Z370

Big Five Factors

-1 & 2 are most often test 1. conscientiousness: measure of personal consistency and reliability -highly conscientious person: responsible, organized, dependable, and persistent -low" easily distracted, disorganized, unreliable -strongest predictor of job performance 2. emotional stability: taps a person's ability to withstand stress -high: calm, self-confident, secure → positive, optimistic, experience fewer negative emotions -low: less happy -able to control emotions and respond accordingly (opposite = neurotic) -keep things in perspective 3. extraversion: captures out relational approach toward the social world -extraverts: gregarious, assertive, sociable → experience more positive emotions and freely express them -introverts: thoughtful, reserved, timid, quiet -process out loud, collaboration, animated, work hard to make connections -predicts performance on jobs involving a social component -occupational differences ₀engineers: high on conscientiousness and low on extraversion ₀salespeople: low on conscientiousness and high on extraversion 4. openness to experience: addresses the range of a person's interests and their fascination with novelty -open people: creative, curious, artistically sensitive -low end: conventional, find comfort in the familiar -comfortable with change -learning orientation -opposite = want to stay in safe space -predicts performance in school (learning situations) -predicts willingness to look for and learn a new job after downsizing 5. agreeableness: refers to an individual's propensity to defer to others -agreeable: cooperative, warm, trusting (only slightly happier than disagreeable) -disagreeable: cold, antagonistic -optimism -opposite = negative

Wonderlic Ability Test

-12 min -50 qs -measures speed and power -avg score = 21/50 -some companies use

Genetic v. Learned Leadership

-70% of leadership is learned (30% genetic)

Imposter Syndrome

-70% of people experience imposter syndrome in their careers -do you experience? ₀Are you uncomfortable accepting praise for your accomplishments? ₀Do you doubt your general intelligence? ₀Do you think other people would be disappointed if they realized how little you "really" know? ₀Are you sure your colleagues are smarter or more talented than you are? ₀Do you double and triple check everything, sure that one mistake will result in you being "found out"? -types of imposter syndrome: 1. workaholic 2. perfectionists ₀reaction to mistakes ₀"I made 1 error, nobody will trust me again" 3. expert ₀"can't speak up unless I have all the information" 4. natural genius ₀"I shouldn't experience a learning curve" ₀"if I don't know how to do something = I'm stupid"

Overcoming Resistance to Change

-8 main tactics help change agents deal w/ resistance 1. communication -changes are most effective when a company communicates a rationale that balances the interests of various stakeholders (shareholders, employees, community, customers) rather than of shareholders only -formal information session can decrease employee anxiety about change -good to provide high-quality information about change to increase employee commitment to change -framing: if changes are framed (and perceived) as threatening = people may not comply ₀framed as challenge = more likely to champion change, comply with it, become engage with work 2. participation -difficult to resist in a change that we've participated in -involvement can reduce resistance, obtain commitment, increase quality of change decision (as long as participants have the expertise to make meaningful contributions) -negatives to participation: potential for poor solution + time 3. building support and commitment -low emotional commitment to change = resistance (favor status quo) -employees more accepting of change when committed to org as a whole -providing org support and developing positive climate = enables employees to emotionally commit to change rather than embrace status quo 4. developing positive relationships -people more willing to accept changes if they trust managers implementing them and see as legitimate -some are more positive about change process when they have a positive relationship with their supervisor -some are more positive about change process when it comes from a new leader (when old leader was ineffective, abusive, or too hands-off) 5. implementing changes fairly -make sure change is implemented fairly for coworkers, the org, and other parties -procedural fairness especially important when employees perceive an outcome as negative (crucial that employees see the reason for change and perceive its implementation as consistent and fair 6. manipulation and cooptation -manipulation: covert influence attempts ₀twisting facts to make them more attractive, hiding behind false truisms, withholding info, creating false rumors -cooptation: combines manipulation and participation ₀seeks to buy off members of resisting group by giving them a key role (seeking their advice not to find better solution but get endorsement) -these are relatively inexpensive ways to gain support of adversaries -can both backfire if targets become away they are being tricked/used 7. selecting people who accept change -ability to accept and adapt to change = related to personality -some have more positive attitudes toward change -those who are open to experience, willing to take risks, flexible in behavior = prime candidates -those with higher general mental ability = able to learn and adapt to changes in workplace -orgs can facilitate change by selecting people predisposed to accept it 8. coercion -application of direct threats or force -ex: threatening employees with forced transfers, blocked promotions, negative performance evals -most effective when some force or pressure is enacted on at least some resistance (everyone else more likely to fall in line)

Affective Events Theory

-AET -employees react emotionally to things that happen to them at work, and this reaction influences their job performance and satisfaction -offers two important messages: 1. emotions provide valuable insights into how workplace events influence employee performance and satisfaction 2. employees and managers should not ignore emotions or the events that cause them because they accumulate

Cognitive Evaluation Theory

-CET -sub-theory that suggests that extrinsic rewards will reduce intrinsic interest in a task -when people are paid for work: feels less like something they want to do and more like something they must do -suggests some caution in the use of extrinsic rewards to motivate is wise and that pursing goals from intrinsic motivation contributes to the quality of work (incentives contribute to the quantity of work)

Core Self-Evaluation

-CSE -bottom-line conclusions individuals have about their capabilities, competence, and worth as a person -relates to job satisfaction b/c people who are positive see more challenge in their jobs and attain more complex jobs -it can be possible for one's CSE to be too high = person might become less popular with coworkers -CSE has implications for diversity, globalization, and employee effectiveness in diff cultural contexts -people with positive CSEs: 1. see themselves as effective and in control of their environment 2. perform better than others b/c they set more ambitious goals, are more committed to their goals and persist longer in attempting to reach them 3. provide better customer service, are more popular coworkers, and may have careers that begin on better footing and ascend more rapidly over time 4. more effectively adapt to changes in their careers 5. positively correlated w/ job performance when individualism (rather than collectivism) was valued -people with negative CSEs: 1. tend to dislike themselves, question their capabilities, and view themselves as powerless over their environment

Counterproductive Work Behavior

-CWB -deviant behavior in the workplace -employee withdrawal -the behaviors often follow negative and sometimes long-standing attitudes (if we can identify predictors of CWB = lessen probability of its effects) -job dissatisfaction predicts CWB → people who are dissatisfied = become frustrated and lower performance + more likely to commit CWB

DE&I

-D: ways in which people are different counting people (diff kinds of ppl) -E: equal opportunity (salary, mentorship, promotions) ₀fair access to resources and information v. privilege = right/benefit given to some (not others) -I: being valued (do I feel like I belong?) ₀not being marginalized

Employee Involvement and Participation

-EIP -process that uses employee's input to ↑ their commitment to org success

Employee Stock Ownership Plan

-ESOP -company-established benefit plan in which employees acquire stock (often at below-market prices) as part of benefits

Two-Factor Theory

-Frederick Herzberg -wondered what do people want from their jobs -asked people to describe situations in which they felt exceptionally good or bad about their jobs - led Herzberg to his two-factor theory (also called motivation-hygiene theory) 1. hygiene factors: quality of supervision, pay, company policies, physical work conditions, relationships with others, and job security -when adequate: people will not be dissatisfied; neither will they be satisfied -if we want to motivate people: emphasize factors associated with the work itself or with outcomes directly derived from it such as promotional opportunities, personal growth opportunities, recognition, responsibility, and achievement (characteristics people find intrinsically rewarding) -not been well supported in research

General Mental Ability

-GMA -general factor of intelligence

Personality-Job Fit Theory

-John Holland -effort to match job requirements with personality characteristics -one of the most supported OB theories internationally -cultural implications for person-job fit (speak to workers' expectations that jobs will be tailored to them): ₀individualistic countries: ↑ person-job fit by tailoring the job to the person ↑ the individual's job satisfaction ₀collective countries: person-job fit is a weaker predictor of job satisfaction b/c people don't expect to have job tailored to them (value person-job fit efforts less) → managers in collectivistic cultures shouldn't violate cultural norms by designing jobs for individuals; rather they should seek people who will likely thrive in jobs that have already been structured -types of personality: 1. realistic 2. investigative 3. artistic 4. social 5. conventional 6. enterprising

Kotter's Eight Steps Plan

-John Kotter -built on Lewin's three-step model to create a more detailed approach for implementing change -Kotter began by listing common mistakes managers make when trying to initiate change ₀may fail to create sense of urgency about need for change, coalition for managing the change process, or a vision for change ₀may fail to effectively communicate it and/or to anchor the changes into the org's culture ₀may fail to remove obstacles that could impede the vision's achievement and/or provide short-term and achievable goals ₀may declare victory too soon -Kotter established 8 sequential steps to overcome these problems: ₀first four steps = extrapolate on unfreezing stage ₀steps 5-7 = movement ₀final step = freezing ₀contribution lies in proving managers and change agents with a more detailed guide for successfully implementing change 1. establish a sense of urgency by creating a compelling reason for why change is needed 2. form a coalition w/ enough power to lead the change 3. create a new vision to direct change and strategies for achieving the vision 4. communicate the vision throughout the org 5. empower others to act on the vision by removing barriers to change and encouraging risk taking + creative problem solving 6. plan for, create, and reward short-term "wins" that move org toward the new vision 7. consolidate improvements, reassess changes, and make necessary adjustments in new programs 8. reinforce the changes by demonstrating the relationship b/w new behaviors and org success

Lewin's Three-Step Model

-Kurt Lewin -scholars have recently criticized this model for several reasons: 1. Lewin assume that change happens sequentially, in order, always progressing (similar to Maslow's hierarchy of needs) 2. model implies sense of perfect agency for managers (do change agents really know where they are, where the people in the org are, and where they are going?) -orgs are fluid + may be impossible to do this in real life 3. "freezing language" = problematic -time keeps moving, freezing may never really happen, new changes interrupt current changes dynamically -more modern approaches to understanding change in orgs consider issues such as timing, pacing, rhythm, and the nature of the change agents involved -argued that successful change in organizations should follow three steps: 1. unfreezing -unfreeze the status quo -status quo = equilibrium state -moving from equilibrium = overcoming the pressures of both individual resistance and group conformity -unfreezing must happen in one of three ways: a. increase driving forces -direct behavior away from status quo b. decrease restraining forces -hinder movement away from equilibrium c. combine first two approaches 2. movement -movement towards a desired end state -once this begins = important to keep momentum going -orgs that build up to change do less well than those that get to and move through the movement stage quickly 3. refreezing -refreezing the new changes to make them permanent -after change implemented: new situation myst be refrozen so it can be sustained over time -without this step: change will be short lived & employees will attempt to revert to previous equilibrium state

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

-MBTI -most widely-used personality-assessment instrument in the world -100-questions personality test that asks people how they usually feel or act in situations -E or I, S or N, T or F, J of P -one problem with MBTI: evidence is mixed about its validity as a measure of personality (most evidence against it) -another problem: forces a person into one type or another (no in-between) -another problem: when people retake → get different results -also difficult to interpret -also, results from MBTI tend to be unrelated to job performance → thus managers should consider using the big five personality model

Motivating Potential Score

-MPS -predictive index -high: jobs must be high on at least one of the three factors that lead to experienced meaningfulness and high on both autonomy and feedback

Machiavellianism

-Mach -high: pragmatic, maintains emotional distance, believes that ends can justify means, "if it works, use it" -manipulate more, win more, less persuaded by others, persuade others more, more likely to act aggressively, more likely to engage in CWBs -doesn't significantly predict overall job performance -win in short term, lose gains in long term -high maths tend to be pragmatic, emotionally distant, and believe the ends justify the means -not people who help out -people don't matter → personal power = out for themselves -trying to manipulate people -dark side: ₀manipulative, use "hard" tactics to influence others, tend not to engage in prosocial vals or behaviors, don't share info with others and tend to seek leadership for personal power rather than collective good -positive side: ₀strong motivation to lead, influential and persuasive, able to build political connections (provide strategic self-disclosure when it helps them), flexible in how they approach tasks such as negotiation (cooperator when helpful, defector when beneficial) -high levels in law field

Organizational Behavior

-OB -specifically helpful (employability skills): ₀think analytically and critically ₀make better decisions ₀communicate & collaborate more effectively with others ₀act with sense of socially responsibility in the workplace -OB is a field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups, and structure have on behavior within organizations for the purpose of applying such knowledge toward improving and orgs effectiveness ₀focuses on 3 determinants of behavior in orgs: individuals, groups and structure ₀applies knowledge in order to make orgs work more effectively ₀OB is the study of what people do in an org and the way their behavior affects the orgs performance

