WWI Test 3

ersatz, strecken

-Ersatz- Is a subsititue good for something normal. Usually of inferior quality -artificial food products manufactured in Germany during the time in which they were under blockade by the British. -It included things like adding sawdust to flour in order to stretch the food supply. -They had very little food so they stretched it out by adding what they did have to increase volume and appearance. -This was in the last years of the war when Germany was really struggling

Belleau Wood

1-26 June 1918 On the evening of 1 June, German forces punched a hole in the French lines to the left of the Marines' position. In response U.S. troops conducted a forced march over (6.2 mi) to plug the gap in the line, which they achieved by dawn. They then repelled continuous German assaults The Allies then switched and went on the offensive attacking the Germans The U.S. was in charge of attacking Hill 142 The Marines engaged in close quarters fighting in the Forest of Belleau Wood, inspiring Americans and making Marine legacy start

Saint-Mihiel Offensive

12-15 September 1918 This was an American offensive led by General Pershing, Marshall, and Patton in the fall of 1918. Pershing launches its first major offensive operation as an independent army during World War I. This was a part of the final Allied offensive that would end the war. The attack was against the Sait-Mihiel Salient that the Germans had defended and fortified since 1914 Although the weather made the attack difficult, The Allied forces handily defeated the second-rate German soldiers who were all that were left for Ludendorff. Signaled the quickly-coming end to the war

Château Thierry

18 July 1918 It was a battle in World War I as part of the Second Battle of the Marne The allied forces had managed to keep their plans a secret, and their attack took the Germans by surprise when the troops went "Over the Top" without a preparatory artillery bombardment, instead followed closely behind a rolling barrage which began with great synchronized precision. This was the first major American engagement in the war in the summer of 1918. Here, Pershing led his soldiers in stopping a German offensive at the Marne River and then leading a counter attack. The American soldiers were very successful here and gained great prestige

Georges Clemenceau

1841-1929 He became French Prime Minister for the second time in 1917 During his first tenure as prime minister he forged closer ties with Britain and settled the Moroccan crisis. He was the best man for the job because he was on great terms with the Americans and was well educated. He was very liberal, an atheist, and a nationalist. He earned the support of the nation by actually going to the front lines unlike many politicians. He is most noted for organizing all Allied forces under the command of French General Foch in 1918. He was nicknamed the tiger and is credited with winning the war for the French. At the Paris Peace Conference Clemenceau insisted upon the complete humiliation of Germany, requiring German disarmament and severe reparations

Marshal Ferdinand Foch

1851-1929 He was the French military commander who rose up the ranks and in 1918 was given command to bring together the armies of the Allied Powers (with the exception of the Americans) in order to finish off the Germans in 1918. Was often in disagreement with the American General Pershing His united forces stopped the final German offensives and began to attack Germany on all fronts with a united force until they simply could not defend anymore. He exhausted much of his armies and supplies, but succeeded in breaking the German army. He wanted to continue pushing into German occupied territory but could not and didn't need to because the Germans were surrendering. He wanted to crush Germany and correctly predicted that the Treaty of Versailles didn't do enough and would simply delay another war. His significance was uniting the allies under one command and finally defeating the German forces

Arthur Zimmermann

1854-1940 He was the German foreign minister in 1916 and 1917 Best known for his attempts to start rebellions/wars in Ireland and Mexico to weaken the Allies. He is best known for his Zimmerman Telegram which was meant to entice Mexico to attack the Americans, creating a second front. He promised the Mexicans, who already had tenuous relations with America, that they would gain Texas and other American properties after the war. The British intercepted this telegram though and decoded it because they had the German codes. They waited long enough to avoid suspicion and then informed the Americans in February of 1917. Zimmerman did not deny the telegram. This, coupled with unrestricted submarine warfare infuriated Americans, making them pro-British, and inspired their total commitment to the Allied war effort against Germany.

