Writing Research Papers

What strategy for generating a topic might this student be using?

Notice the actual pen. The student is probably jotting down ideas using the imagine an address book strategy. Notice also that there are no magazines to look through, which eliminates the possibility of the flip test.

compound sentence

Olivier starred in many stage productions of Shakespeare plays, and he also starred in movies of the plays.

NEW

SET

Why is it important to consider your audience?

This helps the writer identify the types of details and language needed in the writing.

QA: Question/Answer

generally starts with a question that is then answered in subsequent sentences

PS: Problem/Solution

problem posed and one or several solutions follow

chronological order

the history of Ireland's struggle for independence

cause and effect

the impact of the potato famine on Ireland's population

order of importance

the importance of studying Irish literature in the public classroom

TRI: Topic, Restatement, Illustration

topic sentence followed by a restatement or extension of the main idea, followed by an example

Match each term with its corresponding sentence. (The subordinate clauses appear in italics.)

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Prewriting: Considering Your Audience and Purpose Consider your audience to identify the types of details and language they will understand and appreciate. Also, identify your purpose, so that you will be sure to choose details that will have a definite impact on your audience. Ask yourself: For Whom Am I Writing?—Consider the age, education level, and experience of your audience. For example, you would probably take one approach if your paper about pollution in a local lake is to be read by environmental scientists and a very different approach if it is to be read by high-school students. Why Am I Writing?—Research papers are intended to inform or explain; but if your thesis is a controversial one, you may also have persuasion as a purpose.

Age, education level, and experience of the audience make it necessary to adjust the way a writer presents information. How might a research paper be different when written for a general audience rather than for a college professor? Writing for a college professor can contain specialized language and references that might be too difficult for a general audience to understand.

Editing and Proofreading: Focusing on Formatting Research writing contains numerous citations. Parenthetical Citation—This citation appears in parentheses immediately after the relevant passage in the text of your paper. Include the author's last name and page number. Footnote—Place a raised number at the end of a cited passage. Place the same raised number at the bottom of the page; next to it, give details about the source of the information. Endnote—Place a raised number at the end of a cited passage. Instead of listing the source information next to a number at the bottom of the page, prepare a separate page for all endnotes.

As you proofread, make sure you have formatted all citations correctly. Formatting Excerpts—Sometimes, the best way to incorporate another person's ideas into your research paper is to quote that person at length. Direct quotations of four lines or more are considered excerpts and must be formatted as such. Proofread your paper to make sure you have formatted excerpts correctly. When you have an excerpt of four lines or more, precede the excerpt with a colon; start the excerpt on a new line; write or type the excerpted material to a narrower measure than that used in the rest of the paper. Credit the source of the excerpt using a footnote, endnote, or parenthetical citation.

Body The body of an essay is composed of paragraphs that develop and support a main idea. Normally, each body paragraph presents a single main idea that is supported by details. Some paragraphs, however, perform a specific function, such as making a transition or emphasizing an important point. Sometimes, too, when dealing with a long or complicated issue, a single aspect of a topic may be explored over a number of paragraphs known as a paragraph block. Conclusion Conclusions should leave a lasting, vivid impression on the reader. An effective conclusion sums up or restates an essay's main idea and gives the reader something to think about. Consider ending your essay by offering a recommendation, an intriguing question, or a personal insight.

Before you begin drafting the introduction to your own essay, take a look at the student example. Tameeka's introduction was designed to capture her audience's interest immediately. By giving two examples of local teens who currently volunteer, Tameeka draws the interest of her audience, New York-area teenagers.

Revising Your Sentences: Improve Sentence Variety Next, it is time to improve your sentences. One of the most common problems in writing sentences is the careless repetition of certain words. For example, if you were writing about the United States mail, you might repeat the word letter several times. In order to add variety to your sentences, replace some repeated words with synonyms or pronouns to enliven your writing. Draft The company president receives thousands of letters a day. Many letters are from companies and corporations, and many letters are from private individuals. Revision The company president receives thousands of letters a day. Many of them are from companies and corporations, and many are from private individuals.

Color-Coding to Locate Repeated Words Read through your draft, and highlight or circle all repeated words you find. Then, replace some of those words with synonyms (words with similar meanings) or with pronouns (words that stand for nouns). When you insert pronouns to take the place of nouns, be sure that you do not introduce errors in pronoun-antecedent agreement. Let's review these grammatical rules more closely. Notebook Be sure to take notes on these grammatical principles.

Write It! It is now time for you to create your own written research plan. Having it in writing will help you stay focused, and give you a starting point. Take a look at the illustration to see how a fellow student devised her research plan. To direct her search for information, Tameeka Mitchem of Satellite Academy first created a research plan.