Organizational Development

-OD -collection of change methods that try to improve org effectiveness and employee well-being -OD methods value human and org growth, collaborative and participative processes, and a spirit of inquiry -OD borrows heavily from postmodern philosophy in placing heavy emphasis on the subjective ways people see and make sense of their work environment -change agent may take lead in OD (but strong emphasis on collaboration) -6 OD techniques/interventions for bringing change: 1. Sensitivity Training -training groups, laboratory training, encounter groups -early method of changing behavior through unstructured group interaction -ex: diversity training, executive coaching, team-building exercises -caution must be taken with all forms of OD so that unstructured groups are not intimidating, chaotic, and damaging to work relationships 2. Survey Feedback -tool for assessing the attitudes of org members, identifying discrepancies among member perceptions, and solving differences -data collected from strategic surveys in work units is used as a springboard to spur problem identification and discussion -answers should lead group to commit to various remedies for problems -can be helpful to keep decision makers informed about the attitudes of employees toward the org -could be unreliable: employees are influenced by many factors when they respond to surveys -managers who se should monitor their org's current events and employee response rates 3. Process Consultation -outside consultant assists a client (usually managers) through crafting a "relationship through a continuous effort of 'jointly deciphering what is going on' to make a co-authored choices about how to go on" -used when managers sense their unit's performance can be improved but can't identify what and how -events might include those surrounding the workflow, informal relationships among unit members, and formal communication channels -similar to sensitivity training in assuming we can improve org effectiveness by dealing with interpersonal problems and in emphasizing involvement ₀more task directed ₀consultants don't actually solve org's problems = guide/coach the client to solve their own problems after jointly diagnosing what needs improvement ₀client develops skill to analyze processes within their unit and can therefore use the skill long after the consultant is gone -client actively participates in both the diagnosis and the development of alternatives, they arrive at a greater understanding of the process and the remedy and becomes less resistant to the action plan chosen 4. Team Building -uses high-interaction group activities to increase trust and openness among team members, improve coordination efforts, and increase team performance -ex: orgs use "escape rooms" as team-building method ₀depended sense of relationship and community -team building typically includes goal setting, development of interpersonal relations among team members, role analysis to clarify each member's role and responsibilities, and team process analysis -could emphasize or exclude certain activities (depending on the purse of the development effort and the specific problems the team is confronting) -as orgs increasingly rely on teams = team building is important topic 5. Intergroup Development -major area of concern in OD: dysfunctional conflict among groups -intergroup development: seeks to change groups' attitudes, stereotypes, and perceptions about each other -training sessions closely resemble diversity training, expect rather than focus on demographic difference = focus on differences among occupations, departments, or divisions within an org -after identifying causes discrepancies: groups move to integration phase (developing solutions to improve relations between them) -subgroups can be formed of members from each of the conflicting groups to conduct further diagnoses and formulate alternative solutions -many approaches: popular one emphasizes problem solving ₀each group meets independently to list its perceptions of itself and another group and how it believes the other group perceives it ₀groups then share lists, discuss similarities and differences, and look for causes of disparities 6. Appreciative Inquiry -accentuates the positive (most OD approaches are problem centered = identify a problem or set of problems then look for solution) -rather than looking for problems to fix = seeks to identify the unique qualities and special strengths of an org, which members can build on to improve performance -consists of four steps: discovery, dreaming, design, destiny ₀played out in large-group meeting over two to three days and overseen by trained change agent 1) discovery: sets out to identify what people think are the org's strengths -employees recount times they felt the org worked best or when they felt particularly satisfied 2) dreaming: employees use information from the discovery phase to speculate on possible futures (like what the org will be like in 5 years) 3) design: participants find common vision of how org will look in the future and agree on its unique qualities 4) destiny: how to fulfill their dream (write action plans and develop implementation strategies)

Positive Organizational Scholarship

-POS (positive org behavior) -studies how orgs develop human strengths, foster vitality and resilience, and unlock potential -need to study what is good about orgs instead of what's wrong with them -key subjects in positive OB research: 1. engagement 2. hope 3. optimism 4. resilience in the face of strain -does not deny the negative tho (like critical feedback) but does challenge us to look at OB through a new lens = push orgs to make use of employee's strengths rather than dwell on their limitations -one aspect: org culture (influences employee behavior so strongly that orgs have employed "culture officers" to shape + preserve the company's personality)

Cognitive Dissonance

-Simultaneous presence of 2 opposing thoughts or opinions -Leads to an internal state of discomfort→anxiety, fear, anger, confusion -Individuals will try to reduce discomfort by changing, adding to or minimizing on of these dissonant thoughts ₀inconsistency is uncomfortable -no individual can avoid dissonance -desire to reduce dissonance depends on three factors: 1. importance of elements creating dissonance ₀more motivated to reduce dissonance when attitudes are important or we believe the dissonance is due to something we can control 2. degree of influence we believe we have over those elements 3. rewards of dissonance ₀high rewards accompanying dissonance tend to reduce tension inherent in the dissonance

Trait Activation Theory

-TAT -predicts that come situations, events, or interventions "activate" a trait more than others -can foresee which jobs suit certain personalities

Change

-a constant in all environments -when things become different than the way they are -often: changes are unplanned and happen naturally -certain situations involve proactive, intentional, & goal-oriented efforts to realize change (planned change)

Value System

-a person's ranked values (importance)

Social Network Analysis

-a tool used to asses the exchange of resources and dependencies within an org -examines patterns of communication among org members to identify how info flows b/w them -within a social network: 1. node: each group of connections b/w people who share professional interests 2. ties: links between nodes ₀ties important for getting things done and for employees' weak being (employee who don't nurture or lose ties over time are more likely to leave org) ₀ties can remain dominant even after employee leaves -when nodes communicate or exchange resources frequently = strong ties -nodes not engaged in direct communication with one another achieve resource flows through intermediary nodes -some nodes act as brokers b/w otherwise unconnected nodes -sociogram (pic): informal version of an org chart (shows how resources really flow in an org) -networks can create substantial power dynamics -brokers: tend to have more power b/c they can leverage the unique resources they can acquire from different groups -many people are dependent on brokers (which gives them more power) -some of most powerful people within social networks are able to amass power because of their personality traits ₀insensitivity to rewards (resistant to others' influence) ₀extraversion ₀dark triad even positively related to social network position and power -stereotype threat: influence effectiveness of women in brokerage position ₀agency, power, assertiveness (come w/ position) contradict feminine stereotypes = women more likely to experience anxiety about their performance + fear of negative evaluation in these positions -implementing social network analysis in org: ₀some orgs keep track of flow of email across departments ₀big data tools = easy way to gather objective info about how individuals exchange information ₀some orgs look at data from HR Infosys (analyze how supervisors and subordinates interact w/ each other)

Intellectual Abilities

-abilities needed to perform mental activities (thinking, reasoning, and problem solving) -societies place high val on intelligence -smart people are generally better performers, earn more money, are promoted more often, and attain higher level jobs -assessing and measuring intellectual ability = not always simple (people not consistently capable of correctly assessing their own cognitive ability)

Stage V: Outcomes

-action-reaction interplay b/w conflicting parties creates consequences (outcomes may be functional if the conflict improves the group's performance, or dysfunctional if it hinders performance) -although workplace conflict can be beneficial = usually happens under special circumstances and most of the time: dysfunctional outcomes outweigh the functional outcomes in severity (means managers will likely spend most of their time reducing dysfunctional conflict, rather than stimulating functional conflict) 1. functional outcomes -conflict is constructive when it improves the quality of decisions, stimulates creativity and innovation, encourages interest and curiosity among group members, provides the medium for problems to be aired + tensions released, and posters self-evaluation and change -the right amount of task conflict (not relational conflict) can cause teams to improve their relations, the quality of social interaction, and meaningful communication -mild conflict may also generate energizing emotions (so members of groups become more active + engaged in their work) -polarized groups: don't manage their underlying disagreements effectively and tend to accept suboptimal solutions, or they avoid making decisions altogether rather than work out the conflict -conflict is an antidote for groupthink -conflict doesn't allow the group to passively rubber-stamp decisions that may be based on weak assumptions, inadequate consideration of relevant alternatives, or other weaknesses -conflict challenges the status quo and furthers the creation of new ideas, promotes reassessment of group goals + activities, and increases the probability that the group will respond to change 2. dysfunctional outcomes -can reduce group effectiveness (poor communication, reductions in group cohesiveness, subordination of group goals to the primacy of infighting among members) -all forms of conflict (even functional) reduce group member satisfaction and trust -at extreme: conflict can bring group functioning to a halt and threaten the group's survival 3. managing conflict -conflict management: handling, controlling, and guiding a conflictual situation to achieve a resolution -anticipating and managing conflict: a. strategy -designing conflict management activities with an understanding of their effect on the org system, garnering managerial support for and application of conflict management strategies b. function -encouraging systemic adoption of conflict management practices, understating employees' needs, job design to reduce conflict c. worker -improving employee perceptions of conflict, fostering ties and cohesion b/w people, adaptively addressing conflict as it emerges -ex: if conflict expected to be perpetual and ongoing = strategic conflict management strategy might not target resolving the conflict completely but rather how people can adaptively address the conflict over time -ideal conditions: person's intentions should translate into comparable behaviors (conditions not always ideal = research on conflict management have been inconsistent) -sometimes, strategies appropriante for resolving one form of conflict may backfire and cause more conflict in another area -ex: adopting shared identity and improving relationship quality may unintentionally backfire by causing blurred distinctions b/w people's roles, stimulating task conflict -strategies appropriante for managing one form of conflict may spill over into another domain -ex: clearly outlining differences in what people do in the presence of task conflict can spill over to stimulate relational conflict (where strategic conflict management may come into play) -minimizing counterproductive conflicts: recognize when there really is a disagreement -most successful conflict management: recognize different views and attempt to resolve them by encouraging open, frank discussions focused on views rather than issues, listening and understanding opposing views, and then integrating them constructively -another approach: have opposing groups pick parts of the solution that are most important to them and then focus on how each side can get its top needs satisfied (neither side may get exactly what it wants but each side will achieve the most important parts of its agenda) -another approach: groups that resolve conflicts successfully discuss differences of opinion openly and are prepared to manage conflict when it arises (open discussion makes it much easier to develop a shared perception of the problems at hand + allows groups to work toward a mutually acceptable solution -another approach: managers need to emphasize shared interests in resolving conflicts, so groups that disagree with each other don't become too entrenched in their points of view and start to take conflicts personally (groups with cooperative conflict styles and a strong underlying identification with the overall group goals are more effective than groups with a competitive style) 4. cultural influences -differences across countries in conflict resolution strategies may be based on collectivist v. individualist tendencies and motives -ex: top management in Chinese tech firms prefer collaboration even more than compromising or avoiding (collectivist may also be more intruded in demonstrations of concern and working through third parties to resolve disputes) -individualists: more likely to confront differences of opinion directly and openly -cross-cultural negotiations can lead to trust issues (lower levels of trust are associated with less discovery of common interests b/w parties which occurred because cross-culture negotiators were less willing to disclose and solicit information) -in-group bias also occurs (leads people to favor negotiating partners from their own cultures)

Felt Emotions

-actual emotions

Machine Learning

-advancements in machine learning have enabled us to understand the attitude-behavior relationship even further -ex: using a machine learning algorithm enabled researchers studying hospital nurses to determine that their job attitudes were related to performance in certain conditions (like when their responsibilities were clearly defined)

Moderators

-affects the strength of the relationship b/w two variables -often unrelated to the independent variable -stuff just kind of changes things around -AGE: takes a lot more vitamin D to make bones stronger -random stuff that changes the relationship

Biographical Characteristics

-age, gender, race, ethnicity, and disability -some of the most obvious ways employees differ 1. age: likely to be an issue of ↑ importance during next decade -workforce aging wordwide -virtually no relationship b/w age and job performance -also older people can be more creative -age-diverse teams and orgs also perform better than those w. similar ages (b/c both older and younger workers bring a complementary, diverse set of knowledge, skills, and abilities to their teams) -older workers also tend to be more satisfied with their work and report better relationships with coworkers -however; some studies suggest that people are becoming less satisfied with their jobs the longer they stay at any given org 2. gender: few, if any, differences b/w genders affect job performance -still, biases and stereotypes exist -glass ceiling: men are more likely to be chosen for leadership roles even though men and women are equally effective leaders -glass cliff: women are generally selected for leaderships roles that require handling an org crisis (positions in which they are set up to fail) -glass items = due to stereotypes which depict white males as ideal leaders (perceived as more agents and dominating) -motherhood penalty: stereotype that women default to caregiving or relational role, and they are penalized for experiencing work-family conflict (motherhood bias that prevents them from advancing in their careers, affects their performance evals and their salaries) 3. race and ethnicity: race = heritage people use to identify themselves & ethnicity = additional set of cultural characteristic that often overlaps with race 4. disabilities -hidden disabilities: sensory (deaf), autoimmune, chronic illness or pain, cognitive or learning impairments, sleep disorders, and psychological challenges -those w/ hidden disabilities are afraid of being stigmatized or ostracized if they disclose their disabilities to others in the workplace

Person-Environment Fit

-all dimensions of fit are sometimes referred to broadly as person-environment fit -each dimension can predict work attitudes, which are partially based on culture -dimensions of person-org and person-job fit are the strongest predictors of positive work attitudes and performance in North America (less important in Europe and least important in East Asia)

How Power Affects People

-all forms of power can lead to the downside of getting "caught up" in the feeling on power -there are corrupting aspects of power = leads people to place their own interests ahead of others' needs or goals (why: power doesn't just lead people to focus on their self-interests because they can but also liberates them to focus inward and thus come to place greater weight on their own aim and interest) -power also leads individuals to "objectify" others = seem them as tools to obtain their instrumental goals -power also leads people to see relationships as peripheral -powerful people react (usually negatively) to any threats to their competence -people with power hold on to it when they can and if one's power is threatened = willing to take actions to retain it whether their actions harm others or not -having formal power = alter how you perceive others' emotions (ex: the powerful are quicker to detect anger because this threatens their power) and cause you to behave in an ineffective way -those with power: more likely to make self-interested decisions when faced with moral hazards -people in power are more willing to denigrate others -power also leads to overconfident decision making (in firm leaders: overconfidence might actually result in positive firm outcomes)

Job Sharing

-allows 2+ individuals to split a traditional full-time job -allows an org to draw on the talents of more than one individual for a given job, opens opportunity to acquire skilled workers who might not be available on a full-time basis, can ↑ motivation and satisfaction -decision often based on policy and financial reasons

Ally

-ally → accomplice (change in degree) 1. educate yourself 2. own your privilege/advantages 3. accept feedback 4. become a trusted confidant 5. bring diversity to the table 6. see something, say something 7. sponsor marginalized co-workers 8. insist on diverse candidates 9. build a community of allies

Model

-an abstraction of reality -simplified representation of some real-world phenomenon -OB model: 1. three types of variables -inputs, processes, and outcomes ₀inputs: (nouns) variables like personality, group structure, and org culture that lead to processes (set the stage for what will occur in an org later//many determined in advance of the employment relationship//ex: individual diversity characteristics, personality and values are all shaped by a combo of individual genetics and childhood environment) ₀processes: (verbs) actions that individuals, groups, and orgs engage in as a result of inputs that lead to certain outcomes (individual level ex = emotions, moods, motivation, perception, decision making//group level ex = communication, leadership, power, politics, conflict and negotiation//org level ex = HR management and change practices) ₀outcomes: key variables that you want to explain/predict and that are affected by other variables ₀primary outcomes for individuals: 1. attitudes -evaluations that employees make ranging from positive to negative, and about objects, people, or events 2. stress -psychological process that occurs in response to environmental pressures 3. task performance -combo of effectiveness and efficiency at doing your core job tasks 4. citizenship behavior -OCB = discretionary behavior that is not part of an employee's formal job requirements and that contributes to the psychological and social environment of the workplace 5. withdrawal behavior -set of actions that employees take to separate themselves from the org ₀primary outcomes for groups: 1. group cohesion -extent to which members of a group support and validate one another at work 2. group functioning -refers to the quantity and quality of a group's work output ₀primary outcomes for organizations: 1. overall productivity -org is productive if it achieves its goals by transforming inputs into outputs at the lowest cost -requires both effectiveness and efficiency ₀effective: attain sales or market share goals ₀efficiency: ROI, profit per dollar of sales and output per hour of labor 2. survival -simply evidence that the org is able to exist and grow over the long term -survival depends not just on how productive the org is but also on how well it fits with its environment 2. three levels of analysis -individual, group, organizational ₀model illustrates that inputs lead to processes, which lead to outcomes

