of wealth, officials allocated each householder a certain amount of land.

Ancestor Worship

The belief in China that dead ancestors could intercede in human affairs on behalf of the living. Marked by fre- quent rituals in which the living offered food and drink to the ances- tors in the hope of receiving help

The Song Dynasty

The dynasty followed the Tang was the Song dynasty (960-1279), a time some argued China witnessed the so-called medieval economic revolution. A. Increase in production of agriculture The increase of cultivated land (people moved from north to south, opened more land; major crops changed from dry land crops to rice); The improvement of technologies (new variety [Champa rice], higher yields/output) B. The growth of commerce Agricultural specialization (domestic market—rice, tea); Paper money; Proto-bank (credit). C. Urbanization Big cities; Absentee landlords; Urban culture.

The effects of scientific discoveries

The effects of scientific discoveries: Using "scientific method" to understand the world; The end of the era of uncertainty; The real emergence of the "modern" world.

The end of the Mongol Empire and the end of an epoch

The end of the Mongol Empire is not just the end of an empire, but also the end of an epoch. A. The end of Mongol empire Built-in weakness of Mongol rule; Decline of the Mongol Empire in Persia and China; The death of Timur (1405) ended the Mongol Empire. B. The end of an epoch The invention of gunpowder and firearms signalized the power no longer based on endurance and stamina; the era of cavalry conquest ended; new conquerors came from sea.

The expansion of Islam

The expansion of Islam after Muhammad: A. Reasons for the quick expansion of Islam • The united Arabs and their use of camels; • The war-weariness of the empires of Persia and Byzantium; • The enthusiasm and religious toleration of the conquerors. B. Law and government under Islamic ruler • The caliph was the supreme religious and civil head of the Muslim world, no distinction between church and state.

The Fourth Crusade: The Fall of Constantinople

The fall of Constantinople The tensions within the city (people hated the crusaders); Someone murdered Alexius Angelus (Alexius IV); The crusaders angered, they attacked and ransacked the city of Constantinople.

Bjarni Herjolfsson

The first European, according to The Vinland Sagas, to sail to the Americas, most likely sometime in the 990s.

Origins of the Scientific Revolution

The following factors contributed to the origins of the Scientific Revolution: A. The importance of antiquity Queries for researches in ancient Greeks (Aristotle in physics, Ptolemy in astronomy, and Galen in medicine); Scientists' intentions to make adjustments. B. The influences of alchemy and astrology Using alchemy to understand and transform matter; Using astrology to predict natural phenomenon. C. Technological invention Telescope, vacuum pump, thermometer, barometer, microscope, etc.

The Rise of Buddhism

The founder of the Buddhist religion, Siddhartha Gautama (sid-DAR-tuh gow-TA-muh), or the Buddha. The word Buddha literally means "the enlightened or awakened one." The reli- gion that he founded became one of the most influential in the world, and Asho- ka's decision to support Buddhism marked a crucial turning point in the religion's history. Buddhism spread to modern-day Sri Lanka (the island of Ceylon), Central Asia, Southeast Asia, and eventually to China and Japan. Born along the southern edge of the Himalaya Mountains in today's Nepal, the Buddha lived to almost eighty and died in the 550s b.c.e. The legend of his life, known to all practicing Buddhists, recounts that his mother dreamed of a white ele- phant with a lotus flower in his trunk. The wise men she consulted explained that she would give birth to either a great monarch or a great teacher. For six years he subjected himself to all kinds of self-mortification. Then he decided to stop starving himself and medi- tated under a tree, later known as the Tree of Wisdom (also called a bodhi tree), for forty-nine days. He gained enlightenment and explained how he had done so.He preached his first sermon to five followers in the Deer Park near Benares in the Ganges Valley. First he identified two incorrect routes to knowledge: extreme self-denial of those who strenuously fasted and complete self-gratification of those who did exactly as they pleased. He explained that one could escape from the endless cycle of birth, death, and rebirth by following a clear series of steps, called the Noble Eightfold Path. When peo- ple follow the Noble Eightfold Path and understand the Four Noble Truths, their suffering will end because they will have escaped from the cycle of life and rebirth by attaining nirvana, literally "extinction." Those outside the Buddhist order could not attain nirvana, but they could gain merit by donating food and money. The first generation of Buddhists divided the Buddha's remains under many different stupas, where they honored him by circling the stupa in a clockwise direction, a practice called circumambulation (pradaksina).

