World history terms spring final

Princeps

" First citizen" Augustus Caesar's preferred name

Abu'l-Mawahibs

"Givers of Gifts". What the Mahdali clan called themselves. These sultans built the Husuni Kubwa.

Dhimmis

"people of the Books"; Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians living under Muslim rule and receiving privileged treatment over other non-Muslims. They were also not taxed as severely as pagans were. Jews and Christians also shared same basic beliefs in the one gods and his prophets (such as Abraham and Jesus of Nazareth) that is Islam did. Zoroastrians were viewed in the same way.

Patria potestas

"power of the father". Far reaching authority of father over daughter and his wife, children, grandchildren, and household slaves. It extended even to life and death, although death penalty was rare

Renaissance

"rebirth"; northern Renaissance has a More pronounced concern for religious reform and less emphasis on the assertion of individual excellence, whereas the south accepted a path towards secularism and was anticlerical. There were two distinct phases:

Innocent III

(1198-1216) forced several kings of Europe to bow to his commands, but sacrificed much of the moral authority he derived from his position

Crecy

(1346) Major battle during Hundred Years' War where English archers effectively used their new longbows and gunpowder-charged cannons against the French.

Council of Constance

(1414-1417) Council of bishops that met in a German city to accomplish three goals 1) End the schism and return papacy to Rome (Achieved) 2) Condemn Wyclifites and other heretics (The heresies simply went underground and re-emerged a century later) 3) Reform church and clergy from top to bottom (No real action taken)

Agincourt

(1415) Major battle in Hundred Years' War where English routed a discouraged French for the third time but couldn't coerce a settlement.

Barracks Emperors

(235 to 284 CE) The infamous age during which Rome had twenty emperors, eighteen of which dies due to violence. During that time, the rule who had control of the Praetorian Guard, were most powerful at and given moment, and the guard was easily bought with promises of money.

Constantine the Great

(313 to 337 CE) Diocletian's successor to Emperor, continued his predecessors policies on increasing restrictions on personal freedom, transferred Roman government to the east in Byzantium (Constantinople), and reversed persecution of Christians and proclaimed religious toleration.

Chavin civilization

(900-200 BCE) The earliest and one of the most developed civilizations of the South American Andes Mountains. They used the llama for the fomentation of trade and it led to the construction of roads. The Chavin leadership and power came from trade and cultural exchange, rather than through political power or military might. Their cult worshiped a feline/eagle/serpent deity and their religion spread quickly and lasted for centuries.

Three principles of legal system

1. The notion of precedent as coequal to the letter of the law 2. Belief that equity (fairness) was goal of all law 3. Importance of interpretation I'm applying the law to individual cases

Predestination

? Ask Dolan

King Solomon mines

A book written about the unexplored parts of Africa.

Machu Picchu

A city in the clouds of the Andes whose ruins were discovered as recently as 1911. Many speculate how the Inca accomplished the feat of moving thousands of massive stone blocks to build the walls of this fortress city. No one knows why it was built or abandoned.

Solomonic dynasties

A dynasty of Ethiopian christian kings. They were associated with Axum and lasted from biblical times until around the 1970s

The Arabian Nights

A fictional story that was created supposedly by a courtier at the court of Harun Al-Rashid. It is a Medieval collection of tales from the Islamic Middle East that greatly reflects life during the time of the Abbasid caliphs of Baghdad.

Sufism/Sufis

A form of Islam that believed in a direct, personal path to the experience of God's presence. They relied on emotional connections to the divine truth and the workings of reason and the revealed word.

Edo

A group of people that believed that ife was a holy city; Benin was a subgroup of these people

Proconsuls

A group of permanent commanders/governors created by the military needs

Jihad

A holy war of conquest in the name of Allah. Its effort was to establish god's law on earth. It was to fight against unbelief, both internal and external. Derived from jahada which means to survive.

Vizier

A kind of a prime minister for the caliphs who had enormous powers, headed the council.

Ghana

A large kingdom that was located in West Africa; the kings established a monopoly of trade in gold that was obtained from the Bure goldfields; the capital was Kumbi Saleh; Islam was influential in this kingdom

Irrigation systems

A network of channels or tunnels that connect a source of water with farms. Help turn dry areas into farmland.

Mansas

A new ruling clan of Mali who adopted stricter forms of Islam. Wanted to get along with the berbers, who were essential to survival of the kingdom.

Hajj

A pilgrimage Mecca that all muslims are supposed to complete at least once in their lives if they are able to. Mohammad completed this journey in 630.

Manorial System

A replacement for a central government where the power lays in the manors, and there is no real government; this became popular during the Vikings' invasions, and knights arose from this. This was where the Roman Empire really declined. This feudal system was really corrupt and bad

Fatimids

A shi'ite dynasty that declared a counter-caliphate in North Africa and Egypt independent of the abbasids. Founded in 909 by al-Mahadi. In 969 they expelled allies of the Abbasids from egypt and established a new capital at Cairo.

Chichen Itza

A site of Mayan urban development in the Yucatán in tenth to thirteenth century.

Calligraphy

A special strength of the Muslims, whose Arabic script is the product of aesthetic demands and the desire to communicate.

Jizya

A special tax collected from non-muslims. Many tried to convert to Islam so they wouldn't have to pay this taxes. These people were termed clients or Mawali and were forced to pay the taxes and became 2nd class citizens.

Axum

A state located in the Ethiopian highlands; it conquered Kush, and flourished until its downfall after the 8th century; followed Christianity, and the mountains surrounding it allowed the Ethiopians to hold off Muslim attempts to conquer

Benin

A subgroup of the Edo; neighbors of the Yoruba; their kings claimed descent from a son of Oduduwa; Ife was a holy city to them; conquered lots of area in West Africa; are known for their bronze casting

Pit house

A type of dwelling found in some neolithic civilizations. Early farmers dug oval or rectangular pits into the ground over which they erected walls and roofs from tree branches and twigs, animal bones, animal hides, and mud.

Llamas

A wooly pack animal commonly found in the Andes Mountains of South Africa and in Argentina. It is related to the camel but has no humps. In addition to transport, llamas provide meat, wool, and hides.

Magna Carta

Accepted by John (ruling 1199-1216) from his rebellious nobles. It limited the kings power so that they did not have power over the law.

Mali

After goldfields dried and Ghana weakened, the regions of Ghana went to war and one grew powerful to rule most of west sudan. This was the kingdom of sundiata and Mali. Mansa musa. The mansas in general and Islam, Timbuktu, sankore, madrasa

Calpulli

Age old kinship groups by which ordinary free people were arranged in to.

Alcuin

An Anglo Saxon monk of great ability and knowledge who directed Charlemagne's palace school for clergy and officials.

Abu Hamid- Muhammad, al-Ghazzali

An Iranian sufi who managed to create a truce between the Sufis and the Ulamas in the 12th century.