Conduct Interviews If your documented essay is about a person, interview him or her if you can. If the topic of your essay isn't a person, you still may benefit from interviewing experts, eyewitnesses, or others who have firsthand knowledge about your subject. Follow these tips for interviewing: Contact each person, and arrange to meet or speak by telephone at his or her convenience. Prepare questions in advance. Design your questions to get as much information as possible. Don't ask "yes" or "no" questions. Record answers in writing or, with the interviewee's consent, on audiocassette or videotape. Take note of the date, time, or place. Follow up with a thank-you call or note. Real World Connection Interviewing is the key element of most jobs. To get a job, an applicant has an interview. As one advances in business, one may interview others. Reporters' jobs consist largely of interviewing. Learning to be comfortable on both sides of the interview is a valuable skill.

Use Electronic Resources Computers have become an indispensable research tool. There are two basic ways to use your computer for research: On-Line Research—The Internet, which you can access through an on-line service, offers a wealth of sources for information, including museums, news media, colleges and universities, special-interest groups, and government institutions. You can also find links to your topic by using a search engine. CD-ROMs—Many information and reference sources are now available on CD-ROM. Check your library, bookstore, or electronics outlet to see what is available.

Conduct Investigative Research Some research topics benefit from investigative research. If yours is one that does, consider these possibilities: Interviews—Interview an expert in your topic. Prepare questions in advance, phrasing them to encourage the interviewee to answer at length. Conduct preliminary research if necessary. Follow up with a thank-you note or phone call. Surveys—If the statistics you need are not available, conduct your own survey. Prepare questions in advance, framing questions as neutrally as possible to avoid biased results. Keep track of responses, and tabulate them carefully.

Put each step of the interview process in order from beginning to end.

Contact each person and arrange a time to speak. Prepare your questions in advance. Record the answers in writing or by taping. Follow up with a thank-you call or note.

Prove your point by citing a survey (Twenty-five percent of today's teens would like to own a ferret) or a fact found in your research (Ferrets are banned as house pets in some states). Then, follow up by restating, explaining, defining, or illustrating the fact (Although ferrets can be house pets in one state, in another, they are considered to be wild animals).

Drafting: Providing Elaboration As you draft, elaborate by defining, explaining, or illustrating the points you are making. In your documented essay, cite facts and statistics and explain how they relate to your main idea. For example, suppose you are writing about the growing popularity of ferrets as house pets. Prove your point by citing a survey or a fact found in your research. Follow up by restating, explaining, defining, or illustrating the fact. Survey Twenty-five percent of today's teens would like to own a ferret. Fact Ferrets are banned as house pets in some states. Explanation Although ferrets can be house pets in one state, in another, they are considered to be wild animals.

Peer Review One of the best ways to find out whether your essay succeeds is to have peers read and respond to it. Your peers may give you a fresh perspective and point out ways to sharpen your ideas and express them more clearly. Get Group Feedback—Distribute your documented essay to a few of your classmates in advance of meeting as a group. Ask them to read your essay and to jot down their comments about what they have read. Then, when you meet as a group, use these questions to generate discussion: How well was the essay's main idea supported? How could the essay be made more interesting to a reader? After you've heard from your classmates, consider using their suggestions to improve your essay.

Editing and Proofreading: Focus on Quotation Marks Before sharing your documented essay with others, proofread it carefully. Correct all errors you find in grammar, spelling, and punctuation. Cite sources for all information in your documented essay that does not come directly from you. To avoid plagiarism—using other people's words or ideas without crediting them—be sure you use quotation marks around words, phrases, and sentences that come directly from someone other than yourself. As you proofread, compare each quotation in your essay with the source to make sure that you have recorded exactly what your source said or wrote.

Before your peer review, you may want to prepare a list of questions such as the following to help your peer respond as he or she reads your report: What can make the introduction clearer and more interesting? What is my thesis statement? Which passages, if any, in the body could be better organized? Have I included enough facts and details to support the thesis? What revisions might make the conclusion stronger and more memorable? How can the writing be tightened or trimmed? What mistakes, if any, have I made in documenting resources?

Editing and Proofreading: Focusing on Quotations Errors in spelling, punctuation, grammar, and usage indicate sloppiness and carelessness—qualities you do not want associated with your work. Before creating your final draft, proofread your essay to eliminate such errors. Check each quoted line or passage in your research report to ensure that it is transcribed correctly and that it is enclosed in quotation marks or set as an excerpt. Also double-check the names, titles, and other reference information to be sure that each is accurate. Think About It In preparing research papers, why do you think it's particularly important to proofread quoted material for accuracy of wording and correctness of punctuation?

As you create sentence variety, keep in mind sentence structure. When you combine sentences you form a new sentence structure. The structure of a sentence is determined by the number and kind of clauses it contains. Remember that a clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb. There are two major types of clauses—an independent clause and a subordinate clause. An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence. A subordinate clause cannot stand alone because it does not express a complete thought. It must be linked to a main clause. Example: Independent Clause Shakespeare's popularity has never waned. Example: Subordinate Clause Because Shakespeare is so popular, his plays have been translated into dozens of languages. (The subordinate clause appears in italics.)