From Du You's The Encyclopedic History of Institutions

The gentlemen and women of this place [Arabia] are tall and well-built. They wear fine and clean garments, and their manners are gentle and ele- gant. When women go outdoors, they must cover up their faces with veils. Five times a day all the people, whether humble or noble, pray to Heaven. They eat meat as a religious observance, and they consider killing animals merit-worthy. They wear silver belts decorated with silver knives. They pro- hibit wine and music. When they quarrel, they do not come to blows. There is also a prayer hall that holds tens of thousands. Every seven days the king attends the prayers, mounts a high seat and expounds the religious law to the people, saying: "Men's life is very hard; this is a way of Heaven that would not change. If you commit one of the following crimes—lewdness, kidnapping, robbery, mean actions, slander, self-gratification at the expense of others, cheating the poor and oppressing the humble—your sins are among the most heinous. Those who are killed in battle by the enemy will be reborn in Heaven; those who kill the enemy will enjoy unlimited good fortune (on Earth)." A large territory came under the king's rule, and the number of those who follow him is increasing incessantly. The law is lenient, and funerals are frugal. Within the city walls, in the villages, all of the earth's products are here. Nothing is lacking. It is the hub of the four quarters. Thousands of varieties of merchandise have been brought here in immense quantities and are sold at very low prices. Silk and embroideries, pearls and shells are piled up in the markets. Camels and horses, donkeys and mules jam the streets and alleys. Dwelling houses and other buildings are carved of stone-honey [earth bricks?] and resemble Chinese carriages. On each festival, the nobles are presented with glass work, porcelain, brass, bottles and jugs in enormous quantities.... Now the Arabs have destroyed and swallowed forty to fifty states, all of which are subject to them. They divide their soldiers into many places to pro- tect them, and their territory extends all the way to the Western Sea.

Context and Connections Chapt. 9.5

The granting of dhimmi status to certain non-Muslim believers is a special characteristic of Islam. Almost all religions distinguish between believers and those outside their religion, but very few grant privileges to some nonbelievers but not to others.

Frankish Kingdom

The homeland of the Franks, including much of modern-day France, Germany, and the land in between.

The Fourth Crusade: The Involvement of the Venetians

The involvement of the Venetians The crusaders' negotiation of transportation with the Venetians; The crusaders failed to pay the Venetians; The crusaders turned to take Zara (a Christian city) for the Venetians; The angered Pope excommunicated both the Venetians and the crusaders.

Adoption of Non-Mongol military technology

The iron stirrup; Iron for arrowheads and armor; Gunpowder/bombs; Siege machines or catapults.

Sunnis

The larger of the two main Islamic groups that formed after Ali's death. Sunnis, meaning the "people of custom and the community," hold that the leader of Islam should be chosen by consensus and that legit- imate claims to descent are only through the male line. Sunnis do not believe that Ali and Fati- ma's descendants can become caliph.

The Launch of the First Crusade

The launch of the First Crusade Urban II appealed Christians to free the Holy Land; The participators would be rewarded; The formation of the crusading army (coming primarily from today France and Germany).

The Fourth Crusade: The Leaders

The leaders The appeal from Pope Innocent III (to retake the Holy Land from the Muslims); But this time the European rulers had no interest in it; The leaders were some aristocrats.

The Portuguese: The limit of arable land

The limit of arable land Limited agricultural land turned them to Atlantic islands and Muslims' North Africa; Seafaring were always important to this country's economy.

Portraying Paradise on Earth:The Umayyad Mosque of Damascus

The most beautiful building in the Umayyad capital of Damascus was the mosque, where some twelve thousand Byzantine craftsmen incorporated mosaics, made from thousands of glass tiles, into the building's structure. Notice how the trees grow naturally from the columns at the bottom of the photograph and how the twin windows allow viewers to glimpse the beautiful flowers on the ceiling above. These compositions portray the paradise that Muhammad promised his followers would enter after their deaths

War Bands

The most important social unit among Germanic-speaking peoples. In times of war, warriors formed bands behind a leader, who gave them horses, armor, a place to live, and a share of plunder

Context and Connections 10.6

The most unusual item of foreign manufacture found in Scandinavia so far is a sixth-century bronze figurine of the Buddha (Chapter 3), found on the Swedish island of Helgö, where archaeologists also uncovered a bronze ladle from Egypt. Comparably distinctive Scandinavian goods have not yet surfaced in India or China, most likely because the main exports from Scandinavia—furs, whalebone, walrus tusk, and slaves—usually do not survive centuries of burial. one important exception is amber, or fossilized tree resin. Muslim geographers report that the Chinese preferred amber from the Baltic because of its darker color, and recent laboratory tests have shown that several amber items buried in a 1018 tomb of a princess in north China originated in Scandinavia.