Gen. Robert Nivelle

1856-1924 A chief assistant to Petain at Verdun, his success there in recapturing Douaumont led to him being given command of the Verdun sector in 1916. very capable commander of French forces who replaced Joffre in December 1916. He was a good selection because of his great relationship with the British due to his Protestantism. He was very liberal. He developed the creeping barrage tactic of shelling followed by infantry advances that was very successful at Verdun. He then wanted to retrain the entire French army using this tactic. Nivelle was an exponent of aggressive tactics, unrealistically believing that he could win the war on the Western Front in 48 hours by the use of his innovative creeping barrage attacks. But then this tactic was discovered by the Germans and made useless. He was fired following his questionable offensive plans backfired in April 1917 at the Nivelle Offensive, causing lots of soldier deaths and desertions. He would be replaced by Petain. And he went to North Africa He is significant because of his success at Verdun, his creeping barrage strategy, and his relationship with the British

Pres. Woodrow Wilson

1856-1924 He was elected President of the United States in 1916 and led the country into the first world war. He was known for being controversial and overly confident in all parts of life. a great idealist, had few negotiating skills, and he soon buckled under the pressure of Clemenceau, He started the first draft since the world war, took massive loans, and set up government control over some industry. As the war wound down, his fourteen points were stressed to avoid another general conflict in Europe. It's main point was the creation of a League of Nations which the United States never joined. Very ideological Did not want to punish Germany When he was negotiating the treaty he was not confirming with the Republican controlled congress which was not smart politics His significance is leading American entry into the war and his fourteen points that influenced post-war resolution

Gen. Franchet d'Esperey

1856-1942 A man of tremendous energy and intimidating demeanour His name was considered as his replacement. However d'Esperey's staunch Roman Catholicism acted against him and the post went instead (disastrously) to Robert Nivelle. Third Battle of the Aisne, for which much of the blame can be (and was) assigned to d'Esperey. He was the French general put in charge of unified Greek, French, and Balkan armies that knocked Bulgaria out of the war. He successfully defeated Germany's last ally. After this, he marched his armies through the Austria-Hungarian army to attack Germany

Adm. William Sims

1858-1936 commanded U.S. naval forces in Europe during World War One. He was a naval chief who was sent to England prior to U.S. entry into the war to help create a plan with the British for the American navy. Proponent of the convoy system They agreed to send destroyers that would accompany ships transporting food and supplies to the Allies. After the U.S. entered the war, he was given command of the U.S. navy. His main significance was creating a plan for supplying the allies before U.S. entry into the war

Gen. John J. Pershing

1860-1948 he was the well educated West Point man who led the American army in world war two after U.S. entrance in 1917. He had took an army of 25,000 and grew it to 3M in 1.5 years He wanted total control of his troops in the war, not wanting to be a part of some combined Allied force. He struggled to understand and master modern warfare due to most of his experience having come in the 18th century. There was also some difficulty in integrating American forces in the war Pershing rejected French and British demands to amalgamate his troops into their depleted armies even though he faced large pressures to do so. he permitted his divisions to fight under French generals to stop the Germans on the Marne The Meuse-Argonne offensive of September 26 was a very different battle. Pershing badly underestimated the machine gun and suffered large losses He admitted to failure and passed on leadership to Hunter Liggett

Vittorio Orlando

1860-1952 served as Italy's Prime Minister in 1917 following the Italian army's humiliating defeat at Caporetto. The person who negotiated on Italy's behalf at the end of the war Unable however to obtain the expected territorial concessions - he ran up against U.S. President Wilson's policy of national self-determination, particularly with regard to Fiume - he dramatically left the conference early His political position seriously undermined by his apparent failure to secure Italian interests at the Paris Peace Conference, Orlando resigned from office on 19 June 1919.