Four sentence structures can be formed from independent and subordinate clauses: Simple Sentence—an independent clause that stands alone Compound Sentence—contains two or more independent clauses separated by a semicolon or linked by a comma and a coordinating conjunction such as and, but, or, for, nor, so or yet Complex Sentence—contains one independent clause and one or more subordinate clauses Compound-Complex Sentence—contains at least one subordinate clause and at least two independent clauses The video that follows will provide you with examples of compound and compound-complex sentences.

Gathering Details You have identified your topic. Now it's time to gather your details. There are a number of resources to help with this task, including the following: Nonfiction books Magazine articles Indexes, bibliographies, almanacs, atlases, and encyclopedias CD-ROM encyclopedias World Wide Web Let's take a look at each of these.

Make a Research Plan The best way to prepare for research is to list the information you want to find and where you hope to find it. Libraries contain information in both printed and electronic formats. To locate nonfiction books, use the library's card or computer catalog. In either catalog, you can search for books about your topic by author, title, or subject. To locate current magazine articles, use the Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature. Use a microfiche machine to read the appropriate articles. Libraries also have reference sections in which you will find a variety of useful sources, including indexes, bibliographies, almanacs, atlases, and encyclopedias. CD-ROM encyclopedias give multimedia presentations on a number of topics. The World Wide Web contains a wealth of Web pages that give information about a multitude of subjects.

Revising Your Word Choice Review Your Use of I and You—Formal research papers are almost always written in the third person. Although the use of the first person is sometimes acceptable—in making a personal interpretation, for example—most times, the use of the third person is preferred. A common error, especially when writing about society and social issues, is to unintentionally lapse into the first or second person. See the examples. Carefully reread your paper. Identify and circle all first- or second-person pronouns: I, my, we, us, our, you, your, yours. If switches from third person to first person and second person are unintentional, revise them. Example: First Person A 1989 study revealed that most of us vote for candidates of our own ethnic group. Example: Third Person A 1989 study revealed that most people vote for candidates of their own ethnic group.

Peer Review With the process of revision almost completed, step back to get a fresh perspective on your work. A good way to do this is to have a fellow student read your revised draft. At this stage, a peer can be more objective about your work than you can; he or she may help you see things you might have missed. Work With a Partner—Pair up with another student, and exchange revised drafts. Take turns reviewing each other's work. Read through each other's drafts silently and then aloud before offering suggestions about content and style.

Here is the outline Ian created to support his thesis statement: "The hard labor that he, his family, and other generations of Irish farmers endured in the cultivation and harvesting of potatoes has had a great influence on Heaney's poetry." What are the main topics? Write It! Create an outline for your topic.

Prewriting: Providing Elaboration As you draft, follow your outline, making sure each body paragraph addresses an aspect of your thesis. Then, develop your ideas by providing supporting details. Insert citations as you draft, revealing the origin of source material. Give details and cite sources. Support your main points with various types of details: Facts—Facts can be proved. General facts do not need to be cited. Statistics—Statistics give information about your topic. Cite the origin of your statistical information. Examples—Examples include situations from life that illustrate the points you are making. Such examples do not need to be cited. Quotations—Quotations are word-for-word quotes from someone other than yourself. They must appear in quotation marks and be cited. Paraphrased Information—Paraphrasing is retelling in your own words information you learned while researching. If paraphrased information is not generally known, you must cite the source material. Personal Observations—Personal observations are your own ideas about what you have learned. They do not need to be cited. Notebook Copy each type of detail into your notebook.

Publishing and Presenting: Building Your Portfolio Here are some suggestions for publishing and presenting your work: Internet—Millions of people around the world are connected electronically through the Internet; no doubt some of them will be interested in reading your paper. Try these ideas for using the Internet: e-mail your paper to a friend; publish it on an electronic bulletin board; submit it to a student publication. Oral Presentation—Present your research paper orally to your class or to another class that is studying a subject related to your topic. Instead of reading your paper word for word, speak from note cards with key ideas highlighted. Use visual aids to support your presentation.

Reflecting on Your Writing After you've completed your research paper, spend a few minutes thinking about your writing experience. Then, answer the following questions, and record your answers in your portfolio. If you had to do it over again, what would you do differently? Did you learn anything about your topic that surprised you? Use the rubric to evaluate your work.

Revising Your Overall Structure Once you have completed your first draft, start looking for ways to improve it. Take a critical look at each level of writing, from the overall structure to individual word choices. Begin with the big picture. Evaluate the Variety of Support—One of the hallmarks of an effective research paper is thoroughness. Review your paper to make sure you have completely explored your topic using a variety of types of support.

Revising Your Overall Structure Once you have completed your first draft, start looking for ways to improve it. Take a critical look at each level of writing, from the overall structure to individual word choices. Begin with the big picture. Evaluate the Variety of Support—One of the hallmarks of an effective research paper is thoroughness. Review your paper to make sure you have completely explored your topic using a variety of types of support.