First Triumvirate

An alliance between Julius Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey, which became the alternative ruling group to the Senate. However, it fell apart due to Caesar's ambition to become consul and retain more power, which Pompey saw as dangerous. Pompey was killed and shortly thereafter, Julius became dictator.

Sankore

An extremely famous mosque in Timbuktu; a university was founded here, and because of it, Timbuktu gained fame as a center of Islamic book production as well as trade

Pisa

Another of the Italian Renaissance City States. Also home to Francesco's business as a clothes merchant and importer.

Little Ice Age

Around the 14th century, colder and wetter weather conditions occurred, with shorter growing seasons, rainy summers, cold, and crop failures. This period lasted for around 500 years.

Patrilineal descent

Attribution of name and inheritance to children via the paternal line; this was pretty common in sub-Saharan Africa

Sunni

Believed whoever was best fit was supposed to to lead the caliphs. Leader was muawiya

Censors

Below only consuls in authority, censors were drawn from the ranks of the senators to originally assess taxes. However, they later came to have the power to supervise the conduct and morals of their fellow senators.

Benin bronzes

Bronze castings associated with court ritual and political power in the Benin kingdom

Baghdad

Capital of the Islamic Empire under the Abbasid Dynasty. Built by Caliph al-mansur, 763. In current day Iraq

Tenochtitlan

Chief City of the Aztec civilization. It was built in 1325 BCE and was conquered by Cortés in 1521. It was renamed Mexico City and served as the capital of colonial Mexico.

Mongols & Genghis Kahn

Chinghis Khan was a minor tribal leader of the pastoral Mongols, nomadic horse and sheep breeders who inhabited the semi desert steppes of northern central Asia.

Ayllu

Clans; Quechua name for the clan organization of Peruvian Indians. Originally organized by common kinship, but later changed to residence. Incas would often switch the clans up or move location to not let these groups get together and rebel

Investiture Controversy

Controversy between the Emperor and Pope over who should have the right to "invest" bishops in Germany, that is to select and install bishops into office. This controversy gravely weakened the strength of the emperor in Germany and was a contributing factor to the long-lasting divisions within it

Battle of Actium

Decisive battle between the Octavian Caesar and Antony (members of the Second Triumvirate) in 31 BCE. Octavian cleverly built political strength in Italy while Antony succumbed to the charms of Cleopatra, and won the battle, which marked the effective beginning of the Roman Empire.

Aztec Civilization

Despised Nomads that changed into a huge militaristic state that had many Amerindians. They lives revolves around conquest and continual warfare. War shaped religion and imposed a unique social structure. Ritual bloodletting and human sacrifice was common and was thought to please the gods so that they could gain prosperity of crops and life from the gods, who they loved the blood of warriors. Hearts were often ripped out on an altar. Some of this brutal reputations is related to the super Assyrians of Mesopotamia. Great speculation, Spanish conquistadors could've made it up to get surrounding civilizations to turn against the Aztecs

Justification by faith

Doctrine held by Martin Luther whereby Christian faith alone, and not good works, could be the path to salvation.

Battles of Carthage

During the Third Punic War, Rome besieged the city of Carthage in 149 BCE, and ended in the complete sack and breakdown of the city in 146 BCE. Rome was now the sole power in the Mediterranean basin.

Mansa Musa

Early Africa's most noted ruler, was far-traveled. Extended Mali Kingdom as far north as Berber towns in Morocco and east to Timbuktu. Ruled 8 million people. Muslim, made pilgrimage to holy places in Arabia. Led to Islam gaining support in W Africa. Encouraged scholarship, founded madrasa in Sankore Mosque in Timbuktu. Reputed master of the gold mines of Wangara.

In Praise of Folly

Erasmus' book about the scorching indictment of the so-called wisdom of the world and a plea for a return to simple virtues.

Royal absolutism

Existed in the Middle Ages,but was weakened by many wars. Sovereignty consists in giving laws to the people without their consent.

Florence

Florence was the center of skilled metal and leather trades and, with the Flemish, controlled the lucrative textile trade, through much of Europe. One of the Italian City States where the Renaissance started.

Avignon

French city where the Babylonian Captivity of the pope's occured

John Calvin

French lawyer and theologian who developed the system of Christian theology called Calvinism, as in his text. The Institutes of Christian Religion.

Muawiya

Governor of Syria. Then later became ruler of the caliph after taking power from Ali. He was the one who initiated the Umayyad dynasty. Followers are known as Sunni

Black Death

Greatest epidemic of all time; occurred in the mid- to late 14th century when rats carrying fleas were transported from the Asian steppes aboard Italian trading ships and spread throughout Europe. Due to poor sanitation and overpopulation in urban areas, the disease spread even faster and killed around ⅓ of Europe's population, and set even the best of economies (i.e. Italian city-states) back by at least 2 generations. It inspired a style of European art fascinated with death and reduced a belief in religions.

Charlemagne

Greatest of the Germanic kings and was the king of the Franks (768 to 800) and the first holy Roman Emperor (800 to 814). Promoted the so called Carolingian Renaissance. He became king through the aggressive action of his father, a high official who seized royal power. He earned the papacy's lasting gratitude by crushing the Lombards, a Germanic people who had settled in northern Italy and were pushing south, threatening Rome.

Constantinople

Greek colony that became official residence of Constantine and capital of Eastern Roman and Byzantine Empires. Largest city in Christian world. From early 600's, was under almost constant attack. Muslims almost took it. Molded Greek religious and cultural values, laws and literature, styles of art and architecture, and sense of nationhood.

Age sets

Groups, usually of approximately the same age, who have gone through the rites of passage into adulthood at the same time. Typically, they are assigned explicit roles and functions to fulfill in their communities.

Secret societies

Guild-like secret societies were especially common in west and central africa. Had guildlike societies. They were mainly men and were kept secret. Without courts and other law codes they did police like functions and made agreements

Desiderius Erasmus

He lived in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries. His most notable book was his Praise of Folly that wanted a return to simple virtues. He also made a new edition of the New Testament, with his commentaries and introduction. 2 themes; inner nature of Christianity (emulate Christ's life) and importance of education. He also condemned formalism and Luther's arrogance and rejected Protestantism.

Niccolo Machiavelli

He was a renaissance political theorist who spent much time on the relationship between power and ethics. He wrote his extraordinary treatise on politics title The Prince that described power relations in the government.

Ambrose Bishop of Milan

He was one of the "Fathers of the Church." His writings are the secondary foundation of the Christian faith.

Augustine, Bishop of Hippo (North Africa)

He was one of the "Fathers of the Church." His writings are the secondary foundation of the Christian faith. St. Augustine has been very influential in molding belief. His Confessions and The City of God have been the most important repositories of Christian teaching after the Gospels.