David Lloyd George

1863-1945 He was a British liberal politician Would sell his own mother for a vote. He became Prime Minister in 1916, and would be the last great Liberal leader in Britain. He was initially not supportive of joining the war, but was outraged by German bullying of Belgium, making him switch. He was critical of British commander Douglas Haig's willingness to march British soldiers into huge numbers where they would certainly be killed One of Lloyd George's greatest achievements during the war was in combating the growing German submarine menace, which in early 1917 threatened to starve Britain into submission. He achieved this by forcing the adoption of the convoy system At the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, Lloyd George exercised a moderating influence on both the harsh demands of Georges Clemenceau and the idealistic proposals of Woodrow Wilson although he later concluded that the treaty was a failure, predicting renewed war within twenty years

Vladimir Ilych Ulianov (Lenin)

1870-1924 Deported from Russia for his political beliefs before the war, he returned to St. Petersburg after the Russian Revolution of 1917. The Germans sent him back on a "sealed train" because they wanted him to lead the Bolshevik uprising where he would promise "Bread, Peace, and Land." They didn't want him escaping and spreading his ideas anywhere before Russia though. He overthrew the Duma and established a socialist state. He tried to broker a peace treaty with the Germans but talks broke down and the Germans kept attacking. He eventually withdrew from the war and lost a lot of Russian land to the Germans. He was also the leader of the Red Russian forces during the civil war against the Whites. He is significant because he started the socialist Russian State and took Russia out of the war

Friedrich Ebert

1871-1925 After German defeat became clear, Ludendorff and other military leaders were attempting to shift the blame on German political parties rather than themselves who truly ran the war. With military defeat imminent Ebert supported the creation of a coalition government in October 1918 with Prince Max von Baden at its head. Desperate to avoid revolution Ebert argued for extensive constitutional reform to forestall the growing influence of the extreme left-wing and widespread public discontent. In November of 1918, as the government was collapsing, Ebert, the leader of the Social Democrats, took over the government in Berlin and declared Germany a democratic nation. He tried to instill stability and peace in Germany, forced the Kaiser to give up his power, and earned the loyalty of the German army. He is significant for his attempt to democratize Germany

Albert Thomas

1878-1932 French minister of munitions starting in 1916 Organizational genius who, as the socialist , managed to speed production of war goods while managing to preside over the expansion with relatively little difficulty. encouraging a greater working role for women. Refugees and prisoners of war were similarly recruited to aid in the French war effort. Aware of the potentially devastating impact of labour disputes, Thomas moved to bring the unions on board by encouraging generous wage rises, while placating employers with the removal of restrictions upon working hours for the duration of the war. His incredible management of industry led to his rapid rise through the government until he left at the end of the war to work at the League of Nations

Leon Trotsky

1879-1940 he became a leader of the Bolsheviks in 1917, helping Lenin set up a socialist government in Russia after the October Revolution of 1917. He helped try and broker peace with the Germans and the eventual withdrawing of Russia from the War. he was also the military commander of the Reds in the Russian civil war against the Whites. He is significant for his leadership of the Russian socialist state that eventually developed into the USSSR

Col. George C. Marshall

1880-1959 He was the leader of the first American troops, called the Big Red One, in the summer of 1917. His troops were very inexperienced and were trained by the British and French once there. He worked with Pershing to lead the American forces, mostly working in training and planning Never commanded troops in battle Was centrally involved in planning offensives

Alexander Kerensky

1881-1970 Opposed Russia involvement in WWI He served as Prime Minister of the Russian Provisional Government He led the government until it was overthrown by the Bolsheviks. As Prime Minister, he hoped to continue the war and postpone major changes until a democratic system could be set up. His major war plan was the Kerensky offensive that sent Russian forces against Austria Hungary. They were very successful until the Germans came to support AH and crushed the Russians. This was the end of Russia in the war because large-scale desertion and disintegration of the army followed

Chemin des Dames

1914-1918 Literally meaning "the Women's Road," Three battles were fought here The German army took a defensive stand on the ridge in September 1914, stopping the advancing Allied armies after the Battle of the Marne. The front line then remained static until March 1917 (16-25 April 1917) It was the location of the failed Nivelle Offensive in 1917 (second one) The Germans had the high ground which was very hard to overcome. The French suffered massive casualties and this was seen as a disaster