The Motives of the Crusaders

The motives of the crusaders A. Religious favor Religion became increasingly important in people's daily life; European Christians viewed the crusades as acts of their religious devotion. B. The oversupply of knights When no more large scale of warfare in Western Europe, the knights (who were trained to fight) fought among themselves; The crusades gave Europeans a chance to export their violence to non-European area. C. Economic motives for expansion From 1050 to 1250, the European population grew rapidly; Only eldest son inherited land, many young sons no land, no occupation, they joined the Crusade to earn money; Some former crusaders looted large amount of wealth from the East, others wanted to follow them to get rich too; Italian commercial cities wanted to enlarge their trade in the Mediterranean area.

From the First Chapter

The nine Indian figures are: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1. With these nine figures, and with the sign 0 which the Arabs call zephir any number whatso- ever is written, as is demonstrated below. A num- ber is a sum of units, or a collection of units, and through the addition of them the numbers increase by steps without end. First, one composes from units those numbers which are from one to ten. Second, from the tens are made those numbers which are from ten up to one hundred. Third, from the hundreds are made those numbers which are from one hundred up to one thousand. Fourth, from the thousands are made those numbers from one thousand up to ten thousand, and thus by an unending sequence of steps, any number whatso- ever is constructed by the joining of the preceding numbers. The first place in the writing of the num- bers begins at the right. The second truly follows the first to the left. The third follows the second. The fourth, the third, and the fifth, the fourth, and thus ever to the left, place follows place. And therefore the figure that is found in the first place represents itself; that is, if in the first place will be the figure of the unit, it represents one; if the fig- ure two, it represents two; if the figure three, three and thus in order those that follow up to the figure nine; and indeed the nine figures that will be in the second place will represent as many tens as in the first place units; that is, if the unit figure occu- pies the second place, it denotes ten; if the figure two, twenty; if the figure three, thirty; if the figure nine, ninety. And the figure that is in the third place denotes the number of hundreds, as that in the second place tens, or in the first units; . . . the figure which is in the fourth place denotes as many thousands . . .; and thus ever changing place, the number increases by joining. And as this principle is clearly revealed, it is shown with figures. For example, if in the first place is the zephir, and in the second the figure nine, and in the third the figure two, then 290 will be denoted. If indeed you will wish to write hundreds with units and without tens, you put in the second place, namely in the place of the tens, the zephir, and in the first the number of units that you will wish, and in the third, the figure two, 209; and thus according to the above demonstrated principle you write with three figures whatever number you will wish from one hundred up to one thousand. And with four, from one thousand up to ten thousand, and the numbers noted above are shown with figures in the following

Heresy

The offense of believing in teachings that the Roman Catholic Church condemned as incorrect.

Zubaydah's Road

The pilgrimage road link- ing Kufa with Mecca and Medina that was rebuilt and improved by Queen Zubaydah.

Hajj

The pilgrimage to Mecca, required of all Muslims who can afford the trip. The pilgrimage commemorates that moment when, just as he was about to sacrifice him, Abraham freed Ishmael and sacrificed a sheep in his place

The Arabian Peninsula before Muhammad

The political and religious situations in the Arabian Peninsula before Muhammad: A. Strong neighbors • The Persians, Byzantines, and Abyssinians. B. Religious ferments • Traditional religions; • The Arabs were not satisfied with their traditional religions; • The influence of Christianity and Judaism.

Five Pillars of Islam

The primary obligations of each Muslim as listed by Muhammad (speci- fied in Table 9.1).

The Standing

The rite that marks the culmination of the hajj, when pilgrims meditate and pray (they are not required to stand) at the site where Muhammad gave his last sermon

Simony

The sale of church office, considered a sin in Europe.

The Marvels of Incan Engineering at Machu Picchu

The settlement at Machu Picchu, which stands 8,000 feet (2,400 m) above sea level, embodies the Incan talent for engi- neering in its even stone houses arrayed on multiple levels, connected by manmade waterways and more than one hundred stairways. Built around 1450 as a summer palace for the ruler Pachakuti, the site was abandoned after the collapse of the Inca empire and rediscovered by outsiders only in the early 1900s. Today it is one of the world's most visited sites and the most famous of all the Inca ruins

The Crusades: The Social and Religious movements in the West

The social and religious movements in the West The popularity of pilgrimage—a personal visit to a place made holy through the life of Christ or one of the saints—among Western Christians; Palestine was the most holy.