Ability

-an individual's current capacity to perform the various tasks of a job -intellectual and physical

Behavioral Ethics

-area of study that analyzes how people actually behave when confronted with ethical dilemmas

Unfair Discrimination

-assumes that everyone in a group is the same rather than looking at the characteristics of individuals within the group -harmful for employees and for organizations

Integrative Negotiating

-assumes that one or more of the possible settlements can create a win-win solution rather than an all-or-nothing, win-lose situation -both parties must be engaged for integrative barraging to work

Positivity Offset

-at zero input, most people experience a mildly positive mood -generally, positive moods enable employees to perform better, be more creative, be more social, improve health and longevity

Internal and External Causation

-attribution theory suggests that when we observe an individual's behavior, we attempt to determine whether it was internally or externally caused -internally: those an observer believes to be under the personal behavioral control of another individual -externally: what we imagine the situation forced the individual to do -determination depends on three factors: 1. distinctiveness -whether an individual displays different behavior in different situations 2. consensus -everyone who faces a similar situation responds in the same way 3. consistency -look for consistency in a person's actions

Four Managerial Activities

-average managers: 1. traditional management: decision making, planning, and controlling (32%) 2. communication: exchanging routine information & processing paperwork (29%) 3. HR management: motivating, discipling, managing conflict, staffing, & training (20%) 4. networking: socializing, politicking, and interacting with outsiders (19%) -successful managers (speed of promotion within their orgs): networking made largest relative contribution to success and HR management the least -effective managers (quantity and quality of performance + satisfaction and commitment of their employees): communication made largest relative contribution and networking the least

Defensive Behaviors 1

-avoiding action

Defensive Behaviors 2

-avoiding blame

Defensive Behaviors 3

-avoiding change

Bounded Rationality

-b/c we can't solve complex problems with full rationality, we operate within the confines of bounded rationality -take a simplified approach, perceiving and interpreting the essential features of problems w/o capturing their complexity -outcome: tendency to satisfice or seek solutions that are merely sufficient (good enough) -not always a bad method -can be a concern in ethical decision making

Establishing Pay Structure

-balance between: 1. internal equity (the worth of the job to the org - usually established through job evaluation) 2. external equity (the competitiveness of an org's pay relative to pay in its industry - usually established through pay surveys) -obv: more you pay = better-qualified, more highly motivated employees who will stay with org longer

Where does power come from?

-bases (sources) of power broken into two general groupings: formal and personal

Hierarchy of Needs Theory

-basically: if you meet people's needs, you can motivate them -Abraham Maslow/best-known theory of motivation -theory that human needs - physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization - form a sort of hierarchy (recently a sixth need has been proposed for a highest level - yet to gain widespread acceptance) 1. physiological: hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs 2. safety-security: security & protection from physical and emotional harm 3. social-belongingness: affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship 4. esteem: internal factors like self-respect, autonomy, and achievement as well as external factors like status, recognition, and attention 5. self-actualization: drive to become what we can become; includes growth, achievement of our potential, and self-fulfillment -as each need becomes well-satisfied, the next one becomes dominant

Systematic Study

-behavior is not random → identify consistencies underlying people's behavior + modify them to reflect individual differences (why important? allow predictability) -looking at relationships, attempting to attribute causes and effects, and basing conclusions on scientific evidence (that is, on data gathered under controlled conditions and measured, and interpreted, in a rigorous manner)

Political Behavior

-being political = not a compliment ₀someone out for themselves (selfish) ₀trying to gain something -organizational politics focus on use of power to affect decision making in an org (sometimes fr self-serving and org unsanctioned behaviors) -political behavior: consists of activities that are not required as part of an individual's formal role but that influence, or attempt to influence, the distribution of advantages and disadvantages within the org -outside specified job requirements -requires some attempt to use power bases -includes efforts to influence goals, criteria, or processes used for decision making -often negative, not always -ways people construe politics: 1. reactive ₀believing that it involves engaging in destructive and manipulative behavior 2. reluctant ₀view it as necessary evil 3. strategic ₀view politics as useful way of getting things done 4. integrated perception ₀view politics as central to reality of decision making -most managers believe political behavior is major part of org life -many managers report some use of political behavior is ethical, if it doesn't directly harm anyone else -some describe politics as necessary and believe someone who never uses political behavior will have a hard time getting things done -it is possible for an org to be politics-free (if all members hold same goals and interests if org resources aren't scarce and if performance outcomes are completely clear and objective

Rational Decision Making

-best decision maker is rational -makes consistent, value-maximizing choices within specified constraints -rational decisions follow a six-step rational decision making model -model assumes the decision maker has complete information, can identify all relevant options w/o bias, and chooses the option with the highest utility

Social Psychology

-blends concepts from both psychology and sociology to ficus on people's influence on one another -one major study area: change (how to implement it and how to reduce barriers to its acceptance) -social psychologist also contribute to measuring, understanding, and changing attitudes; identifying communication patterns; and building trust

Do Emotions Make us Irrational

-can make our thinking more rational b/c our emotion provide important information about how we understand the world around us and help guide our behaviors -ex: individuals in a negative mood may be better able to discern truthful from inaccurate information than are people in a happy mood

Substitutes

-can replace the need for a leader's support or ability to create structure (ex: experience and training) -make leadership unnecessary (leaders get in the way)

Factors that Influence Perception

-can reside in the perceiver, the object or target being perceived, or the situation in which the perception is made

Powerful People

-can: 1. Intercede on behalf of subordinates 2. Get approval for expenditures 3. Get items on and off agendas 4. Maintain regular, frequent contact with top decision makers

Power

-capacity, discretion, and means to enforce one's will over others -someone can have power but not use it -powerful people have discretion over when to exercise their power -most important aspect of power: dependence -people sometimes use their power to unethical ends -ex: people depend on executives, managers and employee "superstars" (a partner in a firm who brings in lucrative clients) for promotions, pay raises, or brining in customers/clientele -powerful leaders: unjustly empowered to enforce their will over others in many ways (ex: sexual harassment: adversely affects employees' mental and physical health and opportunities for advancement = also costs orgs millions in legal fees and employee turnover) -power relationships possible in all areas of life (not just leadership positions) -power can be obtained in many ways -power makes people want to work with you in an org -power (not in managing people (motivation)) controlling environment that team works in -positive context of power = getting things done

Emotional Contagion

-catching emotions from others

Strain

-caused by stress -psychological and physical unpleasant response due to an appraisal of the stressor

Stressors

-challenge stressors: stressors associated with workload, pressure to complete tasks, and time urgency ₀operate differently than hindrance stressors -hindrance stressors: stressors that keep you from reaching your goals (ex: red tape, office politics, confusion over job responsibilities) -both types of stressors lead to strain ₀hindrance stressors lead to increased levels of strain -challenge stressors (when stable over time): lead to more motivation, engagement, and performance than hindrance stressors -hindrance stressors seem to have more of a negative effect on safety compliance and participation, employee engagement, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, performance, and withdrawal than do challenge stressors -challenge stressors: exist under time pressure and learning demands

Planned Change

-change activities that are intentional and goal oriented -goals: 1. seeks to improve the ability of the org to adapt to changes in its environment 2. seeks to change employee behavior -who's responsible for managing change activities = change agents

Politics of Change

-change inherently implies political activity -impetus for change more likely to come from outside change agents, new members, or managers who are slightly removed from main power structure

Action Research

-change process based on systematic collection of data + selection of a change action based on what the analyzed data indicate -value = providing a scientific methodology for managing planned change -consists of five steps: ₀closely parallel the scientific method 1. diagnosis 2. analysis 3. feedback 4. action 5. evaluation -provides two specific benefits: 1. problem focused -change agent objectively looks for problems, and the type of problem determines the type of change action 2. lowering resistance -engages employees thoroughly in process which lowers resistance -b/c employees actively participate in the feedback stage = change process takes on momentum of its own -orgs may resist participating in action research when their legitimacy is potentially or already at risk

Target

-characteristics of the target also affect what we perceive -relationship of a target to its background influences perception (so does our tendency to group close things and similar things together) -sometimes perception can work in the target's favor, in ways that can affect organizations' bottom lines

Personality Test

-combination of self-reports and observer-ratings predicts performance better than any one type of information

Personal Power

-comes from an individual's unique characteristics -two bases: expertise and referent (respect and admiration of others) -some people only have personal power, but others can also have formal power -ex: consultants have personal power but no formal power if they're not managers -ex: sales team lead has formal power AND is well-liked and respected 1. expert power -based on influence wielded as a result of expertise, special skills, or knowledge -as jobs become more specialized: become dependent on experts to achieve goals -ex: doctors have expertise and thus expert power 2. referent power -based on identification with a person who has desirable resources of personal traits -ex: if you like, respect, and admire someone = they can exercise power of you because you want to please them -those with referent power because they have charismatic dynamism, likability, and emotional appeal -develops out of admiration of another and a desire to be like that person -explains why celebs are paid millions to endorse products in commercials -sources of personal power: 1. expertise -work related knowledge -why do we trust experts: credibility -also: shortcut = go to experts and do what they say instead of taking the time to learn ourselves -how to become expert ex: degrees 2. attraction -charisma, agreeable behavior, physical characteristics -pretty sells -personal attraction: I like this person = more you life someone = more attractive you think they are 3. effort -doing "whatever it takes" to get the job done -see someone working hard = more likely to help them 4. legitimacy -taking action congruent w/ the prevailing value system -sense of safety -this person shares my values = likely to help them because you're assuming they're doing things you do 5. ALSO: resources

Stress at Work

-comes in many forms at work -racial prejudice is particularly nefarious -statistics on stress in picture

Evidence-Based Management (EBM)

-complements systematic study by basing managerial decisions on the best available scientific evidence -ex: want doctors to make decisions abt patient care based on latest evidence = EBM argues that managers should do the same (think scientifically about management problems) ₀most management decisions are still made on the fly

Self-Efficacy Theory

-component of social cognitive theory/social learning theory -individual's belief that he or she is capable of performing a task

Power & Leadership

-concepts are closely intertwined -POWER: doesn't require goal compatibility (just dependence) -focuses more on the downward influence of followers (minimizes the importance of lateral and upward relationships = important in leadership) -also focuses on tactics for gaining compliance (as opposed to collaboration) -LEADERSHIP: requires some congruence b/w the goals of the leader and those being led -often emphasizes style: seeks to answer questions like how supportive should a leader be? how much decision making should be shared w/ followers?

Loci of Conflict

-conflict locus: framework within which conflict occurs 1. dyadic conflict -conflict b/w two people 2. intragroup conflict -conflict within a group/team -for this to positively influence performance within team = important that team has supportive climate in which mistakes are not penalized and every team member "has each other's back" -ex: NFL -there's a certain amount of intragroup conflict that is good for team performance (esp. when team members support each other) 3. intergroup conflict -conflict b/w groups/teams -a person's network position = important during intergroup conflicts -interplay b/w an individual's position within a group and the way that individual managed conflict b/w groups -being at the core of your work group doesn't make you the best person to manage conflict with other groups

Ingroup

-consists of the members of a group we belong to -tend to "play favorites" or see our in-group as better than other people -favoritism can influence discrimination and prejudice in the workplace -ex: favoritism (not hostility) might cause the most discriminatory behaviors (hostility isn't integral to definition of discrimination; you can treat people differently without being hostile) -ex: when someone from our in-group does something unethical = more likely to respond by repairing the relationship than by punishing them (even if heinous crime) -when we play favorites with your own in-group = employees and managers may be complicit in discrimination

Functional Conflict

-constructive form of conflict -supports the goals of the group and improves its performance -ex: debate among members of a corp board about most efficient way to improve production = functional if unique points of view are discussed and compared openly

Job Rotation

-cross-training -periodic shifting of an employee from one task to another with similar skill requirements at the same organizational level -millennials suggest that job rotation is an important aspect of modern work (70% if respondents rate as important) -can be applied in any setting where cross-training is feasible -drawbacks: training costs ↑, reduces overall productivity for new role being tried, creates disruptions when members of the work group must adjust to new employees, and supervisors may have to spend more time answering questions and monitoring the work of recently rotated employees

Transmitting Culture

-culture is transmitted most potently through: stories, rituals, material symbols, and language 1. stories -Nike: corporate story tellers -stories anchor the present to the past and legitimizing current practices -stories typically include narratives about the org's founders, rule breaking, rags-to-riches successes, workforce reductions, relocations of employees, reactions to past mistakes, and org coping 2. rituals -repetitive sequences of activities that express and reinforce the key values of the org (what goals are most important and/or which people are important v. which are expendable) -some orgs have nontraditional rituals that help support values of their cultures -rituals work because they inspire a sense of control in their participants and, as a result, reduce anxiety 3. symbols -material symbols (artifacts): offer sense of connection and stir emotions in employees who make sense of the symbols ex: layout of corporate headquarters, types of automobiles top execs are given, presence or absence of corporate aircraft, size of offices, elegance of furnishings, perks, attire -symbols work to convey to employees who is important, the degree of egalitarianism top management desires, and the kinds of behavior that are appropriate (risk taking, conservative, authoritarian, participative, individualistic, or social behavior) 4. language -many orgs and subunits within them use language to help members identify with the culture, attest to their acceptance of it, and help preserve it -new employees may at first be overwhelmed by acronyms and jargon that, once assimilated, act as a common denominator to unite members of a given culture or subculture