Improve Unity and Coherence Eliminating Unnecessary Details to Improve Unity—Read through your draft, and circle your thesis statement or main idea. Then, using another color, circle all details in your draft that support or relate to your main idea. When you are finished, review the details that have not been circled. Either rewrite them to connect with or support your main idea or eliminate those details altogether. Linking Paragraphs to Improve External Coherence—External coherence refers to the connections that link paragraphs together. To make your paragraphs coherent: Repeat a word or thought from the previous paragraph to emphasize the connection between paragraphs. Add sentences or phrases that build bridges, making the connection between paragraphs more clear.

Revising Your Paragraphs: Place Topic Sentences Effectively Next, it is time to revise your paragraphs. There are two types of paragraphs: topical paragraphs and functional paragraphs. Topical paragraphs contain topic sentences. Functional paragraphs perform a specific function, such as making a transition or emphasizing a point. Now you will focus on a technique that helps you revise paragraphs that are topical. Each topical paragraph of your essay should contain a topic sentence and supporting details, but the placement of these elements is up to you. The topic sentence doesn't necessarily have to come first. You may express your main idea in the first sentence, the last sentence, or the body of the paragraph.

simple sentence

Sir Laurence Olivier was a great Shakespearean actor.

Prewriting: Choosing Your Topic A documented essay is based on research about a particular subject. Though it may make use of personal observations, the documented essay is a form of research writing and is therefore more formal and authoritative than a personal essay. Most documented essays do the following: Provide detailed information about a specific topic Are based on research that can be proved to be accurate by means of supporting references Contain references to source material within the text of the essay Have fewer than four sources of information Are clearly and effectively organized

Strategies for Generating Topics To choose a topic for a documented essay, start with subjects that interest you. Also, think about whether there are likely to be sources of information available about the particular topic you're considering. Imagine an Address Book Mentally flip through a book containing the names and addresses of interesting people. Write down some names, review the list, and base your documented essay on the person about whom information is available or who would be available for an interview. Perform a Flip Test Choose one or more magazines to flip through, jotting down topics as you go. Choose to develop the topic that both interests you and for which sources can be found. Write "Invisibly" Brainstorm for ideas without editing or judging them as you write them down. To perform this activity, turn off your computer monitor or insert carbon paper between two sheets of writing paper and write with an empty pen. When you have finished writing, turn on the monitor or look at the sheet of paper under the carbon paper. Review what you have written, and choose an idea for your documented essay.

The noted columnist for the New York Herald-Tribune, Franklin P. Adams, said the following about researching: "I find that a great part of the information I have was acquired by looking up something and finding something else on the way."

Take Notes As you find information from sources, make note cards and source cards. Source Cards—These contain the publication information of each source you consult in your research. This material will be used in your bibliography. Use one card for each source. Number each source card, and write that number on your note card. Note Cards—Note cards contain details you might want to use in your report. To make organizing information easier, put only one piece of information on each card. Write the number of the source (written on the source card) on each note card. Click or tap on Source Card and Note Card to see a sample of each.

For which thesis would chronological organization work best?

Technologies for harnessing wind power have developed over hundreds of years.

Which sentence could serve as a strong thesis statement for a research paper?

The civil rights movement benefited Americans of every race.

Read the sentences. We have a large stone fireplace in our home. We have a large stone fireplace in our residence. How does connotation change their meanings?

The word home is a "warmer" word than residence, which sounds more impersonal.

Family Casual language

To Assume Lighthearted language; funny comparisons

Check Connotation and Denotation In research writing, accuracy is important. Therefore, you need to be very aware of both the denotation and connotation of the words you choose. A word's denotation is its explicit meaning or dictionary definition. A word's connotation is its underlying emotional association. Look at the chart to see the denotations and connotations for three similar words.

Underlining Words and Using a Dictionary and a Thesaurus Reread your draft, and underline words that have a denotation or connotation of which you are unsure. Then, use a dictionary to check the denotation and a thesaurus to look up alternate word choices and their connotations. Revise your word choices where necessary to make sure you are communicating exactly what you intend.

Narrowing Your Topic Now that you've chosen a topic, consider whether it needs to be narrowed. For example, suppose you have chosen World War I as your topic. A glance at a card or computer catalog on this subject will show you that the research on such a vast topic could take years; the writing could fill volumes. If your own topic can be broken down into several subtopics, each pointing in a different direction for research, then you should narrow it.

Webbing to Narrow a Topic One technique for narrowing a topic is webbing. Design a web, like the one shown here, and write your topic in the center. In the outer circles, write the key aspects of your topic. One of these aspects may become the topic for your paper, or you may need to narrow it further. If so, choose an outer circle topic, and put it in the center of a second web. Repeat the process until you have arrived at a manageable topic for your research paper.