The Success of the First Crusade

The success of the First Crusade The organized Westerners vs. politically divided Muslims; The crusaders took Jerusalem and set up some Latin kingdoms; The effect of the success of the first crusade—the first time the Europeans played an important role outside of Europe.

Zhou Dynasty

The successor dynasty to the shang that gained the Mandate of Heaven and the right to rule, according to later Chinese historians. Although depicted by later generations as an ideal age, the Zhou witnessed considerable conflict.

Karma

The sum of one's deeds in this and all earlier existences that deter- mines one's rebirth in the next life.

Confucianism

The term for the main tenets of the thought of Confucius, which emphasized the role of ritual in bringing out people's inner humanity (a quality translated vari- ously as "benevolence," "goodness," or "man at his best").

Unification of Eurasia and Overland Exchange

The unification of Eurasia stimulated direct overland exchange between Asia and Europe. Such as the exchange of ideas (religions), techniques (gunpowder), and materials (trade). Marco Polo travels in China (1275-1292): his travel and stories. The spread of disease: the Black Death (bubonic plague).

The AGe of Discovery

The voyage of Christopher Columbus also marked the beginning of the Age of Discovery. Christopher Columbus reached the Americas in 1492. Vasco da Gama successfully made the round trip from Portugal to India, in 1497-98. Ferdinand Magellan and his fleet completed the first successful voyage around the world during 1519-1521/2.

Context and Connections 14.4

The year 1453 marked a turning point in world history, annually celebrated by the people of Turkey, but historians differ about its impor- tance. Predictably Christian historians have seen the fall of Constantinople as a disaster, while Muslim historians have seen it as a triumph. More interesting, though, is the claim of some historians that Mehmed's policies of tolerance and support for scholarship marked the beginning of the early modern era and the end of the Middle Ages. Those historians, however, are thinking only about Europe; West Asia had been under Islamic rule for centuries before 1453, and the fall of Constantinople had no consequences for East Asia, much less Africa or the Americas. Most world historians see 1492, when Columbus arrived in the Americas, as the genuine turning point, and the beginning of the early modern era, because the events that followed directly affected the whole world (see Chapter 15).

Context and Connections 15.4

These rates for the Inca messengers as recorded by the Spanish are far faster than Persian messengers' 90 miles (145 km) per day or the Mongols' 60 miles (97 km) per day, both traveling on horseback. The Inca messen- gers ran on excellent, but steep roads, and they must have switched off often. As fast as the Inca messengers were, the Inca armies moved much more slowly, covering perhaps 7-9 miles (12-15 km) per day. Armies throughout the ancient world trav- eled at a rate of 10-20 miles (16-32 km) per day. Other empires—the Persians, the Romans, and the Chinese—devoted considerable resources to building roads. But as extensive as these road systems were, they did not match the Incas in their engineer- ing ingenuity because they used the wheel and the Inca did not.

A Mix of Sculptural Traditions from Gandhara, Afghanistan

This Gandharan statue's posture is classically Buddhist: his legs are crossed so that both feet face up, the left hand grasps his robe, and the right makes a gesture meaning to dispel fear. But the facial expression, hair, and overall posture are drawn from Greco-Roman models already familiar to Gandharan sculptors for several centuries. Neither Buddhist nor Greco-Roman, the spokes in the halo behind the Buddha's head probably represent the sun's rays.

Determining the Direction of Mecca: The Astrolabe

This astrolabe, made in 1216, is a sophisticated mathematical device. After holding the astrolabe up to the sun to determine the angle of the sun's rays and thus fix the viewer's latitude on earth, one inserted the appropriate metal plate (this example has three) into the mechanism, which allowed one to chart the movement of the stars.