Battle of Cambrai

20 November - 7 December 1917 This was the last major British offensive in 1917 planned by Douglas Haig which attacked the German Hindenburg-Siegfried line. The battle started with the large-scale advances of British tanks (first) which burst through German defenses followed by British infantry units. Notably the attack was not preceded by a preliminary bombardment, helping to ensure complete surprise. The British saw early successes due to military superiority but was eventually slowed after the tanks were destroyed. Eventually, the Germans took back most of the land that they had lost in the battle. The significance of this battle though was that it showed that the Hindenburg Line could be penetrated and improved Allied morale

Operation Michael

21 March - 5 April 1918 This was a German offensive in the Spring of 1918 planned by Ludendorff that attempted to push into allied territory from the Siegfried-Hindenburg line. The goal was to seize the ports along the English channel that supplied the British troops in the war. The plan was later adapted to try and separate the British and French forces. They had some success against the British and hurt their morale. The British asked for French assistance but didn't receive it because there was none to be had. Although the Germans advanced lines forward 40 miles and inflicted significant casualties on the Allies, it was not worth it. Germans suffered heavy losses too and the Ally losses were replaced with Americans Eventually, the offensive was slowed, the objectives were not achieved, and the offensive was reversed. It was arguably the Germans last chance to win the war Significant because it was almost successful plan for the Germans that ended up being a turning point in the war

Operation Georgette

7-29 April 1918 This was a Ludendorff planned part of the German spring offensive in 1918 in Belgium. the second phase of their final, last-ditch spring offensive, against Allied positions in Armentieres, France (The first was Operation Michael, this came right after) One of their main goals was stopping the supplies to the British thus ending their war effort. The attack was initially successful as it targeted areas controlled by the Portuguese soldiers, along with Brit groups Punched a 3.5 mile wide hole However the remaining Brit defenses were well fortified and the Germans could not continue but it slowed when French, Belgian, and British reserves backed them up

Twelfth Battle of the Isonzo (Caporetto)

24 October - 19 November 1917 One of the more spectacular successes of the war Saw combined Austro-Hungarian and German forces decisively break through the Italian line along the northern Isonzo, catching the Italian defenders entirely by surprise. First time Germans supported A.H. in Italy. This was because the 11th battle decimated A.H.'s forces The Germans supported the Austria-Hungarians and used numerical superiority and storm trooper tactics to dominate the Italians. This defeat caused a retreat of the Italians and demoralization. Eventually, the German/Austrian offensive was stopped due to inability to supply their troops effectively and the Italians reset their defensive lines with the support of their allies. This battle led to the firing of the Italian commander. The significance of this battle was the advances made by the Central Powers that seriously threatened the allied succeses and the support that the French and British had to give to the Italians to stop it

Meuse-Argonne Offensive

26 September 1918-11 November 1918 Aiming to cut off the entire German 2nd Army, Allied Supreme Commander Ferdinand Foch ordered General John J. Pershing to take overall command of the offensive. the largest American-run offensive of WWI After some 400,000 U.S. troops were transferred with difficulty to the region in the wake of the U.S.-run attack at St. Mihiel, launched just 10 days earlier, the Meuse-Argonne offensive began. This offensive in the fall of 1918 was a part of the final Allied offensive where the Americans suffered their worst casualties of the war. They had so many casualties because they were relatively new to the war and were using the same tactics they were used to from other wars that the other major powers knew would not be successful in this war. It showed the American inexperience in the war and consequences of not accepting unified allied leadership However they were still able to have a solid advancement of line (even though it did not meet expectations) and killed/captured a good number of Germans. Overall it was an Allied victory

Operation Blücher

27 May - 6 June 1918 Originally a fake attack meant to distract the allies, this Ludendorff attack became real in the summer of 1918. Taken completely by surprise and with their defences spread thin, the Allies were unable to stop the attack and the German army advanced through a 25 mi gap in the Allied lines. Victory seemed near for the Germans, but the German armies were beset by numerous problems, including supply shortages, fatigue, lack of reserves and many casualties. It was meant to reach Paris and had great initial successes until Foch sends his united forces to back them up in addition to the American armies arriving to stop the offensive The Americans had arrived and proven themselves in combat for the first time in the war.