Prewriting: Narrowing Your Topic Think about your topic and whether it is narrow enough to fully develop in the confines of your planned essay. If your topic can be divided into significant subheads, each with its own focus, then it is probably too broad. One way to narrow your topic is by looping. Narrow by Looping—First, write freely on your topic for two or three minutes, based on what you already know or have learned. Read what you have written, and circle the most important idea. Write for a few minutes on that idea. Again, read what you have written, and circle the most important idea. Continue this process until you arrive at a topic that is narrow enough for your essay.

What topic for a documented essay does this photograph inspire? You may have suggested such topics as "the history of space flight" or "the engineering required to reach space."

Conduct On-Line Research The World Wide Web contains a vast source of information, both reliable and unreliable. To conduct research on-line, keep the following tips in mind: Use a search engine to speed and focus your search. Always look for the originator of the Web site. Doing so will help you spot biased or one-sided coverage of issues. Web addresses with .gov are government sponsored; Web addresses with .edu stem from educational organizations. They are good places to find information. Download and print out pages you plan to use as source material. Double-check facts you plan to use to make sure they are accurate.

When conducting on-line research, which site is most likely to have reliable information on cattle breeding? A) www.animalscience.stuniv.edu

Color-Coding to Identify Supporting Details—Using highlighters, identify the supporting facts and details in your paper. Use a different color of highlighter for each category of detail. Choose categories that suit your topic. You might choose to call out causes and effects in different colors, for example. Another system that works for many research papers is to make details that answer Who? What? When? Where? and Why? When you are finished, scan your paper. Is it a rainbow of color, or is it predominantly one color or two? If a category is underrepresented, consider why. It may be that your thesis requires you to focus on a particular type of data. On the other hand, it may mean that you've left something out. If that is the case, add details where they are lacking, to elaborate on your points.

Who—People might be highlighted in blue. When—Dates, times, and periods in history might be green. What—Events, developments, effects, things, and objects might be yellow. Where—Places might be red. Why—Explanations, definitions, or causes might be purple.

Make an Outline Once you've chosen an organizational approach, use an outline or graphic organizer to help you arrange the details to fit your organization. Follow these steps to make an outline: List each main point you will cover next to a Roman numeral. Under each main point, enter the topics you'll discuss next to capital letters. Under each topic, list details next to Arabic numerals. Review your outline, and experiment with its organization until you are satisfied with it. Keep your completed outline handy, and refer to it as you draft and revise your research writing.

Why do you think this system uses so many different kinds of numbering and lettering? An outline's numbering and lettering system allows writers to list main topics and to delineate finer details within these topics.

Use Library Resources The library contains extensive information in both print and electronic formats. Before you begin library research, use a T-chart to list the information or sources you want to find and use. Without such a list, you may waste valuable time browsing. In the library you will find valuable resources such as the following: Nonfiction books Periodicals Reference books

Why is it helpful to use a research plan to gather details about your topic? If you use a research plan, you will be able to focus your search for information and use your time wisely.

Revising Your Sentences Create Sentence Variety—When too many sentences in a composition are of the same length, structure, and type, it has a numbing effect on its readers. Examine your draft closely, looking for patterns in your sentences. Provide variety where needed by interrupting patterns with sentences of different lengths or types. Color-Coding to Identify Sentence Length—Read through your draft, using a highlighter of one color to mark sentences of fewer than twelve words. Use another highlighter color to mark sentences of twelve or more words. Review your draft, and locate passages in which you have too many sentences of a particular length. Make those passages more interesting by rewriting or adding sentences to provide variety.

Why is it important to vary sentence length within a piece of writing? It allows for a smoother flow of information and is more interesting to read.

Revising Your Paragraphs Strengthen Your Paragraph Organization—When you are satisfied with the general structure of your paper, focus on individual paragraphs. In a research paper, body paragraphs are like building blocks: Arranged properly, they will provide solid support for your thesis. If the blocks aren't strong, your paper won't be either. Identifying Paragraph Patterns: TRI/PS/QA—Identify the paragraph patterns you have used. Go through your draft, and jot down in the margin the organization pattern of each paragraph. If you cannot identify a specific pattern for a paragraph, reread it closely to make sure it makes sense. If not, revise it.

You may want to use an organizational pattern such as TRI: TRI—Topic, Restatement, Illustration. In this pattern, the topic sentence comes first, followed by a restatement or extension of the main idea, followed by an illustration or an example. This pattern may be altered to TIR, TII, ITR, or TRIT. Example: TRI Rockefeller Center, an enormous complex of buildings located in midtown Manhattan, is named for its principal financial backers. (Topic) These were John D. Rockefeller, Jr., and other members of that wealthy family. (Restatement) The Rockefeller family made most of its fortune in the oil industry. (Illustration)

Bracketing Topic Sentences Reread each paragraph of your essay carefully. If the paragraph is topical, place a bracket around its topic sentence. Then, review the placement of each topic sentence, considering whether it is positioned effectively. If a paragraph seems dull or unclear, or if a transition between paragraphs can't be made, your topic sentence may need to be moved.