Etruscans

Highly advanced people who came into Italy around 800 BCE through the northern Adriatic Sea. They ruled the Romans and much of central Italy from 750 to 509 BCE; but eventually overthrown. Although they were viewed as enemies, they contributed significantly in the Roman religious sector by introducing haruspication and divination. They influenced the Romans in their religious beliefs, art forms, and architecture. The etruscans didn't get enough credit for what they gave to the Romans. The whole idea of an animistic religion that the Germans brought to The Roman Empire probably came from the etruscans also.

Peruvian diet

In Peru, neighboring peoples within the various microclimates-- deserts, rain forests, and mountains-- pooled their food resources through trade, thereby ensuring balanced diets and food supplies adequate to feed larger populations.

Salt (importance of)

In the beginning, organizations and guilds formed around salt making. Salt was an import that Political power in Africa was tied to. Salt was one of the 3 vital commodities that Ghana and Mali relied on to tax. Salt was almost prized as gold in the ancient world. It was a necessity and was limited in areas other than the sea. Difficult to transport. Salt pans in oases were sources.

Counter caliphate

Independent caliphates that the Fatimids declared in north Africa in the tenth century and the Umayyads in Spain (al-andalus).

Popes

Innocent III, Boniface VIII, Clement V, Urban VI

Swahili

Islamicized African population. Ruled and acted as a commercial linkage between interior kingdoms and the Indian Ocean. Also a hybrid language based on Bantu and Arabic used in E Africa.

Chavin de Huantar

It is set at an altitude of 10,000 feet and was strategically located on the trade routes connecting the coast with the mountains. It was a place of pilgrimage. Its terrace shrine and blunt-tipped pyramid provided the stage for priests to demonstrate their god-given powers to mediate between the underworld, the living, and the supernatural.

Byzantine Empire

It is the eastern half of the early Christian world. It proved to be an extraordinary resilient competitor among the several rivals for supremacy in the eastern Mediterranean. They ruled under a Caesaro-Paptism way.

Islamic "orthodoxy"

It made more allowance for local social traditions than called for by written legal codes.

Habsburg Dynasty

It occurred in the 15th and early 16th centuries when a series of extraordinary events propelled it into great international prominence for the first time. Due to a series of marriages and unexpected deaths of rivals, by 1527 the Habsburg territories had greatly expanded to cover overseas and Spain. Allowed Germany to assert real authority.

Holy Roman Empire

It was the German Nation that had been destroyed in medieval struggles between emperor and pope and was trying to recover. The critical weakness of the monarchy was that the emperor was elected, rather than succeed by hereditary right. In the 15th century, Germany had no centralized gov because the seven electors tried to negotiate with the various candidates to strike deals aimed at preserving noble autonomy. Germany was truly a loose confederation of principalities, dukedoms, and even free cities. All power was in the hands of the aristocrats and churchmen.

House of Wisdom

Its purpose was to translate the works of medicine, science, mathematics, astrology, alchemy, logic, and metaphysics from Greek and Sanskrit into Arabic.

Qadis

Judges of the government who had jurisdiction in all disputes involving a Muslim.

Gods

Jupiter- a father figure modeled off of the Greek Zeus, Apollo: god of light and music, Neptune: god of the sea, Venus: goddess of love, Minerva: goddess of wisdom, and Mars: god of war.

King Ezana

King of Axum who converted to Christianity only a generation after Constantine did. This began the extraordinary history of Christianity in Ethiopia.

Alafins

Kings of Oyo. they claimed descent from one of the 7 sons of the first man, Oduduwa. Extended their sway over small villages and 7 city-states. Claimed putative magico-religious powers inherited from Olorun and Oduduwa. Didn't exercise absolute power. Neighbors of the Yoruba, had power checked by advisory council.

Maize cultivation

Known to the North Americans as corn, maize was cultivated as one of the staple foods of American Indian Civilizations, along with beans and squash.

Canon law

Laws that bishops make to create their own courts and laws for judging the clergy and administering church property. These laws later led to a great friction between revenue seeking kings and wealthy bishops.

John Wycliffe

Leader of the Wyclifites, or Lollards, which was the greatest popular uprising in English history (1381)

Lollards

Led by John Wyclif, their ideas about the ability of ordinary people to interpret scripture for themselves

Calvin's doctrine

Liam from here down- he believed that the papal church was hopelessly distorted. It must be destroyed and new forms and practices should be instituted. These new forms would be returning to the practices of early Christianity. For this reason he came up with the institutes of the Christian religion which is described below.

Hijra

Literally, flight. Muhammad's forced flight from Mecca to Medina in 622 CE; it marks the first year of the Muslim calendar.

Sunna

Literally, the Way or example set by prophet Muhammad. It is the oral tradition that Muslim legal scholars rely upon to supplement the Qur'an as another source of the Shari'a.

The Prince

Machiavelli's book that described power relations in government as he had experienced them— not as they should be, but as they were in fact. Machiavelli also exclaimed that it is better to be feared rather than loved and to rule by force.

Eunuchs

Many of the other leaders of the government. They were castrated male slaves who were more devoted to the government because they could have no family interests of their own.

Jesus of Nazareth

Many people believe he is the son of God; born during the reign of Augustus Caesar; preached a pacifist and provocative message of love and forgiveness; many Romans thought he was a tyrant, and complained to Pontius Pilate who had him crucified

Queen Elizabeth I

Mary's successor who cleared the state of the confusing English religion. She ruled for half a century. She compromised between roman and Protestant doctrines and it was accepted by a majority of people and was called the Church of England.

Gender roles & status of women

Men have power and control over women. Women's elevated social statues declined in later centuries as a result of expansion and the process of absorbing other cultures into Islam. Veiling and secluding women in Islamic society came from Indian origin. Slave women were allowed more freedom than freeborns because of their inferior position.

Milan

Milan was an og Renaissance city state that also was a city where a tremendous creative outburst took place.

Benedictine Rule

Monastic institution developed by Italian Benedict of Nursia that dictated continual worship, along with a mixture of manual and intellectual labor, was necessary for a pious life.

Fatima

Muhammad's daughter. Who married Ali. She is the only offspring of muhammad as the other 5 children did not survive

Khadija

Muhammad's wife who was a caravanner of successful reputation. This gave muhammad a platform in which to preach his singing

Tariqas

Muslim sufi brotherhoods, generally comprising all men that helped spread Islam into parts of Africa and Asia.

Mathematical contributions

Muslims developed Arabic numbers from a Hindu system of numbers and also introduced algebra and the decimal system to the west.

Scientific accomplishments

Muslims were known in their pharmacology, physiology, anatomy, and above all, their ophthalmology and optical science fields.

Mawali

Non-Arab converts who join existing Arab tribes as clients. These people wanted to became Muslim so they could avoid the jizya poll tax but the government just forced them to pay it anyway. They became 2nd class citizens.