Treaty of Versailles

28 June 1919 This treaty, signed in 1919, officially ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied powers. Germany and Russia were not invited Fun fact it was signed exactly five years after the archduke assassination that started the war. This was the result of six months of negotiations at the Paris Peace Conference after the signing of armistice. This treaty officially blamed Germany and its allies, disarmed Germany, ordered reparations, and made Germany give the contentious Alsace and Lorraine to France. It was significant because it officially ended the war but also because it didn't' pacify or permanently stop Germany, therefore leaving the door open for World War Two

Battle of Passchendaele (Third Battle of Ypres)

31 July - 10 November 1917 Allies vs Germans for control of the ridges south and east of the Belgian city of Ypres in West Flanders Partially fought to make up for the embarrasing loss at Nivelle Goal was to destroy German Sub Bases Saw large gains in the first two days but ended up stalling until fighting was renewed in mid August They kept pushing trying to capture the town and ridge of Passchendaele. It took significant fighting and casualties but the town was finally captured causing Haig to declare victory and end the offensive Town lay on the last ridge east of Ypres, 5 miles (8.0 km) from a railway junction at Roulers, which was vital to the supply system of the German 4th Army. The British Prime Minister, David Lloyd George, opposed the offensive, as did General Ferdinand Foch the French Chief of the General Staff. Both sides suffered massive casualties. Even though the amount Germany suffered was significant and unaffordable, both sides acknowledge the battle should not have been fought

Battle of Messines Ridge

7-14 June 1917 This was a British offensive in the summer of 1917 through Belgium. The goal of this offensive was to draw German reserves away from the French front lines, where there was great defeat and demoralization. The other main goals of this offensive was to take the high ground on the ridge from which to lead the retaking of Belgium. The battle started with the explosion of mines underneath the Germans killing thousands and weakening their defenses. This battle was a huge success. Brits got a strategic victory and the Germans suffered heavy losses. Significant because it began the allied offensive and took pressure off of the French who were losing morale due to defeats

Dolchstoss ("Stab in the Back")

After 1918 betrayed by the civilians on the home front, especially the republicans who overthrew the monarchy in the German Revolution of 1918-19 This is the belief of some Germans after their defeat in 1918 that the German army didn't lose the war but that it was betrayed by civilians on the home front who overthrew the government. Hindenburg and Ludendorff claimed that the rebellion was a stab in the back. In reality, the army did in fact lose the war but they didn't want to accept blame for the defeat so the leaders attempted to shift the blame. They didn't want the military to lose its autonomy during the new democratic regime, so they did this. The significance of this is that this rumor was believed and used by Hitler during his rise to power, making the German people blame liberals and believe in war again

Treaty of Sèvres

Aug. 10, 1920 Treaty between Allies and Turks he treaty abolished the Ottoman Empire and obliged Turkey to renounce all rights over Arab Asia and North Africa. he pact also provided for an independent Armenia, among others Rejected by the new Turkish nationalist regime, the Treaty of Sèvres was replaced by the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923

Defense of the Realm Act (DORA)

August 8, 1914 (four days after it entered into the war This was the act passed in Britain Enacted large restriction in Britain prohibiting everyday activities such as flying kites to closing bars earlier. Designed to prevent invasion and keep moral high It made strikes and riots illegal in order to ensure support for the war effort. It allowed dissenters to be treated horribly, arrested, and tried in military court. It also ensured that all national production went to the war effort. It also allowed press censorship. Essentially, this was a very controversial act by the British government to ensure that dissent was never a problem and that the war effort was never harmed

Operation Alberich

Feb. 9-March 20, 1917 Code-name for a German military operation in France It was a planned withdrawal to new positions on the shorter, more easily defended Hindenburg Line. Shorter by 25 miles The allies viewed it as a retreat but it was really tactical and led to a much more well armed and smaller line that the allies would struggle to penetrate. British reconnaissa nce planes took pictures of the new line being build, but they were unable to understand exactly what was happening Significant because it showed German switch from offensive to defensive, a key shift in the war