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Documented Essays I In this section, we have learned the following: Choose a topic that interests you, and make sure the sources to support your main idea are readily available. Use looping to arrive at a topic that is narrow enough to fully develop within the confines of your planned essay. Gather details that are appropriate for your audience and that will help you achieve your purpose. Make a search plan to direct your search for information from a variety of sources. Conduct an interview if your essay is about a person or to acquire firsthand knowledge about a subject. Use good judgment when conducting on-line research. Give your writing shape by writing an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. Elaborate your draft by defining, explaining, or illustrating the points you are making. Documented Essays II In this section, we have learned the following: Improve the unity of your draft by eliminating unnecessary details and linking paragraphs together. Place the topic sentence of a topical paragraph where it will be most effective. Replace repeated words with synonyms and pronouns to enliven your writing. Revise word choices to convey a specific tone or attitude. Make sure that word choices communicate exactly what you intend. Discuss your draft among a group of peers. Cite sources of all information that does not come directly from you and be sure to use quotation marks. Present your essay to your class or add your essay to an anthology of the writings of your classmates.

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Formatting Citations—When you credit your sources, it shows that your information is reliable. Use footnotes, endnotes, or parenthetical citations to document your sources whenever you directly or indirectly quote another person, present an idea that is not your own, or report a fact that is available only from one source. You should also prepare a works-cited page, which lists your sources alphabetically by author or, if a work has no credited author, by title. Formatting a Works-Cited Listing—Check your listing of works cited to be sure that it is complete and correctly formatted. Also, double-check the punctuation of entries to ensure that you've consistently and correctly punctuated each one. If in doubt, consult a manual or list of guidelines for preparing a works-cited list.

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Prewriting: Your Audience and Purpose Before you begin to draft, identify your audience (who will read your essay) and your purpose (what effect you want your writing to have on your audience). Then, begin to gather details that are appropriate for your audience and that will help you to achieve your purpose. Take a look at the illustration to learn more about this.

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Pronouns and their antecedents must agree in number and gender. When the antecedent is an indefinite pronoun, it may be difficult to tell whether the pronoun and antecedent agree. Indefinite pronouns refer to nouns and pronouns that are not specifically named. They may be singular or plural or either. Singular another, anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything, much, neither, no one, nothing, one, other, somebody, someone, something Plural both, few, several, many, others Singular or Plural all, any, most, none, some When an indefinite pronoun is used as an antecedent, make sure the pronoun that refers to it agrees with it in number and gender. Examples Each of the students was given his or her own book. One of the dogs has its bowl upside down. Several guests asked that their rooms be changed. Some of the initial confusion had its source in a computer malfunction. Some decided not to register their complaints after all.

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Research Papers I In this section, we have learned the following: Choose a topic in which you have a genuine interest. Use webbing to narrow your focus until you arrive at a manageable topic for your paper. Choose details that will have a definite impact on your audience. Make a research plan to guide your way through available information sources. Make note cards and source cards as you find information from sources, and sort your notes into various groups. Introduce your topic and develop a thesis statement. Arrange your details to fit your organizational method. Make sure each body paragraph addresses an aspect of your thesis. Research Papers II In this section, we have learned the following: Review your paper to make sure you have completely explored your topic. Identify paragraph patterns you used and make sure they make sense. Look for patterns in your sentences and provide variety where needed. Make sure your paper is written primarily in third person. Pair up with another student and review each other's drafts. Check that each quoted line or passage in your research report is transcribed and formatted correctly. Publish your paper on-line or present it to your class.

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Drafting: Shaping Your Writing You have finished gathering your details, which means you are now ready to begin your first draft. As you draft, give your writing shape by writing an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. Introduction Starting to read an essay is like meeting a new person: First impressions count, so plan your introduction carefully. An effective introduction serves two key purposes: It states the essay's main idea, letting readers know what you are planning to discuss, and it captures readers' interest, making them eager to keep reading.

"Call me Ishmael." This is the opening line of a famous novel. Do you know which novel it is? This is the opening line from Moby-Dick by Herman Melville. It has become an almost legendary opening line.

Read the sentence. You can ask anybody in my neighborhood to name _____ favorite Tejano group. Choose the correct pronoun or pronouns to complete the sentence.

A) his or her

Which statement is true about an excerpt?

An excerpt should start on a new line.

complex sentence

Because he preferred the stage to film, Olivier made only a handful of films of Shakespeare's plays.

Revising Your Word Choice: Revise to Convey a Tone Next, it is time to revise for tone. Tone is the writer's attitude toward his or her subject. Although most research papers are academic and lack a personal tone, documented essays may be less formal and convey an attitude toward the subject. For example, a writer's tone may be satirical, humorous, or one of warning. Look through your draft and scan it for adjectives, verbs, and adverbs that convey tone. Do they meet your intentions?