Characteristics of Renn art

Northern art was more overtly religious and avoided the lush sensuousness. The Germans we also active in both painting and sculpture. The art in this time was intended to show the artist's mastery of technique and their newfound freedoms. Many artists were opening their studios to teach others in visual art forms. One of their greatest achievements was the mastery of perspective, which Giotto first accomplished. He also led the way to a new realism in portraits. Artists now saw the human figure as a thing of superb beauty. The architectural style of the Renaissance was an adaptation of the classical temple, with its balanced columns, domes, and symmetrical facades. Artists now seen as a respected and powerful person in society who possessed a divine spark.

Ewuare

Oba of Benin. Led Bini in wars of expansion, seizing land from Yoruba and enslaving captives. He reformed his advisory council, appointing common people to powerful chiefdoms, creating a new system of chiefs whose loyalty was to the obas.

Augustus Caesar

Octavian Caesar (first Emperor) accepted the title Augustus ("revered one") from a grateful Senate. See Octavian Caesar.

Taj Mahal

Often considered the most beautiful building in the world and is a thoroughly Muslim creation. Consisted of the Muslim geometrically based format. Also, based off of garlands, plants, and geometric figures such as triangles, diamonds, and parallelograms.

Great pyramids

Olmec masonry skills allowed them to build ceremonial stone pyramids, one of which reached 110 feet high. They pyramid speaks of high degree of social organization.

Quraysh

One of several tribes that inhabited Mecca. The clan into which Muhammad was born about 750 CE.

Teotihuacan

One of the Classical Native American civilizations of Mexico, dated 300 BCE to 800 CE. It was a metropolis that arose in the rich farmlands in the northern part of the valley. Teotihuacan means "Abode of the Gods." The city was a theocracy devoted to agriculture, crafts, and commerce.

Kumbi Saleh

One of the first cities south of the Sahara. Transport by Niger River, iron tools, and good soil led to agriculture to advance and provide for a rapidly growing population here. Capital of Ghana, very impressive. Muslim geographer al-Bakri spent time describing it in an 11th century travel guide.

Harun al-Rashid

One of the greatest of the Baghdad caliphs in the early 9th century. He and his successors created a special bureau called the "house of wisdom."

Abbasids

Opened up faith to all newcomers, made islam a true world religion.

Urban VI

Original Italian pope selected by the bishops. His election was counted invalid because of the pressures placed on the bishops, but he refused to step down and started the Great Schism

Keitas

Original ruling clan, nominally Muslim. Ruled mainly as divine kings who governed w/ help of their court officials and regional representatives

Boniface VIII

Overreached papal authority when he asserted that clergy were exempt from royal taxes. He then backed down on this claim, which caused a severe blow to papal authority, and later was even arrested by a French monarch.

Hortensian Law

Passed by Hortensius, a consul, in 287 BCE; offered equal voting rights and equal access to office for both plebeians and patricians. However, democracy still failed due to members with a combination of wealth and aristocratic birth retained control in the Senate.

Peruvian textiles

Pattern cloth woven from alpaca wool and cotton by the ancient Andean peoples, used to convey religious symbols and meanings. Andes area has the world's longest unbroken textile record.

Turkish Whirling Dervishes

People who brought individuals into a state of grace through his or her own commitment to the divine by dancing.

Serfs

People with acknowledged basic rights that worked in the manor under a lord, not many more

Ogboni

Powerful religious cult and society that contained senior chiefs who were on an advisory council to restrict the power of the Alafin. They could veto rights over all decisions made by the king that involved war, treaty making, alliances, and tribute payments.

Oyo

Preempted ife as the largest and most powerful Yoruba city state. The Alafins or kings of oyo claimed descent form 1 of the 7 sons of the first man oduduwa and were a dynasty of sudanic kings. They conquered little by little and for med the Yoruba empire. They claimed that they inherited their powers from olorun and oduduwa. Clan authority and hereditary succession was normal. There was an advisory council of 7 chiefs who checked up on the alafins. These chiefs belonged to a religious cult/society. They ahead veto rights over everything the king did.

Ulama

Religious scholars, usually specialists in sacred law (sharia); sometimes called mullahs. Operated to bring the sharia into existence.

Pax Romana

Roman peace from 31BCE to 180CE. Era of Roman control over Mediterranean basin and much of Europe that was the greatest of Augustus's achievements. Western world was unified and peaceful under a single central authority enjoined by common law. People throughout the empire lived under a common concept of peaceful order, expressed and upheld through laws that were valid in any city that the Romans founded

Apologist

School of Christian faith; explainers of sacred Christian doctrine in the 300s and 400s. The school came to be because of challenges that paganism presented to Christianity.

Sundiata

Semi-mythical king, powerful enough to subdue most of W Sudan. Led kingdom of Mali.

Five Pillars of Islam

Shahadah to believe in no god but allah. Salah to pray five times a day. Sayem fasting during Ramadan. Zakat charity. Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca in your life

Al-andalus

Spain under Islamic rule. It became a key point of contact between Islam and Christendom

Missi dominici

Special officers who checked up on the counts and others and reported directly to the king; Charlemagne created them

Ilm

Special spiritual knowledge gained from Ali.

Stoicism

Stoicism is defined in Wikipedia as a path to happenings focusing on now and not the future. And the definition in the book is that stoicism is expecting the worst to happen. Emphasizes humbleness and was also giving different look by Seneca, who incorporate human compassion into stoicism.

Clement V

Successor to Boniface, he moved his court from Rome to Avignon, also known as the Babylonian Captivity.

Kilwa

Swahili city-state in East Africa, had lots of gold ore. Major commercial entrepot of the coast where mixture of Africans and non-Africans occured. Dominated gold and ivory trade. Great E African emporium.

Principate

The 41 year reign of Augustus Caesar; this marked the beginning of the Pax Romana

Man was the measure

The Ancient Greek Motto; for what life had to offer. People gradually viewed life more as an opportunity for glory and pleasure, rather than a transition stage.

Caesaro Papism

The Caesaro Papism is the distinguishing factor between the Byzantine and Latin world of faith. It is a concept that applies when the supreme power of the government is combined with the supreme leadership of the Christian Church (monarch as both head of state and head of church). The holy Roman Emperor or the Pope are seen coming from this. The founder of this concept was emperor justinian.

Thomas More

The English reformer who wrote Utopia. He was a Statesman , and a humanist. Executed for resistance against the kings remarriage.

Uthman

The caliph that ordered the printing of the Quran. 3rd caliph.

Cuzco

The capital city of the Inca Empire. In the high valleys in the Andes, tried to make conquered people completely rely on Cuzco.

Tula

The capital city of the Toltecs still debated by scholars.

Ninety five Theses

The challenge to church authority publicized by Martin Luther.