Doumergue Agreement

February 1917 Negotiated by Gaston Doumergue and Nicholas II who was overthrown weeks later this was a secret agreement between the French and the Russians made in 1917 about the gains that Russia would receive at the end of the war. It stated that Russia would receive all of Poland and the French would gain territory in the Rhineland to use as a buffer between France and Germany. This was leaked in the French press and never came to pass

Reparations

Great Britain wanted the Germans to pay total reparations for the war when they went in to sign the treaty ending the war. Eventually, the Allies determined that Germany would have to pay back billions, but Germany managed to weasel their way out of the deal. The Germans couldn't possibly have paid back everything and this plan backfired anyway because Germany's horrible economic conditions ended up contributing to WW2 anyways Each of the defeated powers was required to make payments in either cash or kind. Because of the financial situation Austria, Hungary, and Turkey found themselves in after the war, few to no reparations were paid and the requirements for reparations were cancelled. Bulgaria, having paid only a fraction of what was required, saw its reparation figure reduced and then cancelled. The Treaty of Versailles and the 1921 London Schedule of Payments required Germany to pay 132 billion gold marks (US$33 billion) in reparations to cover civilian damage caused during the war. This figure was divided into three categories of bonds: A, B, and C. Of these, Germany was only required to pay towards 'A' and 'B' bonds totaling 50 billion marks (US$12.5 billion). The remaining 'C' bonds, which Germany did not have to pay, were designed to deceive the Anglo-French public into believing Germany was being heavily fined and punished for the war. When the Germans signed the Allies didnt know the total cost, so they made Germ pay $5B up front

Scapa Flow

Historically, the main British naval bases were located near the English Channel to better face Britain's old enemies, France, Spain, and the Netherlands. But due to the German threat a base needed to be established in the north. Therefore Scapa Flow became the main naval base of WWI when the war broke out in 1914 Only two attempts to enter the harbour were made by German U-boats during the war, and neither was successful. After the German defeat of the war in 1918, a large portion of the German navy was ordered to be surrendered to the British at this base. The Germans complied but upon arriving at the base they destroyed their ships so that the British could not gain control of them

Hindenburg Program

Implemented December 6, 1916 This was Ludendorff's 1916 plan to double industrial production in Germany, forcing workloads at home to increase. Expansion of the German Army and output of war materials caused increased competition for manpower by the army and industry. It made war production be controlled by the war office, not private enterprise

Treaty of the Trianon

It was signed on June 4, 1920 Treaty signed between Allies and Hungary The seeds of much resentment, ethnic conflict, and interwar tension were sown through the treaty. By the terms of the treaty, Hungary was shorn of at least two-thirds of its former territory and two-thirds of its inhabitants. Hungary's armed forces were to be restricted to 35,000 men, lightly armed and employed only to maintain internal order and to secure the frontiers. The amount of reparations to be imposed was to be determined later.

Treaty of Lausanne

July 24, 1923 final treaty concluding World War I. Allies on one side, Turkey on the other The treaty recognized the boundaries of the modern state of Turkey. Turkey made no claim to its former Arab provinces and recognized British possession of Cyprus and Italian possession of the Dodecanese. The Allies dropped their demands of autonomy for Turkish Kurdistan and Turkish cession of territory to Armenia, abandoned claims to spheres of influence in Turkey, and imposed no controls over Turkey's finances or armed forces. The Turkish straits between the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea were declared open to all shipping.

Fourteen Points

June 28, 1919 These were the ideas issued by American President Woodrow Wilson in 1918 They explained his ideal view of post-war Europe. It mainly was meant to avoid another general conflict. It emphasized things like no secret treaties, freedom of the seas, limited submarine warfare, and an end to colonization Its main 14th point was the creation of the League of Nations that the United States would never technically join. Their significance was that they dominated post-war resolutions and shaped the Treaty of Versailles that ended the war

Straits Agreement

March 4 to April 10, 1915 Discussions between Brit, Frac, and Rus on how to divide up Turkey It stated that Russia would be allowed to control the Turkish Straits and other Turkish lands that separated Europe and Asia Also included Constantinople British did not want to have to give this much up to Russia but they thought it was necessary to keep them in the war It was never carried out due to the failure of the Dardanelles campaign