Positive Organizational Culture

-culture that emphasizes building on employee strengths, rewards more than punishes, and emphasizes individual vitality and growth -values building on employee strengths, rewards more than it punishes, and encourages individual vitality and growth

Big Data

-data has been used to evaluate behavior since at least 1749 -reasons for data analytics: 1. predicting events ₀from a book purchase to a spacesuit malfunction 2. detecting how much risk is incurred at any time ₀first of a fire or that of loan default 2. preventing catastrophes (large and small) ₀from plane crash to overstocking -use of data for decision making and management = potential for use in the future = good = yay ₀ex: manager who uses data to define objectives, develop theories of causality, and test theories can determine which employee activities are relevant to accomplishing those objectives -big data is increasingly being used towards making effective decisions and managing organizational change

Problem

-decision making occurs as a reaction to a problem (discrepancy exists b/w how things are and how we want them to be = requires us to consider how we can address this discrepancy)

Employee Engagement

-degree of enthusiasm an employee feels for the job -represents a combination of attitudes (ex: satisfaction and commitment) but exceeds these, representing something like devotion or giving your heart & soul to your work -highly engaged: passion for work and deep connection to companies -disengaged: essentially checked out, put time but not energy/attention into work -becomes concern b/c disengaged employees cost orgs money (can lose up to $550 billion annually in lost productivity -orgs w. high-average levels of engagement: ↑ levels of customer satisfaction, more productive, ↑ profits, ↓ levels of turnover and accidents

Perceived Organizational Support (POS)

-degree to which employees believe the org values their contributions and cares about their well-being -people see orgs as supportive when rewards are deemed fair, when employees have a voice in decision, and when they see supervisors as supportive -POS = predictor of employment outcomes (also has cultural influences) -POS is importnat in countries where the power distance (degree to which people in a country accept that power in orgs is distributed unequally) is lower -low power-distance countries (Like US): people more likely to view work as an exchange than a moral obligation (employees look for reasons to feel supported by their orgs) -high power-distance countries (China): employee POS perceptions are not as deeply based on employer demonstrations of fairness, support and encouragement

Interactional Justice

-degree to which people are treated with respect, kindness, and dignity in interpersonal interactions

Identity

-degree to which people perceive themselves as part of the team -extent to which people see group membership as important to their identity -"my team is part of my identity and who I am" -challenges to identity: 1. the team is newly formed 2. members are introduced to the team after work has begun 3. individual members are highly diverse -building identity: 1. reiterate common goals 2. encourage collaboration 3. use bonding activities 4. develop a sense of urgency 5. value individual differences 6. recruit for team fit 7. formally orient new team members 8. publicly acknowledge members' individual and collective skills

Allostasis

-demands shift, resources shift, and systems of addressing imbalances shift -through allostasis = work to find stability by changing our behaviors and attitudes

Demands and Resources

-demands: responsibilities, pressures, obligations, and uncertainties individuals face in the workplace -resources: things within an individual's control that they can use to resolve the demands ₀stress is associated with demands and resources

Self-Monitoring

-describes an individual's ability to adjust behavior to external, situational factors -components: 1. reading others ₀I can usually tell when I've said something inappropriate by reading the listener's eyes 2. altering the impression one makes ₀I have the ability to control the way I come across to people, depending on the impression I want to make -high: adaptability, sensitive to external cues and can behave differently in varying situations, sometimes presenting sticking contradictions b/w their public personae and their private selves (what does this situation want me to be and how can I be that person? attend to external cues in focusing behavior) ₀more likely to emerge as leaders ₀more likely to resolve conflicts through collaboration ₀more fluent/effortless in communication style ₀engage in more impression management ₀receive more promotions than low self-monitors ₀more likely to build extensive networks -low: can't disguise themselves, display their true dispositions and attitudes in every situation (who am I and how can I be me in this situation? attend to internal cues in focusing behavior) -chameleon effect: how good are you at changing yourself (manipulating yourself)

Behavioral Component

-describes an intention to behave a certain way toward someone or something -ex: "I am going to look for another job that pays better"

Job Characteristics Model

-describes jobs in terms of five core job dimensions: 1. skill variety: the degree to which a job requires a variety of activities using different skills/talents -high scoring: garage owner-operator who does electrical repairs, rebuilds engines, does bodywork, and interacts with customers -low scoring: body shop worker who sprays paint eight hours a day 2. task identity: the degree to which a job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work -high scoring: cabinetmaker who designs furniture, selects the wood, builds the objects, and finishes them -low scoring: operating a lathe solely to make table legs 3. task significance: degree to which a job affects the lives or work of other people -high scoring: nurse -low scoring: sweeping floors in a hospital 4. autonomy: degree to which a job provides the worker freedom, independence, and discretion in scheduling work and determining the procedures for carrying it out -high scoring: sales managers who schedule their own work and tailor their sales approach to each customer without supervision -low scoring: account representative who is required to follow a standardized sales script with potential customers 5. feedback: degree to which carrying out work activities generates direct and clear information about your own performance -high scoring: testing and inspecting iPads -low scoring: installing components of iPads as they move down an assembly line

Terminal Values

-desirable end-states -goals that a person would like to achieve during a lifetime

Dysfunctional Conflict

-destructive form of conflict -conflict that hinders group performance -highly personal struggle for control that distracts from the task at hand in a team

Organizational Culture Framework 1

-differences between these cultures are reflected in their internal v. external focus and their flexibility and stability -cultures differ regarding how they influence org outcomes 1. the clan: culture based on human affiliation -employees value attachment, collaboration, trust, and support -internally focused and flexible 2. the adhocracy: culture based on change -employees value growth, variety, attention to detail, stimulation, and autonomy -externally focused and flexible 3. the market: culture based on achievement -employees value communication, competence, and competition -externally focused and stable 4. the hierarchy: culture based on stability -employees value communication, formalization, and routine -internally focused and stable

Surface-Level Diversity

-differences such as age, sex, race/ethnicity, and physical disabilities that are observable, typically unchangeable, and easy to measure -not thoughts and feelings -SLD can lead employees to make stereotypes and assumptions about others from certain demographic backgrounds

Deep-Level Diversity

-differences such as personality and attitudes that are communicated through verbal and nonverbal behaviors and are learned only through extended interaction with others -personality and values -deep-level similarities can overshadow the more superficial differences between people → sharing similarities = work well together

Effectiveness of Power Bases

-different bases of power are effective depending on the perception and characteristics of the dependent -ex: dependents view angry leaders as higher on formal power and are more loyal toward these leaders and perceive them as more effective -ex: dependents likely to perceive coercive and low-referent leaders as ineffective, become less loyal toward these leaders, and even engage in deviant behaviors directed at these leaders -referent power can be an especially powerful motivator

Dimensions of Intellectual Ability 1

-dimensions are positively correlated (if you score high on verbal comprehension = likely to score high of spatial visualization) 1. number aptitude 2. verbal comprehension 3. perceptual speed 4. inductive reasoning

Emotional Dissonance

-disparity b/w employees having to protect one emotion while feeling another -bottled-up feelings of frustration, anger, and resentment can lead to emotional exhaustion -long-term emotional dissonance is a predictor for job burnout, declines in job performance, and lower job satisfaction

Profit-Sharing Plan

-distributes compensation based on some established formula designed around a company's profitability

Faultlines

-diverse differences that may split a group into separate groups based on characteristics (can occur especially when the team is under threat or pressure)

Negotiation

-don't negotiation at all over career = lose about $10mil -permeates the interactions of almost everyone in groups and orgs -obvious: labor bargains with management -not-so-obvious: managers negotiate with employees, peers, and bosses; salespeople negotiate with customers; purchasing agents negotiate with suppliers -subtle: employee agrees to cover for a colleague for a few minutes in exchange for a future favor -defined: process that occurs when two or more parties decide how to allocate scarce resources -every negotiation in orgs also affects the relationship b/w negotiators and the way negotiators feel about themselves -sometimes maintaining the social relationship and behaving ethically will be just as important as achieving an immediate outcome of bargaining (negotiating)

Stage IV: Behavior

-dynamic process of interaction -ex: you make a demand, I argue, you shout, I yell back -all conflicts exist somewhere along continuum in pic -lower ends: conflicts characterized by subtle, indirect, and highly controlled forms of tension (like a student challenging a point the prof has made) -conflict intensities escalate as they move upward along the continuum until they become highly destructive (strikes, riots, and wars fall in upper range = always dysfunctional) -functional conflicts = lower range

Resistance To Change

-egos are fragile -see change as threatening -employees see data that suggests change: latch onto whatever info they can find that suggests there isn't a need for change (everything is okay) -employees who feel negatively about change cope by not think about it or leaving organization -resisting change can be emotionally exhausting -resistance doesn't just come from lower levels -higher-level managers will resist changes proposed by subordinates (especially if leaders focused on immediate performance) -leaders focused on mastery & exploration: more willing to hear and adopt subordinates' suggestions for change -M&S: employee and middle manager resistance = reduced through slow (rather than fast) transition -resistance to change can be positive if it leads to open discussion + debate (preferred over apathy or silence + indicates that members of org are engaged in the process) -change agents: can monitor resistance to modify the approach to fit preferences of members -doesn't alway surface in standardized ways: ₀can be overt, implicit, immediate, deferred ₀overt + immediate: complaints, work slowdown, strike threat (easiest to deal with) ₀implicit + deferred: loss of loyalty/motivation, increased errors, absenteeism (more subtle and difficult to recognize/manage )

Moral Emotions

-emotions that have moral implications because of our instant judgement of the situation that evokes them -ex: disgusted, sympathy, guilt, anger, contempt -ex: watch a video of person making a sexist or racist slur = feel disgusted because it offends your sense of right and wrong -need to be aware of the moral aspects of situations that trigger our emotions and make certain we understand the context before we act (especially in the workplace)

Emotional Labor

-employee's expression of organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions at work -key component of effective job performance

Ethical Dilemmas and Ethical Choices

-employees are required to identify right and wrong conduct -line differentiating right from wrong is blurry -managers must create an ethically healthy climate for employees in which they can do their work productively with minimal ambiguity about right and wrong behaviors

Employment Options

-employment options have adapted to include new opportunities for workers -pic details some types of options individuals may find offered to them by orgs or for which they would like to negotiate -TL:DR = today's challenges bring opportunities for managers to use OB concepts

Personality Traits

-enduring characteristics that describe an individual's behavior → characteristics that a person exhibits across many situations -culture influences the way we describe ourselves and others (some traits don't emerge in certain cultures) -personality trait = not a competency ₀competency = defaults (other behaviors can be learned though) -consistent pattern behavior or emotion ₀can (sorta) predict actions ₀more often than not, this is what I can expect to get from you 1. traits summarizes regularity in behavior -achievement oriented ₀diligent, purposeful, goal-oriented 2. traits predict other, more specific behaviors -achievement oriented ₀comes to work on time ₀completes assignment thoroughly 3. traits explain behavior -achievement oriented ₀bob works hard b/c completing a difficult task is rewarding for him

Attitudes

-evaluative statements about objects, people, or events -favorable or unfavorable -ex: "I like my job" = expressing attitude about your work -complex -attitudes have three components: 1. cognition 2. affect 3. behavior

Motivation Market

-every year millions spend money in hopes they will become more motivated -self-improvement and motivational services is a $9.9 billion market in the US (expected to grow 5.6% on average until 2022 and be worth $13.2 billion)

Micro-Aggressions

-everyday slights, indignities, put downs and insults that people of color, women, LGBT populations or those who are marginalized experiences in their day-to-day interactions with people -leaves you feeling labeled + put aside -how to deflect/respond: "what do you mean by that"

Social Identity Theory

-everyone wants to feel good about themselves/increase their self-esteem -how to increase self-esteem: 1. individual: personal identity, accomplishments -do something you feel is worthy/important → also inclusion (they see who I am and they like it) 2. group: social identity, group achievements (we won, they lost), group favoritism (prefer/promote people like me → unconscious → might lead to unethical decision making), outright rejection (they enemy of my enemy is my friend → put down those who aren't in my group)

Exercise

-exercise enhances people's positive moods and reduces perceptions of fatigues -can also help protect against persistent negative moods and improve the ability to recover from negative experiences

Mediators

-explain how or why two variables are related -always related to the independent variable -explain why things are related -HOW: what the vitamin D pill does to build bone health

Dominant Culture

-expresses the core values most members share and that give the org its distinct personality -subcultures tend to develop in large orgs in response to common problems or experiences a group of members face in the same department or location -most large orgs have a dominant culture and numerous subcultures -sometimes subcultures can be so strong that they subtly reject the "official" culture and don't conform -if orgs were composed of only subcultures = dominant org culture would be significantly less powerful

Flextime

-flexible work time -flexibility is a key, attractive benefit that orgs can offer employees that helps make life easier for employees -major drawback: not applicable to every job or every worker

Sociology

-focuses on people in relation to their social environment or culture -sociologists have contributed to OB through study of group behaviors in orgs, particularly formal and complex orgs -have studied org culture, formal org theory and structure, org tech, communications, power, and conflict

Psychology

-focuses on the individual -seeks to measure, explain, and sometimes change the behavior of humans and other animals -contributors to knowledge of OB: 1. learning theorists 2. personality theorists 3. counseling psychologists 4. industrial and organizational psychologists

Job Dissatisfaction

-four responses: 1. exit response 2. voice response 3. loyalty response 4. neglect response -differ along two dimensions: 1. constructive 2. destructive