Chinese version

This is the place where mother and son see each other: ... Trickles of blood flowed from the seven openings of her head. Fierce flames issued from the inside of his mother's mouth, At every step, metal thorns out of space entered her body; She clanked and clattered like the sound of five hun- dred broken-down chariots, How could her waist and backbone bear up under the strain? Jailers carrying pitchforks guarded her to the left and the right, Ox-headed guards holding chains stood on the east and the west; Stumbling at every other step, she came forward, Wailing and weeping, Maudgalyayana embraced his mother. Crying, he said: "It was because I am unfilial, You, dear mother, were innocently caused to drop into the triple mire of hell; Families which accumulate goodness have a surplus of blessings, High Heaven does not destroy in this manner those who are blameless. In the old days, mother, you were handsomer than Pan An,* But now you have suddenly become haggard and worn; I have heard that in hell there is much suffering, Now, today, I finally realize, 'Ain't it hard, ain't it hard.' Ever since I met with the misfortune of father's and your deaths, I have not been remiss in sacrificing daily at your graves; Mother, I wonder whether or not you have been getting any food to eat, In such a short time, your appearance has become completely haggard." Now that Maudgalyayana's mother had heard his words, *Pan An A well-known attractive man. "Alas!" she cried, her tears intertwining as she struck and grabbed at herself: "Only yesterday, my son, I was separated from you by death. Who could have known that today we would be reunited? While your mother was alive, she did not cultivate blessings, But she did commit plenty of all the ten evil crimes;† Because I didn't take your advice at that time, my son, My reward is the vastness of this Avici Hell.†† In the old days, I used to live quite extravagantly, Surrounded by fine silk draperies and embroidered screens; How shall I be able to endure these hellish torments, And then to become a hungry ghost for a thousand years? A thousand times, they pluck the tongue from out of my mouth, Hundreds of passes are made over my chest with a steel plough; My bones, joints, tendons, and skin are everywhere broken, They need not trouble with knives and swords since I fall to pieces by myself. In the twinkling of an eye, I die a thousand deaths, But, each time, they shout at me and I come back to life; Those who enter this hell all suffer the same hardships. It doesn't matter whether you are rich or poor, lord or servant. Though you diligently sacrificed to me while you were at home, It only got you a reputation in the village for being filial; Granted that you did sprinkle libations of wine upon my grave, But it would have been better for you to copy a single line of sutra." †ten evil crimes The ten worst offenses according to Buddhist teachings. ††Avici Hell The lowest Buddhist hell, for those who had committed the worst offenses.

An Ashokan Column from Vaishali, Bihar, India

This pillar, made of polished red sandstone, stands 27.5 feet (8.5 m) high. Capped with a lion, it was visible in all four directions. This and the other stone columns Ashoka commissioned are the first monu- ments worked in stone anywhere in ancient India. Some scholars have wondered if Ashoka knew of other stone monuments in neighboring regions like Iran.

Context and Connections Chapt. 8.1

This religious shift did not occur because one ruler of an intact empire, such as Constantine in ancient Rome (Chapter 7), recognized a single religion. It was the result of many decisions taken in different places by multiple rulers, all of whom sought to strengthen their governments and so increase their power.

Context and Connections Chapter 4.6

This strictly enforced meritocracy was unique in the ancient world. In the 1700s b.c.e., at the time of Hammurabi's code, the Babylonian popula- tion was divided into three groups: the privileged who owned land, commoners and peasants, and slaves. similarly, after 1000 b.c.e., ancient Indian society had four varna groups (key term in Chapter 3): Brahmin priests, warriors, farmers and mer- chants, and dependent laborers. some people managed to rise higher than their social group, but most believed that people were born unequal. The belief in inequal- ity prevailed in Warring states China, too, but the Legalists rejected this widespread view in favor of their new merit-based system. The successors to the Qin did not adopt the same type of meritocracy, but subsequent dynasties gradually became more meritocratic. The fullest expression of Chinese meritocracy was the civil service examinations, which came to full fruition around 1000 c.e. (see Chapter 12)