Provisional Government

March 8- October 25, 1917 After the Tsar gave up his throne following the Russian Revolution of 1917, the Duma set up a provisional government to run Russia. The power of the Duma was very limited though. They brought major reforms to Russia though, including the election of military leaders by the soldiers, suffrage for women, 8 hour work day, and trial by jury. The significance of this was the end of Russian autocracy and the liberalization of Russia. It also was important because it was eventually overthrown and became a Communist government that developed into the USSR eventually

Russian Revolution

March 8-November 8, 1917 This revolution started with strikes and demonstrations in St. Petersburg (Capitol) industrial sector demanding the end of the war due to the horrible condition of the country. Then International Women's Day rallies demanding bread and the two groups combined. Troops were deployed to shut it down but the army had a mutiny. The Tsar took a train back to the capital with the intent of restoring order, but ended up giving up the throne when he arrived. A provisional government was set up by the Duma. The Duma and Bolsheviks ruled together until October when Bolsheviks overthrew the Duma. The Duma had been continuing the fighting in WWI but once they were overthrown the Bols signed a Treaty with Germany taking Russia out of the war The significance of this was essentially the end of Russia's participation in the War, finally making it a one front war for Germany and the ending of autocracy in Russia

November, 1917, Russian Revolution

November 6-7 1917 After the Russian Revolution earlier in the year ended autocracy and gave power to the Provisional government set up by the Duma, this was the socialist takeover of the government. It followed a failed attempt held in July This one was nearly bloodless This government officially ended the Russian participation in the war and was the base for the USSR eventually. Led by Lenin and Trotsky

Peace Resolution

Passed on July 19, 1917 when German leadership realized that the war effort was not going as they had hoped and that losing the war was a very real possibility, they passed this bill. It was a coalition attempt to negotiate a beneficial peace treaty for Germany that would end the war. It called for no territory annexation, no legal punishment, and freedom of the seas. Both the German military leaders, who had true control over the German government, and the Allied leaders ignored this attempt. Wilhelm II is outraged and fires Von Betthman Holweig was a result, entirely removing civilian leadership in Germany

White Russians

Russian Civil War (1917-1923) These were the anti-communist monarchists who will fight against new Socialist/Bolshevik government in Russian Civil War. Their Generals were not very good and the army was lawless and disordered Also the Army's currency had no gold backing They were eventually defeated and the socialist government eventually developed into the USSR

Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye

Sept. 10, 1919, Treaty between the Allies and Austria. he treaty officially registered the breakup of the Habsburg empire, recognizing the independence of Czechoslovakia, Poland, Hungary, and the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (Yugoslavia) The military clauses limited Austria's long-service volunteer army to 30,000 men and broke up the Austro-Hungarian navy, distributing it among the Allies. Although Austria was made liable for reparations, no money was ever actually paid. he Austria created by the treaty was financially and militarily weak and therefore a chronic force of instability in Europe between the two World Wars.

Siegfried (Hindenburg) Line

Spring 1917- September 1918 This was the heavily defended line that the Germans retreated to in Operation Alberich. It was created due to large German losses experienced in the Battle of Verdun also the Brusilov Offensive made it so Germany had to send more troops over to the Eastern Front It was a much shorter line of defense which meant that the Germans could defend it much more effectively with many more troops, barbed wire, and artillery. They were very dug in at this line with great defense that the Allies would struggle greatly to penetrate. It was significant because it showed the German switch from offensive to defensive, a key shift in the war but it also led to great German victories was broken in September 1918, during the Hundred Days Offensive.