Team Context

-give contextual factors most significantly related to team performance: a. adequate resources -every work team relies on resources outside the group to sustain it -scarcity of resources: directly reduces the ability of a team to perform its job effectively and achieve its goals -resource: support a group receives from the org -resources: timely information, proper equipment, adequate staffing, encouragement, admin assistance b. leadership and structure -teams function well if they properly allocate roles and ensure workload is shared by all team members -leadership & structure can come from management or from team members themselves -leaders play critical motivational roles and also imitate structure -well-performing = have leaders who are transformational and empowering c. culture or climate -culture & climate = very important in orgs -teams can have their own cultures and climates that influence their effectiveness -early research on climate: focused on policies, practices, and procedures related to team effectiveness and innovation (suggest shared sense of vision = sense of being able to share and collaborate in a nonthreatening environment, concern for performance quality, encouragement of creative + innovative solutions and regular + frequent interaction are most important factors for team climate) -strong team climates lead to increase team financial performance (research on bank teams in Spain) d. performance evaluate and reward system -individual performance evals/incentives may interfere with development of high-performance teams -^thus, management should utilize hybrid performance systems that incorporate an individual member component to recognize individual contributions and a group reward to recognize positive team outcomes -ex: group-based appraisals, profit sharing, small-group incentives -when instituting performance management system = constructive feedback has positive effect on team performance (should beware to avoid bias and discrimination in implementing team reward system) -teams composed of primarily black employees tend to be stigmatized to greater degree (+ paid less) than primarily white employee teams e. crises and extreme contexts -crucible in which merits of teams can be put to the test -can unlock the potential of team members who do truly great things under stress (can also lead to unraveling of the team fabric = disaster) -leaders most effective during disasters when they support team problem solving, are supportive of team members, initiate structure + planning, delegate, and coordinate & help team members make sense of the situation -structure also plays important role: team scaffolds (flood, underlying structures that establish role types, shared responsibilities, and boundaries in teams) = shows to help support coordination during crises b/s they establish accountability, a shared understanding, and a sense of identify/belonging -flexibility important in crisis (higher performing teams tend to be adaptable + exhibit few, short, and simple interaction patterns

GLOBE Framework

-global leadership and organizational behavior effectiveness

Code-Switching

-going back and forth b/w (among) languages 1. language 2. dress 3. persona -choose what works best -pros: ₀helps us understand one another better (like when giving presentations) ₀connects us with others who share our identity ₀allows us to participate fully in broader communities (I can be home here, here, and here) -cons: ₀can be a "requirement for entry" that denies individual identity (when it's not a choice) ₀cognitively costly/tiring ₀requires denial of potentially core identities ₀can create double-binds

Servant Leadership

-going beyond one's self-interest to help followers grow and to promote their well-being -behaviors: listening, empathizing, persuading, accepting stewardship, actively developing followers' potential -based on value of serving the needs of others -there's an advantage for women who are servant leaders because this style stereotypically matches the gender role prototype -"fuel the service fire"

Groupshift

-group polarization -describes the way group members tend to exaggerate their initial positions when discussing alternatives and arriving at solutions -special case of groupthink -group's decision reflect dominant decision-making norm (toward great caution/more risk) that develops during discussion

Globalization

-has led orgs, leaders, and employees to become increasingly connected across the globe -challenge from globalization: forge cooperation b/w the public and its constituents & b/w orgs and their employees across the globe (pursue public good w/ social responsibility in mind -also b/c of globalization: manager's job has changed ₀to be effective in workplace = try to anticipate and adapt approach to global issues

Physical Abilities

-have been and will remain valuable -high employee performance is likely to be achieved when the extent to which a job requires each of the nine abilities matches the abilities of employees in that job

Surface Acting

-hiding feelings and emotional expressions in response to display rules -deals with displayed emotions -ex: worker who smiles at a customer when they don't feel like it -associated w/ ↑ stress and ↓ job satisfaction -daily surface acting can also lead to emotional exhaustion at home, work-family conflict, absenteeism, and insomnia

Job Enrichment

-high-level responsibilities are added to the job to ↑ sense of purpose, direction, meaning, and intrinsic motivation -enriching ≠ enlarging -involves adding another layer of responsibility and meaning -can be effective at reducing turnover, twice as effective as giving employees a "realistic preview" of the work before they join the org

Days of the Week

-highest positive affect = Friday, Saturday, Sunday -lowest positive affect = Monday -not in all countries tho (high on Monday in Japan)

Emotion Regulation

-identify and modify the emotions you feel -strong predictor of task performance for some jobs and for OCB

Proactive Personality

-identify opportunities, show initiative, take action, persevere until meaningful change occurs -higher levels of job performance and creativity (given more autonomy) -satisfied with their jobs, committed to their orgs, engaged in their work

Distributive Negotiating

-identifying feature: operates under zero-sum conditions (any gain I make is at your expense, and vice versa) -the essence: who gets what share of a fixed pie )set amount of goods or services to be divvied up) -when pie is fixed (or parties believe it is) they tend to negotiate distributively -tends to build animosity and deepen divisions when people must work together on an ongoing basis -pic: parties A & B are negotiators ₀each has a target points (what they want to achieve) ₀each has a resistance point (lowest acceptable outcome - point beyond which the party would break off negotiations rather than accept a less favorable settlement) ₀aspiration range = area b/w target & resistance points ₀settlement range = overlap b/w aspiration ranges -engaged in distributive bargaining: want to consider making the first offer (put you at an advantage because of the anchoring bias) ₀people tend to fixate on initial information ₀once anchoring point has been set = people fail to adequately adjust it based on subsequent information ₀savvy negotiators set anchors with initial offer (favors greatly) -if you have a negotiating partner who is motivated to maximize their own return, a disadvantage of making the first offer = conveying information about your priorities that the individual can use against you -framing matters: if you frame the first offer as a request instead of an offer = detrimental negotiation success by highlighting a "loss" rather than a "gain" for the negotiation partner -can engage in hardline strategies (minimize own concessions and make extreme offers) or softline strategies (elicit concessions from the other party through your own concessions) ₀which to choose? depends on outcome you want ₀want to preserve relationship = softline ₀want higher economic return = hardline ₀hardline tends to be most effective if you're physically interacting with the other negotiator, when the other party is male, when both are motivated to maximize individual outcomes, and when they know what they can and can't bargain ₀softline more effective only when you're able to adequately give concessions to the other party -phantom anchors (I was going to ask for $10m000 but since you're making that concession, I will ask for $8,000 instead) can be effective softline strategy that communicates your concession ₀another soft tactic: multiple equivalent simultaneous offers (MESOs) = involve presenting multiple, equivalent first offers to the negotiating partner to choose from (may lead negotiation partner to perceive the offeror as flexible and sincerely trying to reach an agreement as well as increase the likelihood of the negotiation partner finding an option they like right away)

Rewards work with True Interdependence

-if teams really need to rely on each other = reward as a group 1. sequential -traditional assembly line -need each person to complete their part before next step -dependent on other team members = reward team effort 2. pooled -ex: golf team, race car team -individual medals = reward individuals 3. reciprocal -one person with multiple relationships (the other relationships/people don't interact with each other = only center person) -ex: waiter, coordinates with customers, hostesses, kitchen (those people don't necessarily interact with each other tho) 4. intensive -surgical team -must reward together -they need each other for success

Outgroup

-if there is an in-group = there is (by necessity) an outgroup -sometimes just "everyone else" but usually identified as the outgroup by in-group members -tend to see members of outgroup as all the same + ignore characteristics that make them different from each other -people may be more likely to be disgusted with outgroup members, derogate them, and treat them as if they have little worth -power source of ingroup-outgroup derogation = religion (even in workplace) ₀b/c outgroups threaten sense of identify and worldview -as an aside: rise in automation/robot workforce = less prejudiced workforce ₀classify employees into human and non-human = new pan humanist social identity (see humanity as common social identity = all humans are part of in-group) may emerge that can reduce human-to-human prejudice, discrimination, and inequality

Person-Group Fit

-important in team settings where dynamics of team interactions significantly affect work outcomes

Psychopathy

-in OB: doesn't cannot clinical mental illness -lack of concern for others, lack of guilt or remorse when actions cause harm -pathological liars -dark side: ₀lack of concern for others, enjoyment in others' failures or harm, lack of guilt or remorse -positive side: ₀NO POSITIVE SIDE ₀no guilt, no remorse, happy in others pain

Escalation of Commitment

-increased commitment to a previous decision in spite of negative information -occurs when individuals view themselves as responsible for the outcome or when they feel like they will eventually succeed

Creative Potential

-indicators: 1. intelligence -linked -smart people more creative b/c they are better at solving complex problems 2. personality -openness to experience correlates w/ creativity (open individuals are less conformist in behavior and more divergent in thinking) -self-confidence, risk taking, tolerance for ambiguity, perseverance 3. expertise -foundation for creative work 4. ethics -unclear link -people who cheat may be more creative than those who behave ethically -dishonesty and creativity can both stem from a rule-breaking desire

Affect Intensity

-individual differences in the strength with which individuals experience their emotions

Flexible Benefits

-individualize rewards by allowing each employee to choose the compensation package that best satisfies their own current needs and situation

Decisions

-individuals make decisions, or choices from among two or more alternatives -ideally: decision making would be objective rather than subjective -the way people make decisions are largely influenced by their perceptions -every decision requires us to interpret and evaluate information

Emotions

-influence attitudes towards others, decision making and behaviors

Stimulating Innovation

-innovation: specialized kind of change -innovation: applied to initiating or improving a product, process, or service -all innovations imply change but not all changes introduce new ideas or lead to significant improvements -innovations can range from incremental improvements (like tablets) to radical breakthroughs (electric car) -sources of innovation: 1. organic structures positively influence innovation ₀organic orgs facilitate flexibility, adaptation, and cross-fertilization = make adoption of innovation easier 2. contingent rewards positively influence innovation ₀creativity rewarded = firms become more innovative 3. innovation is nurtured when there are slack resources ₀abundance of resources = allows org to afford to purchase or develop innovation, bear the cost of instituting them, and absorb failures 4. inter-unit communication is high in innovative orgs ₀orgs that use committees, task forces, cross-functional team and other mechanisms that facilitate interaction across department lines -national cultures have effect on innovation in orgs ₀the more a country is characterized by strong social norms and low tolerance for deviation from the norm = innovation stifled more often -having close, interpersonal relationships with those from different culture backgrounds = sparks innovation and entrepreneurship -orgs that reward for absence of failures (rather than presence of success) = culture that extinguishes risk taking and innovation -innovative orgs have shared sense of purpose + tend to be cohesive, mutually supportive, and encouraging of innovation -innovative orgs also offer high job security (employees don't fear getting fired for making mistakes and encourage individuals to become champions of change -idea champions: once new idea has been developed, these people actively and enthusiastically promote it, build support, overcome resistance, and ensure it's implemented ₀champions often have similar personality characteristics: 1. extremely high self-confidence 2. persistence 3. energy 4. tendency to take risks ₀may display traits associated with transformational leadership (they inspire and energize others with their vision of an innovations potential and their strong personal conviction about their mission) ₀situations can also influence the extent to which idea champions are forces for change ₀idea champions are good at gaining the commitment of others, and their jobs should provide considerable decision-making discretion (autonomy helps them introduce and implement innovations when the context is supportive) -collectivist cultures: prefer appeals for cross-functional support for innovation efforts -high power-distance cultures: prefer idea champions to work closely with those in authority to approve innovative activities before work has begun

Intellectual Ability and Job Satisfaction

-intelligence helps in performing a job well but doesn't make people happier or more satisfied w/ their jobs -those with high cognitive ability and who are high performers in the workplace might be victimized, bullied, and mistreated by their peers due to envy and social comparison

Stage III: Intentions

-intentions intervene b/w people's perceptions and emotions and their overt behavior -intentions are decision to act in a particular way -our intentions don't always line up with what we actually do -intentions are not always fixed -intentions might change during a conflict if a party is able to see the other's point of view or respond emotionally to the other's behavior -two dimensions: a. assertiveness: degree to which one party attempts to satisfy their own concerns ₀how important is it that I get what I want ₀can be effected by mood (tired, don't care) b. cooperativeness: degree to which one party attempts to satisfy the other party's concerns ₀how important is it that they get what they want -it's not just the existence of conflict or even the type of conflict that creates problems, rather the ways people respond to conflict and manage the process once conflicts arise -five conflict-handling intentions 1. competing -assertive and uncooperative ₀"I need to get my way" -when one person seeks to satisfy their own interest regardless of the impact on the other parties in the conflict -may use retribution -no time to mess around -we are more apt to compete when resources are scarce, when we have competition-prone personalities, when we are close to satisfying out own interest (ex: finish line is near) or when the culture or climate supports competition -associated with significantly worse group performance 2. collaborating -assertive and cooperative -parties intend to solve a problem by clarifying differences rather than by accommodating various pints of view -attempt to find win-win solution (allows both parties' goals to be completely achieved) = collaboration -more likely if party is seen as competent, rational, and open to collaborating -associated with superior group performance and team attitudes 3. avoiding -unassertive and uncooperative -they don't care about you, don't care about being with you (doesn't care enough to show up) -a person may recognize a conflict exists and want to withdraw from or suppress it -ex: typing to ignore a conflict and keep away from others with whom you disagree -associated with significantly worse group performance 4. accommodating -unassertive and cooperative -don't really care about what I want - I want you to get what you want -good if one person really knows that they want -a party who seeks to appease a negotiation partner may be willing to place the negotiation partner's interest above their own, sacrificing to maintain the relationship -supporting someone else's opinion despite your reservations about it = accommodating 5. compromising -"win/lose" negotiation (focused on tangible) -mid-range on both assertiveness and cooperativeness -there is no winner or loser -there is a willingness to ration the object of the conflict and accept a solution with incomplete satisfaction of both parties' concerns -each party intends to give up something

Choosing Negotiating Methods

-intraorganizational behavior: integrative negotiating preferable because it builds long-term relationships

Job Engagement

-investment of an employee's physical, cognitive, and emotional energies into job performance

Participative Management

-joint decision making (subordinates share a significant degree of decision-making power with their immediate superiors) -can be formal or informal sharing

Stereotyping

-judging someone based on our perception of the group to which that person belongs

Why OB Matters

-knowledge of OB & interpersonal skills = critical for success and advancement in modern workplace -communications revenant to nearly every job -also important: problem-solving & influence skills -OB can equip you with tools critical to success and advancement in workplace -pay attention to how OB can help you: 1. think analytically and critically 2. make better decisions 3. communicate and collaborate more effectively with others 4. act with a sense of social responsibility in the workplace ↑ = employability skills -incorporating OB principals can help transform a workplace from good to great (can also help with financial performance, employee retention, job satisfaction)