Color-Coding to Check Word Choice A writer's tone is achieved through his or her word choice. Read through your draft, and circle in color the key words, such as verbs or adjectives and adverbs. Then, review your word choice. Ask yourself the following: Do the words work together to create a specific picture? Which words, if any, do not fit with the others? What other word choice might I make to better convey a single attitude? Based on the answers to the questions above, revise your draft to create a single, specific tone.

Drafting: Shaping Your Writing With your research finished, you may look at a stack of note cards or photocopied materials and wonder what to do with them. The task now is to organize your information. Start by sorting your notes into various groups. Label the groups, and write subheads, if necessary, beneath the general heads. Follow these steps: Develop a thesis statement Organize to support your thesis Make an outline Notebook Copy the steps into your notebook and take notes as you learn about each one.

Develop a Thesis Statement As you begin drafting, introduce your topic and state your thesis in the introduction. A thesis states the key point or argument you wish to make about your topic. Some writers have a thesis in mind before they even begin to research. Sometimes, the research will point a writer in a new direction. To create a thesis statement, read your grouped notes carefully. Decide on the most important ideas you have gathered, and summarize them. After deleting unnecessary information, shape your summary into a single, clear statement. Sample Thesis Statements The space program of the 1960s helped to unite Americans. The childhood of Queen Elizabeth I of England had a great impact on decisions she made as a ruler.

Documentation

Documentation Newspapers, magazines, Web sites, and professional journals all feature documented essays. In other words, once you read past the advertisements and editorials, you will find research-based, formal essays about any number of topics. These essays must cite sources to disclose where the information came from; otherwise the integrity of the essay would be compromised. The next time you are reading a nonfiction text or listening to the news, be sure to look or listen for the source of information. As the saying goes, "Consider the source." As you work through this lesson, use the techniques you learn to develop your own documented essay.

Another organizational pattern is Problem/Solution. PS—Problem/Solution. In this pattern, a problem is posed and one solution or several solutions follow. Example: PS Rockefeller Center is so big, it's hard to know where to begin to take a tour. (Problem) If you begin, however, on Fifth Avenue between Forty-ninth and Fiftieth streets and follow this path, you will have an enjoyable tour of this fascinating piece of New York City. From Fiftieth Street and Fifth Avenue, walk down the flagstone path into the sunken plaza, which contains an ice rink and a statue of Prometheus. (Solution)

Following is the third organizational pattern. QA—Question/Answer. Paragraphs of this type generally start with a question that is then answered in subsequent sentences. Example: QA How did Rockefeller Center get its name? (Question) The building complex was named for its principal financial backers John D. Rockefeller, Jr., and other members of that wealthy family. (Answer)

compound-complex sentence

His Shakespearean films, though highly praised, were not successful at the box office, so he turned to more commercial films.

Photocopy or Print Source Material If resources are available, you may prefer to photocopy source material, including the book or journal's title page and copyright information. On the printout, highlight or circle the information you plan to use. If you get your information from an on-line source or from a CD-ROM, print out the appropriate pages. Then, highlight or circle the information you plan to use.

How are source cards useful? How are note cards useful? Source cards remind writers where information originated. They also allow writers to refer to a numbered card rather than a full bibliographic citation when a source is used repeatedly. Note cards organize specific facts and quotations obtained from information sources.

Strategies for Generating Topics The following strategies will help you choose a topic: Scan News Headlines Sometimes, reading about events in the news can trigger a desire to find more in-depth information. Scan news headlines of the previous few days. Read articles of interest, and jot down your questions. Then, choose one of those questions, and base your research around it. Use Looping Write freely about a general topic of interest for five minutes. Read what you've written, and circle the most interesting idea. Write for five minutes on that idea. Again, read what you have written, and circle the most important idea. Choose one of the circled items to be the topic for your research paper.

Ian Pritchard, a student at Buena High School in Ventura, California, researched and wrote a biographical report on Seamus Heaney, a Pulitzer Prize-winning poet. To select a topic, Ian freewrote, then used the looping strategy to narrow his topic. Write It! Use looping to select a topic for your research.

The Newmill Market was built in 2009 on the site of what had been a cow farm. There had been several community protests aimed at halting the construction of the mall, but, as time went on, the community accepted the development. Initially, residents were primarily concerned about increased traffic and the disappearance of wildlife. Over time, the developers worked with the community to minimize the problems. Since its completion, the mall has been hailed as an example of how the community and developers can work together to erect a well-planned shopping area.

Select the text that is the topical sentence of the paragraph A) There had been several community protests aimed at halting the construction of the mall, but, as time went on, the community accepted the development.

Prewriting: Gathering Details Before you start gathering details, make a research plan to guide you. A plan will help you to stay focused and use your time wisely as you make your way through the vast array of information sources available. Develop a Research Plan—To develop a research plan, make a list of questions about your topic or areas of your topic you want to explore. Identify the types of sources that would be most useful, and find out where they are located. Plan to use a wide variety of sources, such as the following: Library sources Internet sites Media sources Interviews

One way to organize your research is to make a T-chart. Fold a piece of paper in half lengthwise to form two columns. In the left column, write down what you want to know. In the right column, write the possible sources for finding the information. Use the interactive chart to see how Ian used a T-chart to help him plan and gather details for his research paper. Write It! Create a T-chart to gather details for your research paper.