The First Sermon of the Buddha

Thus I have heard. The Blessed One was once living in the Deer Park at Isipatana (the Resort of Seers) near Varanasi (Benares). There he addressed the group of five bhikkhus: Bhikkhus, these two extremes ought not to be practiced by one who has gone forth from the household life. What are the two? There is devo- tion to the indulgence of sense-pleasures, which is low, common, the way of ordinary people, unwor- thy and unprofitable; and there is devotion to self-mortification, which is painful, unworthy and unprofitable. Avoiding both these extremes, the Tathagatha [the Buddha] has realized the Middle Path: it gives vision, it gives knowledge, and it leads to calm, to insight, to enlightenment, to nirvana. And what is that Middle Path ... ? It is simply the Noble Eight- fold Path, namely, right view, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration. . . . The Noble Truth of suffering (dukkha) is this: Birth is suffering; aging is suffering; sickness is suffering; death is suffering; sorrow and lamentation, pain, grief and despair are suffering; association with the unpleasant is suf- fering; dissociation from the pleasant is suffer- ing; not to get what one wants is suffering—in brief, the five aggregates of attachment are suffering. The Noble Truth of the origin of suffering is this: It is this thirst (craving) which produces re- existence and re-becoming, bound up with pas- sionate greed. It finds fresh delight now here and now there, namely, thirst for sense-pleasures; thirst for existence and becoming; and thirst for non- existence (self-annihilation). The Noble Truth of the cessation of suffering is this: It is the complete cessation of that very thirst, giving it up, renouncing it, emancipating oneself from it, detaching oneself from it. The Noble Truth of the path leading to the cessation of suffering is this: It is simply the Noble Eightfold Path, namely right view; right thought; right speech; right action; right live- lihood; right effort; right mindfulness; right concentration. "This is the Noble Truth of Suffering (dukkha)"; such was the vision, the knowledge, the wisdom, the science, the light, that arose in me with regard to things not heard before. . . . As long as my vision of true knowledge was not fully clear . . . regarding the Four Noble Truths, I did not claim to have realized the perfect Enlightenment that is supreme in the world. . . . But when my vision of true knowl- edge was fully clear ... regarding the Four Noble Truths, then I claimed to have the perfect Enlightenment that is supreme in the world. . . . And a vision of true knowledge arose in me thus: My heart's deliverance is unassailable. This is the last birth. Now there is no more re-becom- ing (rebirth). This the Blessed One said. The group of five bhikkhus was glad, and they rejoiced at his words.

Context and Connections 15.6

Two crops in particular played an important role throughout Afro-Eurasia: corn (maize) and potatoes (including sweet potatoes). Both produced higher yields than wheat and grew in less desirable fields, such as on the slopes of hills. Although few people anywhere in the world preferred corn or potatoes to their original wheat-based or rice-based diet, hungry people gratefully ate the American transplants when their primary crop failed. By the eighteenth century corn and potatoes had reached as far as India and China, and the population in both places increased markedly

From the Hadith of Gabriel

Umar ibn al-Khattab reported: One day, while we were sitting with the Messenger of God (may God bless and preserve him), there came upon us a man whose clothes were exceedingly white and whose hair was exceedingly black. No dust of travel could be seen upon him, and none of us knew him. He sat down in front of the Prophet (may God bless and preserve him), rested his knees against the Prophet's knees and placed his palms on the Proph- et's thighs. "Oh Muhammad, tell me about Islam," he said. The Messenger of God (may God bless and preserve him) replied: "Islam means to bear witness that there is no god but Allah, that Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah, to maintain the required prayers, to pay the poor-tax, to fast in the month of Ramadan, and to perform the pilgrimage to the House of God at Mecca if you are able to do so." "You are correct," the man said. We were amazed at his questioning of the Prophet and then saying that the Prophet had answered correctly. Then he said, "Tell me about faith." The Prophet said: "It is to believe in Allah, His angels, His books, His mes- sengers, and the Last Day, and to believe in Allah's determination of affairs, whether good comes of it or bad." "You are correct," he said. "Now tell me about virtue [ihsan]." The Prophet said: "It is to worship Allah as if you see Him; for if you do not see Him, surely He sees you."... Then the man left. I remained for a while, and the Prophet said to me: "Oh, Umar, do you know who the questioner was?" "Allah and His Messenger know best," I replied. He said: "It was the angel Gabriel, who came to you to teach you your religion."

Context and Connections Chapt. 4.7

Unlike Ashoka's pillar and stone inscriptions in different languages (Chapter 3), all the Qin inscriptions were written in Chinese because the Qin enforced linguistic standardization throughout their empire. Also unlike the Ashokan inscriptions, which were located by crossroads where his subjects could see them, the Qin tablets were placed on remote mountaintops where the intended audience of ancestors could view them. And whereas Ashoka's inscriptions were phrased colloquially, the Qin inscriptions were rigidly formal, consisting of thirty-six or seventy-two lines, each with exactly four characters.