Mecca

The city from which Muhammad was born. The location of the Ka'ba and a center of trade in Arabia

Medina

The city where Muhammad fled to during his flight or hijra. Also, the capital of the Muslim people

Plebeians

The commoners of Rome, their only say in government came from tribunes

Oba

The divine kings of the Benin who claimed to descend from oduduwa the first man.

Olmec civilization

The earliest Amerindian civilization in Mexico, 1200-300 BCE. Their regional ascendancy (domination) was based on religious practices. The olmec traded rubber, pottery, and decorative ceramics for obsidian, jade, and cacao beans. The Olmecs had a theocracy ruled by a hereditary king. They kept records through calendars and number systems. Between 600-500 BCE, their culture began to decline supplanted by the Mayans. The Olmec's writing and number systems, calendars, bloodletting, and sacred ballgame were all carried on by the Mayans or other mesoamericans.

Praetorian Guard

The emperor's personal army; comprised of 10,000 men and they were the only armed force allowed in Italy. They were easily bribed and they could be used to take over rome. Whoever had power over them had power in Rome. .

Lineage

The family line; in many cases, this is how the next ruler was chosen

Oduduwa

The first man created by olorun the sky god in Yoruba religion.

Classical values

The focus of artistic and culture interest of the Greeks and especially the pagan Romans.

Secularism

The focus of the upper classes' shifted away from the eternal to worldly affairs. The life to some receded into the background as Renaissance men and women rediscovered the joys of life in the here and now. People viewed life as an opportunity for glory and pleasure. Man was the Measure- was the motto for what life had to offer.

Amir

The governor of the provinces who was the key man because of their tax-collecting responsibilities for the well-being of the Baghdad government.

Firdawsi

The great poet who wrote the epic of Shah-nama, a collection of tales that tries to sum up Persia's history from its origins.

Quechua

The language of the Inca that is now an official language of modern Peru.

Great Zimbabwe

The leading civilization of early southern Africa; exporter of gold to the East African coast; had very large and impressive walls and towers; much of the wealth was based on gold

Bure goldfields

The main source of gold for Ghana; was located on the upper Niger River

Maya Civilization

The most advanced of the Amerindian peoples; lived in southern Mexico and Guatemala and created a high urban civilization in the pre-columbian era. Supplanted the Olmecs. Had a written language, complex calendar, and understood the concept of zero. They had ethnically diverse, religious, and administrative states that had revivals in the classical era (400-800 CE).

Ramadan

The ninth month in the muslim year where they cannot eat during the day. This was a time when trade flourished in Mecca because of the annual pilgrimage to Mecca called hajj. During this time no fighting was allowed and so many went to the trading centers in Mecca. This was where culture spread and mixed.

Allah

The one true god of the islamic faith. Joined muslims to fight against unbelief, both in internal and external.

Ka'ba (cube)

The original shrine of pagan Arabic religion in Mecca containing the Black Stone; now one of the holiest places of Islam. Also, hold 360 animistic deities.

Yoruba

The peoples of the Niger and Benue rivers. They were famous for terra cotta and caste bronze and metalworking tech. They used the lost waxing technique to make castings of their kings. Ife was their most powerful city state. It was a market where women did commerce with crops, iron, and copper ware they worshipped olorun the sky god and creator of oduduwa the first man.

Heretics

The religious rebels that battled the papal church. Named the Heretics or wrong thinkers.

Petrarch

The revival of the classical values was led by Petrarch, who was a thinker and writer of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries looked back to the pre-Christian Mediterranean culture for their values and standards.

Ife

The sacred city of the Yoruba people; the market there was dominated by women; it was located on the marches of West Africa's savanna and forest zones and on the shortest trade route that linked the forest with the great Niger River ports

Shar'ia

The sacred law of Islam; based on the Qur'an and the oral traditions (sunna) of the prophet Muhammad.

Toltecs

The second unifying force in the Valley of Mexico. A 200 year empire bridging periods of chaos and strife. They were very militaristic and seen as the superhuman bearers of high culture to the Valley. Many were careful to claim descendants because if this. Capital of Tula.

Purdah

The segregation of females in Hindu and Muslim society from prying eyes of visitors and strangers. For some women, observing the rules of purdah was impossible because of sheer economic necessity.

Olorun

The sky god and creator of the first man in Yoruba religion.

Diwan

The state council of the government.

Sovereignty

The state had an effective claim to equality with other states and that it acknowledged no higher earthly power over it. One of the three essential attributes of a renaissance state.

Legitimacy

The state possessed moral authority in the eyes of its subjects. It had a right to exist. One of the three essential attributes of a renaissance state.

Territory

The state possessed real estate that could be precisely bounded and contain human and material resources.

Babylonian Captivity

The stay of Pope Clement V and his successor in the French city of Avignon, which everyone except the French viewed as captives of the French crown and not worthy to lead

Oni

The sudanic kings of the Yoruba who encouraged international trade.

Closing of the Gates

The system and sources of written law the ulamas developed for seeking God's will in all things was considered to be complete, and therefore closed to further development. It was known as the closing of the gates and it caused the discouragement of all future independent thought and intellectual innovation after that time.

Martin Luther

The true leader of the Protestant Reformation with his famous Ninety Five Theses. Also noted for his translation of the Bible into German.

Great Schism

The two popes denouncing each other as imposters divided Europe along national lines, and neither side wouldn't give in.

Arab Islamic theocracy

The type of government that some caliphs used. First introduced by Umar Preserved god's commands through the Qur'an and it was ethnically Arab since the conquering Arabs were segregated from the vanquished in fortified encampments. Also encouraged ethnically homogenous society.

Azhar Mosque University

The world's oldest and still functioning university that is located in Cairo, Egypt. It was founded in the ninth century by shi'ite ulama as a place of study in religious sciences.

Qur'an

The written quotes of Muhammad and Allah. Basis for law of some extremists today. Ex taliban

Act of Supremacy of 1534

Then king Henry declared himself by using the parliament as the only supreme head of the church in the Anglican or English Protestant church. He did this because the pope refused to annulment his marriage.

Ghiberti's bronze doors

They are the doors of the Florentine cathedral and are new in a sense that no one had attempted it previously. They had ten reliefs that depicted Old Testament scenes.

Protestant Reformation

They condemned the empty formalism that was so common in the church. The split in Christian belief and church organization that is termed the Protestant Reformation.

Basalt heads

They show how skilled the Olmecs were in stone work. Standing up to nine feet high and weighing up to twelve tons, these mysterious heads may represent prominent individuals in the guise of were-jaguars. The Olmecs mined the basalt heads blocks in the mountains and carved the heads before dragging them to the rivers and floating them to the coastal religious centers.