Romance of Leadership

-leadership is all about the follower -people like to attribute the success or fail of an org to its leadership = followers "contract" leadership by attributing qualities and outcomes to the leader

Attribution Theory of Leadership

-leadership is merely an attribution people make about other individuals -attribute to leaders: intelligence, outgoing personality, strong verbal skills, aggressiveness, understanding, industriousness -perception of leaders by their followers affect leaders' ability to be effective

Creating Learning Organization

-learning org: has developed the continuous capacity to adapt and change -people put aside their old ways of thinking, learn to be open with each other, understand how their org really works, form a plan or vision everyone agrees on, and work together to achieve that vision -five basic characteristics of a learning organization: 1. there exists a shared vision that everyone agrees on 2. people discard their old ways of thinking and the standard routines they use for solving problems or doing their jobs 3. members think of all org processes, activities, functions, and interactions with the environment as part of a system of interrelationships 4. people openly communicate with each other (across vertical and horizontal boundaries) without fear of critics or punishment 5. people sublimate their personal self-interest and fragmented departmental interests to work together to achieve the. org's shared vision -things managers can do to make their firms learning orgs: 1. establish a strategy -management needs to make explicit its commitment to change, innovation, and continuous improvement 2. redesign the org's structure -formal structure can be a serious impediment to learning -flattening the structure, eliminating or combining departments, and increasing the use of cross-functional teams reinforces interdependence and reduces boundaries 3. reshape the organization's culture -managers must demonstrate their actions that taking risks and admitting failures are desirable -have to reward people who take chances and make mistakes -management needs to encourage functional conflict

Intuition

-least rational way of making decisions = intuitive decision making -unconscious process created from distilled experience -occurs outside conscious thought; relies on holistic associations, or links b/w disparate pieces of information, is fast, and is affectively charged (engages the emotions) -intuition can be very useful way of setting up a hypothesis but is unacceptable as proof

Time of Day

-levels of positive affect tend to peak in the late morning (ten - noon) and remain at that level until early evening (7pm) -negative affect: most research suggest it fluctuates less than positive affect (general trend = increase over the course of a day = lowest in the early morning and highest late in the evening)

The Dark Triad

-machiavellianism, narcissism, psychopathy -socially undesirable traits -don't always occur together -can harm an orgs financial performance -true colors show the higher you get in an org

Sustainability

-maintaining practices over very long periods of time, because the tools or structures that support the practices are not damaged by the processes -to create a truly sustainable business = org must develop a long-term culture and put its values into practice through climate -there needs to be a sustainable system for creating sustainability

Neutralizers

-make it impossible for leader behavior to make any difference to follower outcomes (ex: indifference to rewards) -weaken or block leader influence

Diversity Management

-makes everyone more aware of and sensitive to the needs and differences of others -diversity programs include and are meant for everyone

Results: Performance Evaluation Methods

-management by objectives -feels good but might not get data you need 1. managers and employees define goals (goal setting) 2. employees evaluated on goal attainment -pros: ₀strong strategic congruence (goals coming down from top) ₀enlists employee in process ₀emphasizes action and results -cons: ₀prioritizes results over behavior (people start to skim it = candy line comedy video example) ₀can result in resource conflict (gets competitive)

Ethical Cultures

-managers can create more ethical culture by adhering to following principles: 1. be a visible role model 2. communicate ethical expectations 3. provide ethical training 4. visibly reward ethical acts and punish unethical ones 5. provide protective mechanisms

Conflict

-many definitions -most common idea: conflict is a perception of differences or opposition -defined broadly: process that begins when one party perceives another party has negatively affected or is about to negatively affect something the first party cares about -people experience wide range of conflicts in orgs over: incompatibility of goals, differences in interpretations of facts, disagreements over behavioral expectations, etc. -contemporary perspectives classify conflict based on its effects

Working w/ People from Different Cultures

-might not have the same motivations or communication styles -to work effectively w/ ppl from different cultures = understand how their culture and background have shaped them and how to adapt your management style to accommodate those differences -managers have to know the cultural norms of the workforce in each country where they do business

Influence

-most important consideration: person being influenced -it's not about you = it's about them ₀What do they value? ₀How do they currently view you? ₀What will be persuasive to them? ₀How can I use ethos, pathos, and logos simultaneously? ₀What's in it for them, and how do I tell them about the benefits in terms they will understand?

Types of Motivation

-most people need BOTH 1. extrinsic motivation -"money is the reason people work. therefore money is the way they are motivated" -if $ is the only thing = people will do the bare minimum (lack commitment) 2. intrinsic motivation -"people are more motivated by internal satisfaction. money is not a good long-term motivator"

OB Core Topics

-motivation -leader behavior and power -interpersonal communication -group structure and processes -attitude development and perception -change processes -conflict and negotiation -work design

Motivation

-motivation = doing things w/o being told to -levels can vary from moment-to-moment but also be a meaningful individual difference -the processes that account for an individual's intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal 1. intensity: how hard a person tries -unlikely to lead to favorable job performance outcomes unless the effort is channeled -need people to work hard 2. direction: channeling effort -we talk about in terms organizational benefit -go do what I want 3. persistence: measures how long a person can maintain effort -do this thing even when I'm not watching -summary: ₀need people to do what I want ₀need them to work hard at it ₀need them to continue over time

Is this a good selection method?

-must meet 6 tests (standards): 1. validity -correlation b/w score and performance 2. reliability -trust measurement? -why you get the same questions a lot 3. applicant reactions -will they do it? how will they feel about it? -reasonable for applicant 4. usability -feasible for company? 5. selection ratio -find sweet spot: have to get enough from it -differentiates: get the right # of people from the test -give proportions of the people that you want -Kelley: too large 6. legally defensible -equal opportunity

Norms and Behavior

-norms can cover any aspect of group behavior -norms in the workplace significantly influence employee behavior -group dynamics (rather than environment) influences behavior

Factors Contributing to Political Behavior

-not all groups/orgs are equally political -there are several factors that encourage political behavior (some individual, others are a result of the org's culture/internal environment) 1. individual factors -there are certain personality traits, needs, and other factors likely related to political behavior -traits: those who are high self-monitors, posses an internal locus of control, and have high need for power (nPow) are more likely to engage in political behavior -high self-monitor: more sensitive to social cues, exhibit higher levels of social conformity, more likely to be skilled in political behavior than low self-monitors -internal locus of control: more prone to take proactive stance and attempt to manipulate situations in their favor because they believe they can control their environment -nPow (high mach): use politics to further personal interests (will to manipulate and desire for power) -an individual's investment in org and perceived alternatives also influence the degree to which they will pursue illegitimate means of political action -if someone thinks they'll have increased future benefits from an org = more they have to lose if forced out and less likely to use illegitimate means -if someone has more alternate job opportunities (maybe due to favorable job market, possession of scarce skills/knowledge, prominent reputation or good contacts) = more likely to employ politics -some individuals engage in political behavior b/c they are just better at it (read interpersonal interactions well, fit their behavior to situational needs, and excel at networking) -people who are good = indirectly rewarded for their political efforts -higher levels of political skill associated w/ higher levels of perceived job performance 2. organizational factors -evidence more strongly suggests that certain situations and cultures promote politics -specifically when: org's resources declining, existing pattern of resources is changing, when there is opportunity for promotions, politicking is more likely to surface -resources reduced: people may engage in political actions to safeguard what they have -changes implying a significant reallocation of resources within the org = likely to stimulate conflict and increase politicking -cultures w/ low trust, role ambiguity (political activities not required as part of formal role = more role ambiguity means employees can engage in unnoticed political activity), unclear performance eval systems, win-lose reward allocation practices (zero-sum approach), democratic decision making, high pressure for performance, and self-serving senior managers = breed ground for politicking -zero-sum approach: treats reward pie as "fixed" (any gain one person/group achieves = comes at expense of another person or group) -zero-sum encourages making others look bad and increasing the visibility of what you do

Managers v. Leaders

-not all leaders are managers and not all managers are leaders

Illusory Correlation

-occurs when we associate two events that, in reality, have no connection, explains why people tend to think weather influences them

Keeping Culture Alive

-once a culture is in place, practices within the org maintain it by giving employees similar experiences 1. selection -explicit goal of selection process: identify and hire individuals with the knowledge, skills, and abilities to perform successfully -selection process also provides information to applicants 2. top management -actions of top management have major impact on org culture -through words and behavior: senior execs establish norms that filter through the org about (for ex) whether risk taking is desirable, how much freedom managers give employees, the uniforms employees should wear, and what behavior is desired and rewarded -org culture and leadership can be complementary (not always best if they focus on the same values) ₀one can fill in where the other fails 3. socialization -can help alleviate the problem many employees report when their jobs are different than they expected -socialization process: 1. prearrival stage -recognizes that everyone arrives with a set of values, attitudes, and expectations about both the work and the org -how accurately people judge an org's culture before they join the org, and how positive, adaptive, and proactive their personalities are, become critical predictors of how well they adjust 2. encounter stage -upon entry to org -when new employees confront the possibility that expectations - about the job, coworkers, boss, and org in general - may differ from reality -if expectations were accurate, this stage merely cements earlier perceptions -one the other end: new members may become disillusioned enough to resign (reduce this through proper recruiting and selection) 3. metamorphosis stage -work out any problems discovered during encounter stage -alternatives to bring out metamorphosis a. formal v. informal ₀formal: new employee is segregated from ongoing work setting and differentiated in some way to make explicit the newcomer's role (ex: specific orientation and training programs) ₀informal: puts new employee directly into the job - with little or no special attention b. individual v. collective ₀new members can be socialized individually (done in many professional offices) ₀new members can also be grouped together and processed through an identical set of experiences (boot camp) c. fixed v. variable ₀refers to time schedule in which newcomers make transition from outsider to insider ₀fixed: established standardized stages of transition (rotational training programs) ₀variable: give no advance notice of their transition timetable (promotion system) d. serial v. random ₀serial: use role models who train and encourage newcomers (apprenticeship and mentoring programs) ₀random: role models are deliberately withheld (new employees left on their own to figure things out) e. investiture v. divestiture ₀investiture: assumes that the newcomer's qualities and qualifications are the necessary ingredients for job success (qualities and qualifications are confirmed and supported) ₀divestiture: tries to strip away certain characteristics of the recruit (frat pledges go through divestiture to shape them into the proper role)

Attracting and Selecting Diverse Employees

-one method: target recruitment messages to specific demographic groups that are underrepresented in the workforce ₀women and minorities have ↑ interest in employers that make special efforts to highlight a commitment to diversity in their recruiting materials -selection process is one of the most important places to apply diversity efforts

Workforce Diversity

-one of the most important challenges for orgs is managing increasing workforce diversity -trend by which orgs are becoming more heterogenous in terms of employees' gender, age, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and others -presents great opportunities and poses challenging questions for managers and employees

Cognitive Component

-opinion or belief about the attitude target -ex: "my pay is low" -research: most important for predicting who will become committed to the org (newcomers onboarding) or uncommitted (unattached folk)

Culture Creates Climate

-org climate = shared perceptions of org members have about their org's policies, procedures, and practices -culture and climate are two crucial building blocks for org description -culture directly links what the org values and believes with explicit practices, policies, and procedures (what we believe and value = mission statement) to what employees perceive is actually supported, rewarded, and practiced

Organizational Culture Framework 2

-organizational culture inventory 1. constructive cultures -value affiliation, encouragement, and achievement 2. passive-defensive cultures -avoid accountability, seek validation and approval from others, conventional 3. aggressive-defensive cultures -competitive, perfectionist, power-oriented

Organizational Culture Framework 3

-organizational culture profile (OCP) -draws upon a novel survey method in which employees sort a set of values based on how closely they represent their org -eight dimensions: 1. innovation 2. attention to detail 3. decisiveness 4. team orientation 5. outcome orientation 6. aggressiveness 7. supportiveness 8. reward emphasis

Self-Confidence Theory

-outgrowth of self-determination theory -considers how strongly people's reasons for pursing goals are consistent with their interests and core values

Variable-Pay Program

-pay-for-performance -school teachers -bases a portion of an employee's pay on some individual and/or org measure of performance (may be all or part of the pay check or might be paid annually or upon attainment of benchmarks)

Merit-Based Pay Plan

-pays for individual performance based on performance appraisal ratings -lets individuals perceive a strong relationship b/w their performance and their rewards

Person-Organization Fit

-people are attracted to and selected by orgs that match their values, and they leave orgs that aren't compatible with their personalities -ex: extraverts fit well with aggressive & team-oriented cultures -following these guidelines = have employees who fit better w/ organization's culture = ↑ employee satisfaction and ↓ turnover -also look at whether people's values match the orgs culture → match of these things predicts job satisfaction, commitment to the org, and low turnover -people tend to care more about how well an org values would be preferred by the typical person, rather than one's own idiosyncratic preferences for values in an organization -orgs must have a user-friendly website that provides info about company philosophies and policies

Culture and Race in Negotiations

-people from different cultures negotiate differently ₀people tend to negotiate more effectively within cultures rather than between them ₀successful cross-cultural negotiations: 1. important for negotiators must be high in openness (helps avoid factors such as time pressure that inhibit learning about the other party) 2. emotions are culturally sensitive = negotiators need to be especially aware of the emotional dynamics in cross-cultural negotiation -race in negotiations = Black job seekers in America: 1. expected to negotiate less than white job seekers 2. penalized in negations when they do try to negotiate 3. penalized more heavily when negotiator is racially biased

Social Identity

-people often feel strongly about their groups b/c shared experiences amplify our perception of events & can increase sense of a bond and trust toward others

Threat of Technological Employment

-people worrying about AI taking over their jobs

Impression Management

-people's efforts to control the impressions that others receive of them

Overconfidence Bias

-people's subjective confidence in their decision making is greater than their objective accuracy -overconfidence has a relationship w/ leadership emergence = people more likely to select the overconfident as leaders as they tend to ease their sense of ambiguity and overconfidence fits the perceiver's understanding of what it means to be a leader