Hutier tactics

Started seeing these tactics used in later part of the war (1916 and on) These were the tactics used by the Germans, especially on the Italian front. They were not actually created by the general they were named after, but he used them to great effect in Operation Michael with Stormtroopers infiltration attacks began with brief and violent bombardments of the enemy front lines, to suppress and demoralize enemy combatants stationed there. This was done to confuse the enemy, and reduce their capability to launch effective counterattacks from secondary defense lines. For maximum effect, the exact points of attack remained concealed until the last possible moment. Light infantry led these attacks. They would attempt to penetrate enemy weak points to bypass and isolate heavily defended positions in the front line. Infantrymen with heavier weapons would then follow-up and have a great advantage when attacking the isolated enemy strong points. The attacks relied heavily on speed and surprise. essentially involved small groups of highly trained men getting behind the enemy and surprisingly encircling them. Significance was the Germans used these tactics a lot in the war with great successes

John Maynard Keynes

The English economist John Maynard Keynes, who had attended the peace conference but then left in protest of the treaty, was one of the most outspoken critics of the punitive agreement. Keynes predicted that the stiff war reparations and other harsh terms imposed on Germany by the treaty would lead to the financial collapse of the country, which in turn would have serious economic and political repercussions on Europe and the world. Keynes, horrified by the terms of the emerging treaty, presented a plan to the Allied leaders in which the German government be given a substantial loan, thus allowing it to buy food and materials while beginning reparations payments immediately. Lloyd George approved the "Keynes Plan," but President Wilson turned it down because he feared it would not receive congressional approval. In a private letter to a friend, Keynes called the idealistic American president "the greatest fraud on earth."

Big Four

This term refers to the four representatives of the Allied powers during the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. British had PM David Lloyd George, French had PM Clemenceau, the Americans had President Wilson, The Italians had PM Vittorio Orlando. Russia and the central powers were not invited to this meeting where they discussed the terms of the treaty. This ensured that the four allied powers benefited most, especially England and France

League of Nations

This was the 14th point of Woodrow Wilson's 14 points that would dominate peace talks at the Paris Peace Conference. This league would involve all nations being represented and coming together in a neutral environment so that open dialogue would be possible. The goal of this League was to prevent a future general conflict, where it of course failed. This is essentially the basis for the UN which was created after WW2 U.S. did not join because of Republican controlled Congress

Operation Friedensturm

This was the final German offensive of the war that was planned by Ludendorff in the summer of 1918. The Germans attempted to cross the Marne River but were stopped by the Americans and French with enormous German casualties. The Germans at this point could not come back and win the war, and this failure prompted the Allied offensive that would eventually end the war

Kreuznach Program

Three meetings that occured over the year 1917 The first meeting was originally called to redefine German war aims after the revolution in Russia took them out of the war. They came to the conclusion to have very strict annexation demands, particularly in Poland and Belgium. This annexed area would be referred to as Mittleuropa and Mittleafrika. These became the demands/goals of the German military leadership to end the war The second meeting established similar things with A.H. The third meeting was called due to the appoitment of Michaelis to Chancellor. It also added Ukraine as a German ally

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

Ukraine- (Feb. 9, 1918) Soviet Russia- (March 3, 1918) Talks were originally entered in November 1917, but the Russians kept dragging their feet, and eventually the Germans got fed up at resumed attacking in mid February. This prompted the Russians to immediately reopen negotiations This was the treaty between the new Bolshevik government that officially ended Russian participation in World War One. The Russians didn't want to give up all that they did with this treaty, but the Germans were advancing and further destroying Russia, so they signed in 1918. This also ended Russia's participation in the Triple Entente. This led to allied attacks of Germany by the outraged allies. The treaty gave Germany the Baltic states as satellite states. It was significant because it was the end of the Eastern Front of the war and demonstrated new socialist leadership in Russia

Fiume

post-World War I controversy between Italy and Yugoslavia over the control of the Adriatic port of Fiume Although the secret Treaty of London (April 26, 1915) had assigned Fiume to Yugoslavia, the Italians claimed it at the Paris Peace Conference on the principle of self-determination. he Great Powers advocated the establishment of an independent buffer state. President Woodrow Wilson of the U.S. became the arbiter in the Yugoslav-Italian dispute over the city.[3] He suggested that Fiume be set up as an independent state, and indeed as the potential home for the League of Nations organisation.[4]