Magyars

They were a group of invaders from the east, and they were similar to the Huns; they fought for many years until they were finally defeated in 955, and they returned to the Hungarian plains

Role of women

They were expected to run the house with vigor and economy. It the husband was gone, she was entrusted with full authority. To complete these tasks, women must be literate and all wealthy families had a private tutor for all of their children. Middle-class women had a greater responsibility for the management of the house and business affairs. Women played a major role with helping their husbands with their jobs. The main jobs of women were spinning and weaving, as was care of the rural livestock. Women also performed; butchering, baking, metalwork, and dyeing cloth.

Manors

They were large estates run by lords, and they became very common during the Dark Age of Europe; some of these lords became warlords with private armies; they often avoided taxes and the government's control

Gold (role of)

This material was extremely influential because there was a supply of it, and it was considered very valuable in trade

Slavery

This was caused most of the time by war, debt, and crime; there was lots of slave trade that started in Africa

Medieval Europe

This was when Germans and Romans blended together; during this period, the Christian church supplied all the education and whatever charitable and medical institutions that existed

Jewish War

This was when Jews rebelled against the Roman overlords, and they failed miserably and were crushed; This led to the second Diaspora, and the Jews were exiled

Sayf Allah

To take up the sword of allah. highest honor for a Muslim. Dying for allah is considered one of god's commandments so it assures heavenly reward. This is why muslims are so ready to always fight for their faith. This is also one of the reasons for the existence of many Muslim terrorist groups.

trans-Saharan trade

Trade is important because that is what the kings relied on. Local production of high value goods like gold, ivory, animal skins, dyes, gums created wealth. Kings could control tax, and could regulate goods being exported and imported to their political advantage. Political power rested on control over the imports of trans Saharan trade.

Seljuks

Turkish converts to Islam who seized the Baghdad government from the Abbasids in the eleventh century. They came from Afghanistan and ruled the government for about a century, but fell because of internal rivalries.

Consuls

Two elected officials put into office by the Senate, held chief executive powers for non-repeatable 1 year terms. One official usually conducted military affairs, while the other dealt with civil affairs. Each had veto powers over the other.

Conciliar Movement

Universal conclave of bishops that combated the growing problems within the church and wished to enact reforms to church doctrine and papal government.

Madrasa

University. Mansa Musa founded one at the famous Sankore mosque in Timbuktu.

Utopia

Utopia was meant as a satire and a lesson for society. The people do not seek wealth because they don't see the point of it. They put their neighbors welfare ahead of their own. Education continues throughout their entire live. Equality in status and power. Live by reason.

Economic Revival

WDYM? Before or after black death

Wars of the Roses

War of the Roses was an English civil war between noble factions over the succession to the throne in the fifth teen century.

Individualism

Wealthy men and women believed that age old Christian emphasis on personal humanity was wrong. They did not fear to set themselves apart from the masses and were supremely confident that they could. Encouraged pride in human potential. A thirst for fame and a strong desire to put their own imprint on the contemporary world.

Zanj

What the Arabs called local Bantu-speaking people. Traded with Persians, Arabs, and Indians. Known to us as the swahili. Traded for dates, glassware, Persian ceramics, Chinese porcelain and silk, Indian cotton, glass beads.

Sudanic kingship

When states did form, they were usually organized around sudanic kingship. There were no bureaucracies and they had a lot of court functionaries who could negate the kings power if they disagreed. There was typically a queen mother, a prime minister, royal historian, praise singer, royal drummers, commander of the army, dividers, medicine men and women.

Cordoba

Where al-Umayya, an Umayyad survivor of a clan massacre in Damascus, in 756 established an independent emirate. It developed into an intellectual beacon of Maliki law.

Matrilineal descent

Where name and inheritance was attributed to children from the maternal line; this was not uncommon in sub-Saharan Africa before Islam influenced the area

Domesday Book

William of Normandy ordered a census of tax records that showed his immense power (1086-1087)

Summa Theologica

Written by one of the greatest Christian teachers of all time, St. Thomas Aquila's attempted to use the arguments of Aristotle to prove the existence of God.

Fief

a plot of land usually awarded by a suzerian to a vassal that contained one or more rural villages or manors.

Punic Wars

a series of wars between Rome and other peoples similar to Rome. After the wars they embarked on imperial expansion. Rome started to become an empire. First Punic war was the fought with the Carthaginian over Sicily and sardinia. Rome won. In the second war, Hannibal the Carthaginian general one battle against the Romans are eventually lost the war as the Romans used the strategy of attacking Carthage and Hannibal had to return to Carthage. This battle was the battle of Zama. The punic wars in general showed that roman culture would influence the Mediterranean instead of Carthaginian.

Meditations

a small book of aphorisms written by Marcus Aurelius, that has been a best seller ever since.

Octavian Caesar

adoptive son of Julius. Was 18 and had little political experience and lacked military prowess when Julius died. Part of Second Triumvirate. Maneuvered Antony to declare war against him, and he won in the decisive Battle of Actium, causing the effective beginning of the Roman Empire and master of the Roman world. Retained form while changing the substance. Pretended to be simply another consul, but he was the consul for life, semidivine, and he had strong military resources. Enlarged Senate with loyal supporters, but he made all real policy decisions. Cut army size by half, retaining all key military posts under his control. Accepted title of Augustus, preferred to be called Princeps. Created type of constitutional monarchy that was suited to contemporary Roman realities.

Triumvirates

alliances formed usually with the purpose of taking over the empire. Julius Caesar, Crassus the wealthy guy, and Pompey the general. Augustus, lepidus and mark Antony. The first one wasn't successful and the second one was.

Venice

along with Genoa, Venice dominated the trade routes with the Mediterranean basin and North Africa. Also one the cities where Renaissance began.

Genoa

along with Venice, Genoa dominated the trade routes with the Mediterranean basin and North Africa. Also one the cities where Renaissance began.

Vikings

also Called norsemen. They were the most serious threat and had the most impact on the Romans. They were good warriors and came in boats from the northern areas of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. They found that the Germanic groups were weak and defeated them. They looted Paris in 834. They then looted Seville in the heart of the Spain's lands. 80yrs later

Res publica

also means republic, or state without a monarch; Rome had this government before Augustus

Second Triumvirate

an alliance formed after the assassination of Julius cases are between Octavian, the financier lepidus, and mark Antony. They crushed the enemies and split the territory up. Antony had east and Egypt. Octavian has Italy and west. And lepidus got africa.

Saul of Tarsus

an educated Jew and Roman citizen who first persecuted Romans but then was converted to Christianity when he saw a vision on the road to Damascus. He created a more universal spreading of Christianity by preaching to the gentiles (non Jews). Paul is responsible for the many of the books in the New Testament and is a great prophet he was martyred (killed for religious purposes) by Nero.

Jesuit Order\Society of Jesus

an example of the second part of the counter reformation (the doctrinal and goals of church that were to be established as clear). Their mission was to win back hearts for the Catholic Church and bing everyone to the word of god and to the pope.