Why should excerpts start on a new line?

Possible answer: Excerpts should start on a new line so that the words are more easily distinguished from the text of the paper.

What are the benefits of revising on a computer? What are the benefits of revising in longhand?

Possible answers: Revising on a computer is fast and convenient but leaves no "paper trail" of original work. While it is slower, revising in longhand leaves a visible record of the revision process.

Writing Research Papers Which idea in each pair would be the better research topic? World War II or Birkenau: Then and Now The United States or The United States, 1929 Writing research papers is something just about every student will need to do at some point during their academic career. There are many facets to writing a successful paper but one of the most important is selecting a narrow enough topic to keep your research manageable. So, a paper on the entire World War II could be closer to the length of a textbook than a research paper. Think about a topic you are interested in, and then think how you could narrow your focus in order to include details that keep your audience engaged.

Prewriting: Choosing Your Topic What Is a Research Paper? A research paper is an in-depth, written examination of a topic in which the writer puts forth a thesis, or main point, and supports it with information drawn from several outside sources. Research writing has an important role to play in the world at large. News reports, documentary films, historical fiction, and business reports are examples of the various everyday items that involve some degree of research. Because doing research for a research paper means immersing yourself in a topic, you should choose a topic that genuinely interests you.

Publishing and Presenting: Building Your Portfolio Consider these ideas for publishing and presenting your documented essay: Class Presentation Contact a teacher who might be interested in having you present your essay to his or her class. Discuss the form of presentation—reading aloud or distributing copies—with the teacher. Library If several of your classmates have written profiles of individuals, compile them into an anthology. Protect the essays by putting them in a plastic binder, and put the binder in an accessible place so others can borrow it.

Publishing and Presenting: Reflecting on Your Writing You are almost finished. This is the time for reflection. Before you move on to your next writing assignment, take a moment to think about what you have learned. Consider your experience writing a documented essay. Then, respond to the following questions. Record your responses in your portfolio. In the process of writing, what did you learn about the topic you chose? If you had to research and write a documented essay again, what would you do differently? Click or tap through the rubric for self-assessment and then use it to evaluate your final draft.

Audience

Purpose

Whenever you cite a fact within your essay, be sure to document it. Immediately following any details you got from a source, place in parentheses the title, author, and copyright information of the corresponding source material. Before you continue, take a look at the student example. As she drafted, Tameeka cited and elaborated on specific details she found while researching her topic.

Revising Your Overall Structure Now that you have completed your first draft, look at it critically. Then, take steps to improve it. Effective essays are unified—each paragraph relates to the essay's thesis or main point. Paragraphs should also be coherent—they should link together to build meaning. As you reread your draft, improve your essay's unity and coherence by using these strategies: Eliminating unnecessary details Linking paragraphs for coherence Let's look at each of these.

Friends slang

To Warn Serious word choice ; short, direct sentences

Teacher More formal language

To educate definitions; examples; illustrations

Ian incorporated the opinions of several authorities on the works of Heaney, using both direct and indirect quotations. In each case, he cited his sources. Notice the effect of Ian's insertions of direct and indirect quotations on his work. How did it improve his work?

Which type of detail must always be cited? A) quotations

Nonfiction Books—Nonfiction books may provide broad overviews of topics, which can be useful when you are beginning your research, or they may explore specialized subjects. Use the library's card or computer catalog to locate nonfiction books. You can search for a topic by author, title, subject, or (in a computer catalog) key word. Periodicals—To locate magazine articles, use the Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature. Reference Books—The reference section of a library has a variety of sources that can provide interesting and current information on your topic. Types of reference works include bibliographies, almanacs, atlases, and encyclopedias.

Why should you use a T-chart to organize your research? A T-chart will help you plan and gather details for your research paper. You can identify possible topics and then list all the possible resources for each item. This will save you time in the process.

When gathering details through interviews, which should you try to avoid?

asking "yes or no" questions

Read the sentence. Although the breed started out as Roman cattle dogs, Rottweilers have also worked as guard dogs, draft dogs, and police dogs. Which type of sentence structure does this sentence use?

complex

Organize to Support Your Thesis Having decided on a thesis, develop an organizational plan that will best support your thesis. There are several methods of organizing a paper, but the right plan for you is the one that best matches the content and purpose of your paper. The illustration shows some suggestions for how to organize your research findings. Notebook Copy the chart into your notebook. Organizational Ideas Use chronological organization if . . . you are tracing the history of something; you are writing about someone's life. Use cause-and-effect organization if . . . you want to emphasize that certain events caused others to happen; you are making a prediction. Use order-of-importance organization if . . . you want to build an argument; there are various aspects to your topic.

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