The Legacy of the Abbasid Empire

When Muhammad instructed his followers to perform the annual hajj pilgrimage, provided that they had the means to do so, the Islamic world was limited to the west coast of the Arabian peninsula. In the eighth cen- tury, after Islamic armies conquered much of western Asia and North Africa, Khaizuran was able to fulfill her hajj obligation by traveling from the palace in Baghdad for only a few weeks, while other pilgrims living at the edges of the Abbasid empire, whether in Central Asia, Africa, or Ibn Jubayr's Spain, measured their journeys in years. Almost all Muslims were subjects of the Abbasid caliph, whom they recognized as both the political head of state and the religious head of the caliphate. No other head of a major state in the world at That time served concurrently as both religious and political leader. The Roman emperor headed the government based at Con- stantinople, while the church had different leaders in Rome, Constantinople, and other cities (see Chapter 10). Similarly, the Tang emperor led the government of China, and Buddhist abbots headed their communities, as Ennin discovered on his pilgrimage from Japan (see Chapter 8). The political structure holding the Abbasid empire together was fragile. Short of revenues, the Abbasid rulers made iqta grants to powerful men in the provinces who became more independent than either the satraps of the Achaemenid empire (see Chapter 6) or the provincial governors or tax farmers of the Roman Empire (see Chapter 7). In 936 one iqta holder took all political power from the caliph and received the title commander of com- manders. Nine years later the Buyids seized power from him, and the Abbasid empire fragmented into different regions bound by linguistic, cultural, and religious ties. The Abbasids used two languages to govern: the Ara- bic of the heartland of Islam and the Persian of the Sasa- nians who preceded them in Iran (see Chapter 6). Because both languages continued to be spoken after 945, they enabled people to communicate across the Islamic world, just as Latin and Greek connected inhabitants of the Roman empire and Sanskrit and Chinese connected the Buddhists of Asia (see Chapters 7 and 8). The Abbasid caliphs continued as figureheads until 1258, when the Mongols invaded Baghdad (see Chapter 14). In the late fourth century Christian pilgrims like Egeria traveled to Jerusalem and Egypt; similarly, Ennin went to China in the mid-800s to visit important Bud- dhist sites. But they were both unusual; everyone who greeted them was surprised to meet a woman from Spain in the Holy Land or a monk from Japan in China. Both Khaizuran and Ibn Jubayr differed in that they traveled as members of a group who were carrying out Muham- mad's instructions to perform the hajj. Although primarily a religious obligation, the hajj had a profound effect on trade, navigation, and technol- ogy in the years after 945, as Ibn Jubayr discovered in the late 1100s. The hajj, and the resulting trade, pushed Muslims to adopt or to discover the fastest and most efficient means of transport from different places to Mecca and to equip their vessels with the best astro- nomical instruments, maps, and navigational devices. Despite the hardships, all Muslims, like Ibn Jubayr, viewed a trip to Mecca, no matter how distant, as an obligation to be fulfilled if at all possible. The result was clear: ordinary Muslims were far better traveled and more knowledgeable than their contemporaries in other parts of the world. In the years after 945, multiple political and cultural centers arose that challenged Baghdad's position in the previously united Islamic world. As the next chapter will show, something similar happened in Europe as new political and cultural centers first appeared and then overtook the Byzantine capital at Constantinople.

Context and COnnections Chapt 3.2

When linguists first discovered the similarities among Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit in the early nineteenth century, they assumed that the speakers of Indo-European languages invaded and wiped out the indigenous peoples. Modern schol- ars have since proposed variations on the original conquer-and-destroy model. Perhaps, when the Indo-European speakers migrated into a new region, their superior technology convinced the local peoples to adopt the newcomers' language. Linguists engage in a similar debate about the distribution of Bantu languages in Africa (Chapter 11), and there too, they increasingly favor models of assimilation rather than forced conquest.

The Hymn of the Primeval Man

When they divided the man, into how many parts did they apportion him? What do they call his mouth, his two arms and thighs and feet? His mouth became the Brahmin; his arms were made into the Warrior, his thighs the People, and from his feet the Servants were born.*

The Mongol Expansion

Why did the Mongols move outside their homeland: climate change? (without enough grass for their animals) The Mongols conquered vast areas by their strong army; it had no more than 130,000 soldiers, organized as units of 10, 100, 1,000, and 10,000; The Mongol soldiers were superior horsemen with powerful bow.