Heresies

any belief that contradicted the teachings of the Catholic Church

Gothic Style

architectural style (mid-12th century) that included use of stained glass windows, decorations, flying buttresses, and vaulted arches. They were used as large, pictorial teaching devices meant to teach the largely illiterate population on Christianity.

Emperor Charles V

ask Ms. Dolan?

Municipia

basic unit of Roman local gov't, similar to present day municipality, towns and their surrounding countryside that formed governmental units.

Calvinistic church practices

calvinists started to appear in Germany the Netherlands, Scotland, England, France, Switzerland. Geneva had become the Protestant rome and Calvin was its priestly ruler. Calvinists thought of the entire community lay and priestly as equal members. They insisted on the power of congregation to select pastors at will inspired by god´s word. No hierarchies only presbyters (elected elders) spoke for their communities at assemblies at the national or regional level. There were clerical and lay leaders tho. All this gave the church political and moral parts.

Treaty of Verdun 843 AD

charlemagne gave his empire to his only son Louis the pious, who was a weak leader. The empire was divided between his sons Louis, Lother and Charles. Charles got France, Lothar got the area in between France and Germany, and Louis got Germany reaching down into part of Italy. The treaty established the peace between the provinces. The treaty is one of the most important treaties because of the general linguistic and cultural borders it had still survive today.

Crusades

church-approved war that allowed young nobles to fight unbelievers, recover the Holy Land, and make fortunes; created a peaceful environment in Europe and allowed new trade routes to flourish.

Inquisition

clerical court that brought individuals suspected of adhering to forbidden doctrines before a panel of Dominican friars who questioned their belief. Most were pardoned, but some were tortured and even publicly burned.

Vernacular Literature

common people's oral language that was started to be used in books instead of Latin in the early 14th century

Index of forbidden books

created to censor the writing s and supervise the beliefs of its adherents. Both became steadily important in catholic countries during the next century.

Corpus Iuris

distillation of Roman law and practice; "body of the law"; produced under emperor Justinian. Foundation for most Western medieval and early modern law codes. Its basic precepts operate in many Roman Catholic countries of Europe and Latin America currently. Enormously influential result of Byzantine initiative.

Council of Nicaea

first ecumenical council to solve theology disputes. Held in Turkey with sponsorship of Emperor Constantine. More than 300 bishops attended and defined important questions of theology and church administration.

Dominicans

followers of St. Domic who tried to convert heretics back to the true faith by calmly and peaceably showing their wrongs; outstanding professors and theologians; involved in the Inquisition

Pope Gregory I

founded a monastery in Rome. Gregory created shelters, built hospitals for the sick and provided schools to train priests and educate the lay (non religious officials). Converted Anglo saxons to Christianity. He converted Germanic invaders to Christianity. This was his greatest legacy.

King Henry VIII

had marital problems that brought the church in England into conflict with rome. He needed a Spanish wife, Catherine of Aragon, but she was infertile so he wanted to divorce her. At this time only the pope could solidify divorce. THe pope refused. Then king Henry declared himself by using the parliament as the only supreme head of the church in the Anglican or English Protestant church. This was called the act of supremacy in 1534. He then married and divorced several times but eventually had a son. King Edward VI.

John Knox

his powerful oratory led scots into Calvinism (the Presbyterian church)

Monasteries

home for monks/nuns; usually somewhat apart from the world.

Edict of Milan

issued by Constantine to end persecution of Christians. Announced official toleration of Christianity and signaled that Christianity was favored at imperial court.

Ghettos

jews lived in completely segregated small urban areas of a block or two; forbidden from most craft guilds and owning land.

Diocletian

last of the Barracks Emperors, known for his conquests, division of empire into west and east, and establishment of tetrarchy. He was a capable general who fought his way to power. Made emperor the absolute ruler and the bureaucrats instruments that affected his will. Allowed no opposition because he knew something new needed to be tried. Took eastern half for his personal domain. Attempted to revive economy by lowering inflation, issuing price ceilings, restore faith in Roman coinage, increasing tax burden, and made tax collectors responsible for missed payments.

Imperium

latin word for Empire.

Ius gentium

law code that governed relations between citizens and non Romans, "law of peoples", gradually came to be accepted as basic during early empire, paved the way for international law because rights were existing for noncitizens.

Emperor Theodosius

made Christianity official imperial religion in 381. Reinforced Petrine Succession by commanding all his Christian subjects to believe as the bishop of Rome believed.

Nubian society

matured into 3 small states of noba makuria and allowa. It took the place of Axum, and did lots of trading along bodies of water. Especially Red Sea trade. Not much is known except that they converted to Christianity through Egyptian influence. They sustained Muslims until around 1200s

Hagia Sophia

most spectacular of Justinian's public works programs. Great central church of Constantinople, or Church of Holy Wisdom. Made into a mosque by Ottoman Turkish conquerors later.

Pope Paul III

moved to counter some of the bad reputation that roman authorities had by cleaning up the clergy. Also gave nobleman ignatius of loyola the right to organize an entirely new religious group. The jesuits/society of Jesus.

Northern route

only trade route that connected Dark Age Europe with the rich Byzantine Empire and Abbasid Caliphate.

Abu Bakr

orthodox caliph, The first caliph assassinated. Muhammad's brother in law, his bff and one of his first converts. He was addressed as khalifat ar rasul Allah. This means deputy of gods messenger. This is where the idea of caliph came from.

Umar

orthodox caliph, second caliph the real founder of the muslim empire he conquered north africa, persia and western India. General who rulers for 10 years. He conquered egypt and invaded Persian and Byzantine territory. The Arabs went as far as india by his death. Umar came up with Arab Islamic theocracy, where the Quran provided how to rule and it was ethnically homogeneous because the Arabs kept the conquered segregated in encampments. They even gave the jizya tax to these peoples in order to keep them segregated.

Ali

othrodox caliph, nephew of muhammad the fourth caliph. Shiite Muslims are the followers of Ali. Married to Fatima. Last orthodox caliph.

Demesne

part of agricultural estate that belonged directly to the lord.

Julius Caesar

patrician general and politician who caused final collapse of pseudo democracy and republican system because he saw it was corrupt. Part of First Triumvirate. Made his reputation by conquering Gauls. Wished to become consul and use powerful office to make basic changes to government structure and Pompey and the Senate viewed him as a dangerous radical. He made himself dictator, subordinated Senate entirely to himself, and reformed existing system. Assassinated by conservative senators.

Bini

people of Benin, subgroup of a larger ethnic group called the Edo. neighbors of the Yoruba.