Stage II: Cognition and Personalization

-perceived conflict -felt conflict -if conditions in stage I negatively affect something one party cares about = potential for opposition or incompatibility becomes actualized in stage II -just because a disagreement is a perceived conflict = honest mean it's personalized -at the felt conflict level: when individuals become emotionally involved = experience anxiety, tension, frustration or hostility -by making sense of preceding events = employees perceive conflict (ex: label it as an offense) and then recognize that the other party violated norms or did something wrong -in process of naming and blaming = employees naturally feel the negative emotions surrounding conflict -stage II important b/c it's where conflict issues tend to be defined (where parties decide what conflict is abt) -ex: employee irate about traffic: may cause others in office to perceive that something is up = conflict is not "felt" until a bad interaction with this employee happens -emotions play major role in shaping perceptions ₀negative emotions lead us to oversimplify issues, lose trust, and put negative interpretations on the other party's behavior [natural and perhaps inevitable = before conflict escalates, taking time to reflect and reappraise how you're feeling may help you approach the conflict more constructively (but don't ruminate)] ₀positive feelings increase our tendency to se potential relationships among elements of a problem, take a broader view of the situation, and develop innovative solutions ₀state of mindfulness might be a good emotional state to aspire toward, given that it facilitates constructive conflict management

Distributive Justice

-perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals -looks at what outcomes are allocated

Informational Justice

-perceived fairness of the communications provided to employees from authorities

Procedural Justice

-perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards -looks at how outcomes are allocated

Interpersonal Justice

-perceived fairness of the treatment received by employees from authorities

Organizational Constraints

-performance evaluation, reward systems, formal regulations, system-imposed time constraints, historical precedents

Narcissism

-person who has a grandiose sense of self-importance, requires excessive admiration, is arrogant -have fantasies of grand success, tendency to exploit situations and people, have a sense of entitlement and a lack of empathy -can be hypersensitive and fragile people -one of the largest predictors of ↑ CWB in individualistic cultures (not collectivist ones) -may be more charismatic, found in business more than other fields, more likely chosen for leadership positions -more adaptable and make better business decisions than others when issues are complex -person with grandiose view of self, requires excessive admiration, has sense of self-entitlement, arrogant -aggressive → gaslighting -feel the need to care about them -dark side: ₀aggressive after negative feedback, criticizes source of feed back ₀gets angry when others don't reciprocate positive views of narcissist ₀envious of others success - may try to undermine 'competitors' ₀doesn't share credit w/ others and finds scapegoat if things go poorly -positive side: ₀can lead to high org creativity, often has strong vision formation, can be charming and charismatic

Emotional Intelligence

-persons ability to: 1. perceive emotions in oneself and others 2. understand the meaning of these emotions 3. regulate his or her own emotions accordingly -EI plays an important role in predicting job attitudes and facilitating academic and job performance

Employee Recognition Program

-plan to encourage specific behaviors by formally appreciating specific employee contributions

Person-Supervisor Fit

-poor fit in this dimension can lead to ↓ job satisfaction and ↓ performance

Positive Norms and Group Outcomes

-positive group norms may lead to positive outcomes (only if other factors are present too) -ex: one goal of every org with CSR initiatives is for its values to hold normative sway over employees ₀if employees aligned their thinking with positive norms = norms would become strong and probability of positive impact would grow exponentially ₀more satisfied employees = more likely to adopt CSR norms

Positive and Negative Affect

-positive: mood dimension consisting of + emotions like excitement, enthusiasm and elation -negative: mood dimension consisting of nervousness, stress, anxiety

Formal Power

-positon power -based on an individual's position in an organization -can come from the ability to coerce or reward, or from legitimate authority 1. coercive power -depends on target's fear of negative results from failing to comply, or acting in a way that would anger the power holder -ex: sales people staying silent after watching supervisors falsify team's sales numbers for fear of being fired or demoted, assigned to undesirable places, being treated embarrassingly in front of the team -this power also comes from withholding key info: people in an org who have data or knowledge others need can make others dependent on them -ex: sales team lead has valuable info on client leads = anything that might threaten obtaining info may lead employee to stay silent 2. reward power -opposite of coercive -people comply because it provides positive benefits -someone who can distribute rewards that others see as valuable = has power -rewards can be financial or not (recognition, promotions, interesting assignments, good work shifts) 3. legitimate power -most common way to access one or more power bases -the formal authority to control and use org resources based on a person's structural position in the org -includes members' acceptance of the authority of a hierarchical position -can also reduce the effect of others' power -ex: when an employee stands up to something unethical = less likely to suffer consequences of others' coercive power when they themselves are high in legit power -sources of position power: 1. centrality -establishing a network of task and interpersonal relationships -how many people you know, how many people can you interact with -number of people with potential to influence 2. criticality -importance of your work to others -how important is your work to me? 3. flexibility -freedom to exercise your own judgement -ability to break rules (go beyond scope) = are you a decision maker? 4. visibility -interacting with influential people in the org, being widely known for your work -random -familiar name: we feel like there's a reason if we see/hear someone's name a lot 5. relevance -working on the central objectives and issues in an org -am I working on something important to org? (like a revenue or cost center --> something strategic)

Positives of Power

-power can cause others to view you more positively -power energizes and increases motivation to achieve goals -power can enhance our motivation to help others (desire to help others may translate into work behavior when people feel a sense of power)

Instrumental Values

-preferable modes of behavior, or means of achieving the terminal values

Cultural Preferences for Influence Tactics

-preference for influence tactics varies across cultures -individualistic countries: tend to see power in personalized terms and as a legitimate means fo advancing personal ends -collectivist countries: see power in social terms and as a legitimate means of helping others -US: managers prefer rational appeal, direct confrontation w/ rational persuasion to influence others and resolve differences -China: managers prefer coalition tactics used to meeting difficult or controversial requests w/ indirect approaches

Facilitating Change

-proactive approach: how orgs can embrace change by transforming their cultures (instead of adapting to change) -three approaches to embracing change: 1. managing paradox 2. stimulating innovation 3. creating a learning organization

Perception

-process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events -the process by which we organize and interpret sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment -what we perceive can be substantially different from objective reality -important because: people's behavior and decisions are based on their perception of what reality is, not on reality itself -our perception becomes the reality from which we act -ex: 6 blind men & elephant -making sense of the environment so we can respond to it: we prioritize our own vantage point

The Big Five Model

-proposes that five basic dimension encompass most of the differences in human personality -scores do a good job of predicting how people behave in a variety of real-life situations and remain relatively stable for an individual over time -five factor model (FFM) -scores respondents along a continuum -explain up to 75% of personality (50% of personality related to behaviors) ₀conscientiousness and emotional stability predict performance across most occupations ₀predicts behaviors b/c of effect on attitudes & motivation

Contingency Theories

-predicting leadership success is more complex that leading a group out of crisis 1. Fiedler Model -Fred Fiedler developed first comprehensive contingency model for leadership -proposes that group performance depends on the proper match between the leader's style and degree to which the situation gives the leader control -assumption: individual's leadership style is permanent -first step: least preferred coworker (LPC) questionnaire identifies whether a person is task or relationship oriented by asking respondents to think of all the coworkers they've had and describe the one they least enjoyed working with ₀if describe in favorable terms (high LPC) = relationship oriented ₀if describe in unfavorable terms (low LPC) = primarily interested in productivity (task oriented) -after find score = assess situation in terms of three contingency or situational dimensions: 1. leader-member relations: degree of confidence, trust, and respect members have in their leader 2. task structure: degree to which job assignments follow a specific procedure ₀structure or unstructured 3. position power: degree of influence a leader has over power variables such as hiring, firing, discipline, promotions, and salary increases -higher task structure: more procedures added -stronger position power: more control leader has 2. Situational Leadership Theory -SLT -suggests that successful leadership depends on selecting the right leadership style contingent on the followers' readiness (extent to which followers are willing and able to accomplish a specific task) -leader should choose one of four behaviors depending on follower readiness 1. followers unable and unwilling to do a task ₀leader must give clear and specific directions 2. followers unable but willing to do a task ₀leader must display a high task compensate for followers' lack of ability and have high relationship orientation to get them to "buy into" the leader's desires 3. followers able but unwilling to do a task ₀leader must use a supportive and participative style 4. followers able and willing to do a task ₀leader doesn't need to do much -SLT has intuitive appeal (acknowledges the importance of followers and builds on logic that leaders can compensate for followers' limited ability and motivation -internal ambiguities and inconsistencies in model + problems with research methodology 3. Path-Goal Theory -combines elements of initiating structure and consideration with the expectancy theory of motivation -suggests that it's the leader's job to provide followers with information, support, or other resources necessary to achieve goals -term path-goal implies that effective leaders clarify followers' paths to their work goals and make journey easier by reducing roadblocks -makes following predictions: 1. directive leadership yields greater employee satisfaction when tasks are ambiguous or stressful than when they are highly structured and well laid out 2. supportive leadership results in high employee perfjoamcne and satisfaction when employees are performing structured tasks 3. directive leadership is likely to be perceived as redundant among employees with high ability/considerable experience -has intuitive appeal (like SLT): especially from goal attainment perspective ₀can be only cautiously adopted for application but is useful framework in examining the important role of leadership 4. Leader-Participation Model -argues that the way the leader makes decisions is as important as what is decided -relates leadership behavior to subordinate participation in decision making -suggests that leader behavior must adjust to reflect the task structure (such as routine, non routine, or in between) -doesn't cover all leadership behaviors and is limited to recommending what types of decisions might be best made with subordinate participation -lays groundwork for situation and leadership behaviors most likely to elicit acceptance from subordinates

Team Processes

-process variables and teams states: member commitment to a common plan and purpose, specific team goals, team efficacy, team identity, team cohesion, mental models, conflict, cohesion, social loafing and trust -^ characteristics tend to predict team performance -team member attitudes especially important in larger teams and in teams that are highly interdependent -effects of group processes in pic 1. common plan and purpose -effective teams: analyze team's mission, develop goals to achieve mission + create strategies for achieving goals -teams consistently perform better when have clear sense of what needs to be done and how -reflexivity: reflecting on and adjusting purpose when necessary (effective teams show this) ₀can help improve psychological well-being in manufacturing teams ₀help startup teams learn from setbacks ₀improve performance in extreme environments (ERs) ₀teams high in reflexivity are also better able to adapt to conflicting plans and goals among team members 2. motivation -successful teams translate their common purpose into specific, measurable, and difficult (but realistic) performance goals that align with team objectives -ex: goals for quantity tend to increase quantity -setting goals intended to improve team member performance = undermines group performance (individual goals should be linked to goals of group) -motivational factors beyond goals matter -teams geared toward achievement tend to perform better over time 3. team efficacy -effective teams have confidence in themselves; they believe they can succeed (team efficacy) -teams that have been successful raise their beliefs about future success (motivates them to work harder) -team efficacy is strongly predictive to team performance, especially when team members are dependent upon one another to contribute to team goals -increasing team efficacy: provide training to improve members' technical and interpersonal skills (help team achieve small successes that build confidence) 4. team identity -by recognizing individuals' specific skills and abilities, as well as creating a climate of respect and inclusion, leaders and members can foster positive team identity and realize improved team outcomes -organizational identity also important (individuals with a positive team identity but without a positive organizational identity can become fixed to their teams and unwilling to coordinate with other teams within organization) -team identity serves an instrumental role in affecting team performance, attitudes, and cooperation (more organizational identification tends to lead to more positive team identification, which is beneficial for team outcomes) 5. team cohesion -members are emotionally attached and bonded to one another and committed toward the team -cohesive teams tend to perform better than non-cohesive teams -better performing teams can become more cohesive as a result of their successes -increasing team cohesion: shared leadership responsibilities, open information sharing among team members, interdependence among team members -effects of team cohesion can even last after the team has disbanded (particularly cohesive teams may develop friendships and networks that they draw on for the rest of their lives) 6. mental models -organized mental representations of the key elements within a team's environment (team mission and goals pertain to what a team needs to be effective, mental modes pertain to how a team does its work) -effective teams: members share accurate mental models -teams with shared mental models: engage in more frequent interactions with each other, are more motivated, have more positive attitudes towards their work, have higher levels of objectively rated performance -team members have different ideas about how to do things = team fights over methods rather than focus on what needs to be done -teams should also develop transitive memory systems = shared model of information relevant to the team ₀ex: types of teams enable team members to know "who knows what and is best at what" = most skilled members are assigned tasks they are best suited for and the most knowledgeable are consulted for advice on issues they are experts in ₀important for performance (especially in collectivist and high power distance cultures and in particularly volatile environments - times of crisis) -ex of team with shared mental models = anesthetic team in hospital 7. team conflict -conflict has complex relationship w/ team performance (not necessarily bad) -relationship conflicts: almost always dysfunctional (those based on interpersonal incompatibility, tension, and animosity toward others) -task conflicts: can lead to better team decisions (teams performing non routine activities, disagreements about task content) ₀these conflicts can stimulate discussion, promote critical assessment of problems and options ₀moderate levels of task conflict during initial phases of team performance = positively related to team creativity but both very low and very high levels of task conflict = negatively related to team performance ₀TL:DR = both too much and too little disagreement about how a team should initially perform a creative task can inhibit performance 8. social loafing -effective teams undermine social loafing tendency by making members individually and jointly accountable for the team's purpose, goals, and approach (members should be clear on what they are individually and jointly responsible for on the team) 9. team trust -trust in teams entail a mutual, positive state of positive expectations b/w team members -when you trust a team member, you believe in their reliability and dependability and are genuinely concerned for their welfare (and vice versa) -trust can be both broken and repaired -team trust has sizable effect on team performance (especially in virtual teams) -team trust evolves over time as members share with one another, put effort into the team, and monitor one another's performance

Situation Strength Theory

-proposes that the way personality translates into behavior depends on the strength of the situation -situation strength = degree to which norms, cues, or standards dictate appropriate behavior 1. clarity 2. consistency 3. constraints 4. consequences

Stress

-psychological process in which an individual is confronted with an opportunity, demand, or resource related to what the individual desires and for which the outcome is perceived to be both uncertain and important (stressors) -process in which we are exposed to stressors that cause us to experience strain -usually negatively associated -can also serve positive purposes: supplying one with a boost to cope with stressful situations or enhancing the quality of your work when you are up against a challenge