Zubaydah's Road Story

Zubaydah devoted considerable resources to the project that brought her lasting fame: the road linking Kufa, a city outside Baghdad, with Mecca and Medina. Although the road existed before her reign, she made so many improvements to it that it came to be called Darb Zubaydah, or Zubaydah's Road. When Saudi archaeologists surveyed the desert in the 1970s, they found identifiable traces of a roadway 18 yards (17 m) wide. The road's builders had faced the challenge of designing a road for pedestrians even though it ran through long stretches of sand, some muddy ground, and rough lava fields. They cleared the road of stones, paved the sections of the road that went through the mud, and smoothed rough lava fields before covering them with soft sand on which pilgrims could easily walk. One archaeologist has called the project "the finest and most remarkable and extensive road sys- tem in the earlier period of Islamic history."* Because Zubaydah was particularly concerned about poorer pilgrims who traveled the difficult route on foot, she added nine new rest stations at convenient intervals between existing stations, for a total of fifty-four rest stops. All the new stations had a pool, and they often included some kind of shelter and sometimes even a small mosque. This painting, from an illustrated thirteenth-century manuscript of collected anecdotes, shows what a resting place on the Darb Zubaydah might have looked like

1492: The Break Between the Premodern and Modern Worlds

istory departments offer many yearlong survey classes, and individual instructors often choose mid- way points for their classes. Not so for world history, which almost always breaks at 1500 (or 1492). Christopher Columbus's landing on the island of Hispaniola changed the world permanently, and we know as much as we do about precolonial Mexico because of the work of sahagún, his informants among the Nahua elders, and his young trilingual research assistants. Many claims have been made about voyagers who reached the Americas before Columbus. some of these voyages have left convincing evidence, like the Viking settlement at L'Anse aux Meadows on Canada's Atlantic coast in about 1000 or the chicken bones showing contact between Polynesia and the west coast of south America in the 1350s. some of the claims are utterly baseless: absolutely no evidence suggests that Zheng He's ships reached the Americas, as has been proposed. some theo- ries are possible without being certain: English fishing 466 boats that sailed from Bristol to Iceland in 1480 and 1481 to seek new fishing grounds for cod might have made it all the way to the Americas, but they left no traces there. Whatever the credibility of these claims—and new evi- dence is emerging all the time—none of these voyages did more than touch down in the Americas, and they had no lasting impact. Columbus's voyages were utterly different. After Columbus's landfall in 1492, the pace of events accelerated. spain conquered Mexico in 1521 and Peru in 1551. The once-powerful Aztec and Inca empires collapsed quickly. They both had internal weak- nesses; the many subject peoples of the Mexica resented their overlords, and the Inca were right in the middle of a protracted succession struggle. The Europeans also had superior weapons made from metal. The Mexica and the Inca knew how to work differ- ent metals, including gold and silver, but they could not work iron, and they had no metal weapons. Theirs were all made from stone and wood. Recall the eyewitness description from the General History, or Florentine Codex, of the Spanish army: their guns produced "thunder," they were clothed head to toe in iron, and their "deer" (read: horses) "were as tall as the roof." European horses were only one example of the unfa- miliar plants and animals that flowed from Europe to the Americas and from the Americas to Africa and Eurasia in the Columbian exchange. Cows, sheep, and pigs came to the Americas and altered the American landscape; tomatoes, potatoes, corn, and chili peppers traveled the other way, transforming first the European and then the African and Asian diets. As discussed in Chapter 16, silver from Spanish mines in the Americas had an equally dramatic effect on the European economy. After 1550, when the Spanish mas- tered the technique of using mercury to separate silver from ore, they began to ship large quantities of silver home via the Philippines. The silver brought great prosperity to the Spanish empire and financed European purchases in Asia. The diseases that came to the Americas from Europe devastated native peoples: smallpox progressed on its deadly route from Hispaniola to Puerto Rico, Jamaica, and Cuba and then on to Mexico and Peru. Because no population figures predate Columbus, it is impossible to know how many perished, but estimates range between 10 and 100 million. In 1568, the Spanish counted 2,170,000 non-Spanish survivors in Mexico and Peru, the two areas with the heaviest indigenous populations. Everyone else had died. The mass deaths of the Amerindians preceded the large-scale movement of Europeans and Africans to the Americas. The migrations in the first hundred years after Columbus's arrival in Hispaniola produced the mixed population of the Americas today. Before 1492 world history often concerns individual regions and the intermittent contacts among them. After 1492, Europe, the Americas, and Africa were so tightly connected that events in one place always affected the others. In the next chapter we will learn what happened when Europeans traveled to Asia.

Context and Connections 10.2

unlike the Byzantine emperors, who governed an empire divided into regular administrative districts called themata, the Merovingian and Carolingian monarchs ruled as the leaders of war-bands, the most important unit of Frankish society.