Proletariat

people without sources of income except the daily sale of their labor; they were ready to sell their votes to the highest bidder. They were forced to be slaves after coming home from the army and seeing that their farms had been overtaken by big landlords

Marcus Aurelius

perhaps greatest emperor after Augustus, last of the Five Good Emperors who ruled in 2nd century CE. Left small book of aphorisms called Meditations. He settled on a pessimistic Stoicism as the most fitting cloak for a good man in a bad world. He opposed Christianity because they rejected external prescriptions for morality, and believed each person is responsible for searching and following his own conscience.

Hundred Years' War

quarrel between English and French nobles and Kings started between Edward III and Philip VI; conflict took entirely on French soil, with some early English victories but late French victories

Kharijites

rejected caliphs because they thought that only a muslim free of sin was fit to lead

Patents of Nobility

royal documents that granted nobles or their ancestors the status of nobility, along with the certain privileges that came along with that status.

Shi'ites

sect of Islam that only believes with blood relations to muhammad are able to lead. These were the original followers of Ali

Humanism

secular intellectual movement that believed humans to be the sole valid arbiters of their values and ambitions.

Oligarchies

small group of wealthy aristocrats, headed by a prince with despotic government

Puritans

strict Calvinist who were not happy with this arrangement and wanted to purify the church by removing the church of the corrupt papacy.

Guild

system that restricted competition among certain crafts and ensured the worker's socio-economic status would stay secure.

Anglican Church

the English protein stand church ruled by king Henry. This was the hutch that he declared the act of supremacy on.

Populus

the Latin word for people; they were the people of Rome

Lollards

the Lollards rebelled in England in the 130s against clerical claims and against sole people interpreting the word of god and against the popes. The movement was extinguished but people remembered it in England and it later lead to more rebellion.

Ignatius of Loyola

the Spanish nobleman whom pope Paul III assigned to creating the jesuits/society of Jesus

Catherine of Aragon

the Spanish wife of Henry VIII who wanted to annulment their marriage because of her inability to produce children.

Völkerwanderung

the barbarian invasions. It was the migration Period. Some of the migrations were of the Germanic, Slavic, hunnic peoples that had no violence and other migrations others were of war. This is the part of time where tribes and peoples of non romans contributed to the fall of rome. Barbarian culture influenced European culture during this time.

Pope

the bishop of rome back in the old days. Now is the head of the Catholic Church and lives in the Vatican in Vatican City.

Petrine Succession

the bishop of rome claiming to be the first among equals. Also the bishop was a direct successor of Peter (the rock, also the first pope)

Caliph

the chief civil and religious muslim leader

Archbishop of Canterbury

the chief of the bishops

Tribunes

the chief officers of the plebeian commoners. They had the Power to speak in the senate for the plebeians. Eventually, they were offered membership on the senate and became more associated with the patricians than the plebeians.

Church of England

the compromise that queen Elizabeth I came up with for romans and Protestants. It had bishops rituals and sacraments of the roman church but its head was the English monarch. He appointed bishops and the chief (who was the archbishop of Canterbury)

Bloody Mary

the daughter of henry VIII from his 1st marriage. After her half brother Edwards death She was too popular to be overridden by the Protestants at court. =she restored caticism to its original status. Protestants were put to death. This is why she is called Bloody Mary.

Anabaptists

the followers of a radical sect. They were rebaptizers and believed in adult baptism, priesthood of all believers, and a primitive communist that had them share worldly possessions. They established a republic of Rhineland city and were suppressed. They were driven underground. Their beliefs continued to live on and they later became mennonites, Amish and other smaller groups.

Pontifex Maximus

the high priest of the state religion; Octavian pretended to be another one of these as he subtly became a dictator

Natural law

the idea that all humans, by virtue of their humanity, possess certain rights and duties that all courts must recognize; it became viewed as a God ordained order after the Romans adopted Christianity

Umma

the muslim community muhammad founded. Thus was the thing that all muslims were part of. What unified them along with the Arabic language and Quran was the umma Muslim community.

Virgil's Aeneid

the official version of the founding of Rome written by Aeneid.

Counter Reformation

the papacy figured out the problem of proesntantsim i a positive fashion. Pope Paul III moved to counter some stereotypes given to roman authorities and did clean up the clergy. The roman Church had 2 lines of counterattack against the Protestants. These were 1) a en examination of doctrines and practices and 2) emphasis on the instruction of young and education of all Christians in the church's doctrines. All these things were together called the counter reformation

God's Elect

the people who were not eternally stationed by Adam´s sin and were not destined for hellfire.

Tetrarchy

the rule of 4 that was issued by Diocletian who divided the empire into west and east halves and took the east as under his rule. He gave the west half to a trusted official. Each of the "co-emperors" had a assistant who helped him with his office. This system was the tetrarchy (rule of 4)

Damascus

the second capital city of the muslim umayyad empire. Capital was moved there by muawiya

Senatus

the senate of Rome. Where the senators were. They made decisions on law and order

King Edward VI

the son and male heir Henry VIII had been searching for under his rule Protestant views became dominant in the English government. After his death support for his his father´s daughter from his first Warri age was strong.

Suzerain

the superior person to whom the service was owed to; usually returned something of value to noble (i.e. political support, protection and, a fief)

Anne Boleyn

the wife Henry had after the annulment of his first wife Catherine of Aragon.

The Institutes of the Christian Religion

this is where Calvin set out his beliefs and doctrines with a precision and clarity of a lawyer. His most dramatic homage from Rome and Luther was his insistence that god predestined souls. A soul is meant for heaven for eternity. humanity was eternally stained by Adam's sin and most souls were destined to hellfire.

Price ceilings

this was a limit on the price of something issued by a government. Emperor Diocletian issued the first price ceilings. These price ceilings were on consumer goods. It failed. This was one of the ways that Diocletian tried to fix the economy.

Council of Trent

this was the first attempt to examine the churches doctrines and goals since the Roman Empire. They met for 3 sessions the bishops and theologian decided that they could clearly define what Catholics believed to counter Protestant attacks. On the larger scale: Now there was no way to compromise the 2 religions.

Vassals

to some person of superior rank to a noble to whom the noble owed loyalty and/or specific duties.

Fallow

unseeded land left each year to allow the land to regain its nutrients in the absence of fertilizer.

Patricians

upper class, 5 to 10% of total population, had considerable power even under Etruscan king, made up Senate and commanders, felt a personalized attachment, sense of duty, and proud obedience to tradition handed down toward the state.

Bourgeoisie

upper-middle class, status-conscious and educated people who lived within a walled settlement meant to protect property and life (i.e. doctors, lawyers, royal and clerical officeholders)

Diaspora

when Romans punished Jews by dispersing them after they stopped the Jewish rebellion in the Jewish War. A result of this was the establishment of Jewish exile colonies that became breeding grounds for Christianity.

Sui iuris

woman who was not Under her father's control or her husbands control

Umayyad Dynasty

wrote down the quran. Ruled by people not related to muhammad. It was dynastic and was the first dynastic Muslim rule. Muawiya started the Umayyad dynasty