Trust

-psychological state of mutual positive expectations between people-both depend on each other and are genuinely concerned for each other's welfare -trust can be focused on competence or integrity ₀integrity-based trust = more effective at reducing costs associated with building new relationships -trust is primary attribute associated with leadership -breaking trust = adverse effect on group performance -followers who trust leader = confident their rights and interests won't be abused -leader who trust followers = confident that they will follow through and complete their duties effectively -advantages of trust: 1. trust encourages taking risk 2. trust facilitates information sharing 3. trusting groups are more effective 4. trust enhances productivity -pic: 1. integrity -honesty and truthfulness 2. benevolence -the trusted person has your interest at heart (even if interests to align) 3. ability -an individual's technical and interpersonal knowledge and skills 4. propensity to trust -how likely an employee is to trust a leader -people more likely to believe others can be trust -closely linked to agreeableness -people with low self esteem = less likely to trust others

Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ)

-questionnaire designed to determine what a successful leader does, regardless of the type of group being led 1. initiation of structure -assigns group members to specific tasks -schedules and coordinates the work -encourages use of uniform procedures -emphasizes deadlines -maintains standards of performance -criticizes poor performance -generates new ideas and methods -lets group members know what's expected of them -firm regarding their leader role and authority 2. consideration -treats group members as equals -is friendly and approachable -looks out for the personal welfare of group members -does personal favors for group members -explains actions -finds time to listen to group members -consults with group members before acting -puts suggestions made by the group into action

Workplace Spirituality

-recognition that people have an inner life that nourishes and is nourished by meaningful work that takes place in the context of community

Representative Participation

-redistributes power within an org -put labor's interests on a more equal footing w/ interests of management and stockholder including a small group of employees as participants in decision making

Job Characteristics

-relationship b/w presence of job characteristics and higher job satisfaction and organizational commitment through increase motivation -relationship hasn't changed since 70's -link b/w job characteristics and satisfaction are highest when employees tend to regularly experience positive moods

Values

-represent relatively stable and enduring, basic convictions that a "specific mode or conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence"

How the Big Five Traits Influence OB

-score high on conscientiousness = develop higher levels of job knowledge (learn more), higher levels of job performance and OCB, less likely to engage in counterproductive work behaviors

Selection

-selection seeks correlation b/w: 1. predictive data ₀results from selection measures 2. criterion data ₀employee performance measurement -best = .6 correlation

Confirmation Bias

-selective perception -seeking out information that supports our stereotypes while ignoring information that is inconsistent with our stereotypes -may be especially troublesome for entrepreneurs and startups (given the consequences of making faulty decisions in new ventures and failing to learn quickly)

Changing the Nature of Attitude

-several characteristics change the nature of attitudes: 1. importance of attitude ₀important attitudes reflect our fundamental values, self-interest, or identification w/ individuals or groups we value ₀these attitudes show strong relationships to behavior 2. Correspondence to behavior 3. accessibility of behavior 4. presence of social pressures ₀discrepancies b/w attitudes and behaviors tend to occur when social pressures behave in certain ways hold exceptional power 5. whether someone has direct experience with the attitude ₀one is more likely to remember attitudes you frequently express, and attitude that our memories can easily access are more likely to predict our behavior ₀attitude-behavior relationship more likely to be stronger if an attitude refers to something we have direct personal experience w/

Potency

-shared brief of group members that the team can meet goals -indicator of team performance -"I believe that we will win" -teams that have high potency = perform better

Ethical Culture

-shared concept of right and wrong behavior in the workplace that reflects the true values of the organization and shapes the ethical decision-making of its members

Relational Job Design

-shifts spotlight from the employee to those whose lives are affected by the job that the employee performs -motivates individuals toward ↑ job performance and job satisfaction (especially when coupled w/ autonomy)

Meeting Agenda

-should include: 1. start and end time (try to get people out before listed end time) 2. meeting date 3. meeting place 4. consent agenda (consent/vote all at once) for routine things (minutes, budget balance, etc.) 5. top of agenda: put mission/vision (keep it in front of the team) 6. opening -inform participants about overall purpose of meeting -excite them about process by giving clear vision of overall results -empower them by discussing important role they play in process, why they're here and that they have authority to make decisions as a team -involve them as early as possible by identifying personal objectives 7. important decisions should be at top of agenda 8. note what things are discussions or decisions 9. go through different topics (control the talk and cross town busses) 10. take notes (minutes) -what to include: ₀decisions made ₀assignments, time assignment due, who's responsible ₀next meeting date (determine before leaving) ₀review before you leave (individual assignments) ₀evaluate the meeting (things to do better?) ₀thank everyone for attending and being a part

Imposter Syndrome Remedies

-shouldn't be perfect 1. Recalibrate your standards 2. Collect proof of your success 3. Celebrate accomplishments 4. "Fail Faster" 5. Talk about it 6. Look for and provide support

Bonus

-significant component of total compensation for many jobs -used to be reserved for upper management = now routinely offered to employees in all levels of orgs

Sleep

-sleep quality affects moods and decision making & ↑ fatigue puts workers at risk of disease, injury, and depression -increased regular sleep can reduce the negative effects of fatigue and stress on employees

Creativity

-sometimes a decision maker also needs creativity -ability to produce novel and useful ideas -novel = different from what has been done before but are appropriate for the problem -allows the decision maker to appraise and understand problems fully (seeing what others can't) -creative behavior occurs in 4 steps: 1. problem formulation -any act of creativity begins with a problem that the behavior is designed to solve -stage in which we identify a problem or opportunity that requires a solution that is unknown 2. information gathering -solutions are rarely clear at the outset -need time to learn and process -stage when knowledge is sought and possible solutions incubate 3. idea generation -process in which we develop possible solutions to a problem from relevant info and knowledge -curiosity = key driver of idea generation (when you're curious = more likely to link earlier ideas or earlier solutions to help solve the current problem) 4. idea evaluation -process in which we evaluate potential solutions to problems and identify the best one

Affective Component

-stage set for this more important part by cognitive -affect is the emotional feeling segment of attitude -ex: "I am angry over how little I am paid" -affect can lead to behavioral outcomes

How Culture Begins

-stems from the actions of the founders: 1. hiring -founders hire and keep only employees who think and feel the same way they do 2. socialization -socialize employees to their way of thinking & feeling 3. role model -behavior of the founder(s) encourages employees to identify with them and internalize their beliefs, values, and assumptions

Gender in Negotiations

-stereotype: women are more cooperative and pleasant in negotiations than men = as a result, obtain worse outcomes -women tend to be more effective negotiators in collectivist cultures with high harmony and low assertiveness norms -women tend to behave in slightly less assertive, less self-interested, and more cooperative manner (differences reduced when there are restrictions on communication) -women can actually be more competitive than men when the other negotiator engages a "tit-for-tat" strategy -women are less likely to initiate negotiations than men -study at Carnegie Melon: male students took the step of negotiating their first salary 57% of the time (4% for female students = $4,000 difference in starting salaries)

Enhance Leadership

-strengthen leader influence

Stress

-stressful events at work negatively affect moods -effects of stress build over time -stress takes a toll on our mood

Functions of Culture

-strong culture ensures employees will act in a relatively uniform and predictable way -culture defines the "rules of the game" 1. boundary defining role -creates distinction b/w orgs 2. conveys sense of identity for org members 3. facilitates commitment to something larger than individual self-interest 4. enhances stability of the social system -the social glue that helps hold the org together by providing standards for what employees should say and do 5. sense-making and control mechanism that guides and shapes employees' attitudes and behavior -most interesting to OB

Strong v. Weak Cultures

-strong: most employees have the same opinions about the org's mission and values ₀org's core values are both intensely held and widely shared ₀more members who accept core values and greater their commitment = strong the culture and greater influence on member behavior ₀people forge strong cultures ₀should reduce employee turnover because it demonstrates high agreement about what the org represents ₀builds cohesiveness, loyalty, and org commitment (lessen employees' propensity to leave) -weak: opinions vary widely

Anthropology

-study of societies in order to learn about human beings and their activities -work on cultures and environments has helped as understand differences in fundamental values, attitudes, and behavior among people in different countries and within different organizations

Job Design

-suggests that the way elements in a job are organized can influence employee effort, and the model discussed next can serve as a framework to identify opportunities for changes to those elements

Organizational Culture

-system of shared meaning held by members that distinguishes the org from other orgs -shows how employees perceive the essence of an org, not whether they like them (it's a descriptive term) -job satisfaction is an evaluative term: seeks to measure how employees feel about the org's expectation, reward practices, and the like -system of shared meaning includes values, beliefs, material symbols, and assumptions that characterize the org -^ when put into practice: 1. filter what employees pay attention to 2. physically manifested as material symbols (uniforms, statues) and stories 3. form the foundation for shared meaning amongst members of an org -org cultures are difficult to define and characterize

Intuition

-systematic study & EBM add to intuition (gut feelings) -have to know when to go with your gut

Four Types of Teams

-teams can make products, provide services, negotiate deals, coordinate projects, offer advice, and make decisions 1. Problem-solving -ex: quality-control teams -been in use for many years -only make recommendations -org seen in manufacturing plants (permanent teams that generally met at a regular time to address quality standards and any problems with the products made) -these teams rarely have the authority to unilaterally implement their suggestions (but if recommendations are paired w/ implementation processes = some significant improvements can be realized) 2. Self-managed -teams that also implement solutions and take responsibility for outcomes -groups of employees (usually ten to fifteen) who perform highly related or interdependent jobs -take on some supervisory responsibilities -^ responsibilities = planning and scheduling work, assigning tasks to members, making operating decisions, acting on problems, and working with suppliers and customers -fully self-managed teams even select their own members who evaluate each other's performance -once established = former supervisory roles become less important and are sometimes eliminated -b/c of lack of authority and accountability = teams may spend valuable time and resources aligning team member values and goals to "get on the same page" -effectiveness often contingent on degree to which team-promoting behaviors are rewarded (ex: team members that perceive that economic rewards such as pay = dependent on input from their teammates, performance improves for both individuals and the team) -in regards to conflict: not as effective when there s conflict (dispute arises = members often stop cooperating and power struggles ensue = lower group performance) but...conflict can also be beneficial and boost team performance (members feel they can speak up w/o being embarrassed, rejected, or punished by other team members) -in regards to behavior: sometimes have higher levels of job satisfaction but also haver higher absenteeism and turnover (also, no evidence that self-managed teams performed better than traditional teams with less decision-making authority) 3. Cross-functional -teams made up of employees from about the same hierarchical level but from different work areas -come together to accomplish a task -ex: employees from IT and security ops work together to meet cyber security objectives (while also consolidating their toolsets, breaking down silos, and formalize + automate collaboration) -effective means of allowing people from diverse areas within or b/w orgs to exchange information, develop new ideas, solve problems, and coordinate complex projects -downside: not simple to form and manage (b/c of high need for coordination) - why: a. create leadership ambiguity = different expertise needed b/c members are at roughly the same level in org -climate of trust must be developed before leadership shifts can happen without undue conflict b. early stages are often long b/c members need to learn to work with higher levels of diversity and complexity c. takes time to build trust and teamwork (especially w/ people who have diff experiences and perspectives) 4. Virtual -all the other teams ^^^ work face-to-face -virtual teams use tech to unite physically dispersed members to achieve a common goal -members collaborate online using comm links such as WANs, corporate social media, video conferencing, email -(obviously) should be managed differently than face-to-face teams - why: a. virtual team members may not interact in the same ways -ex: diff from in-person in the ways they convey social cues and foster a sense of distance b/w people b. may share more unique information with one another (managers should be aware they may be less open to sharing information with one another) -for virtual teams to be effective = trust is VITAL -management should ensure: a. trust is established among members -even one inflammatory remark in an e-mail can undermine team trust) b. progress is monitored closely -so team doesn't lose sight of its goals and no team member "disappears" c. efforts and products of team are publicized throughout the org (so team doesn't become invisible)

Availability Bias

-tendency for people to base their judgments on information that is readily available to them -explains why managers give more weight in performance appraisals to recent employee behaviors than to behaviors of six to nine months later

Randomness Error

-tendency of individuals to believe that they can predict the outcome of random events

Hindsight Bias

-tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

Anchoring Bias

-tendency to fixate on initial information, from which one then fails to adequately adjust for subsequent information -mind disproportionally emphasize the first information it receives -anchors are widely used by people in professions in which persuasion skills are important (advertising, management, politics, real estate, and law) -anchoring in negotiation: ₀person who makes first offer sets the tone ₀becomes less useful over time

Risk Aversion

-tendency to prefer a sure gain of a moderate amount over a riskier outcome, even if the riskier outcome might have a higher expected payoff

Stage I: Potential Opposition or Incompatibility

-the appearance of conditions (causes or sources) that create opportunities for it to arise -these conditions need not lead directly to conflict (but one of them is necessary for conflict to surface) -the general categories of conditions: 1. communication -can be a source of conflict in group interactions and dyadic exchanges -opposition forces that arise from semantic difficulties, misunderstandings, and "noise" in the communication channel ₀forces (along w/ jargon and insufficient information) can be barriers to communication and potential antecedent conditions to conflict -even the way communication is framed can have an affect (ex: framing task conflict as a debate increases receptivity to others' opinions) -potential for conflict: found to increase with too little or too much communication -communication fundamental up to a point (after = can over communicate which increases potential for conflict) 2. structure -includes variables such as size of group, degree of specialization in tasks assigned to group members, role clarity, member-goal compatibility, leadership styles, reward systems, and degree of dependence b/w groups or group members -larger groups w/ more specialized activities = have greater likelihood of intragroup conflict -tenure and conflict = inversely related ₀the longer a person stays with an org = less likely for intragroup conflict to occur ₀potential for intragroup conflict is greatest when group members are newer to org and when turnover is high -intergroup conflict can self-perpetuate, actually imbuing meaning and identity to the groups experiencing conflict (OSU v. UMich rivalry) 3. personal variables -personality, emotions, and values -personality traits: disagreeableness, neuroticism, self-monitoring = prone to spar with other people more often & react poorly when conflicts occur) -emotions can cause conflict even when they're not directed at others ₀ex: irate employee shows up to work from a bad morning commute may carry their anger into the workday = leads to tension-filled meeting -emotions that are incompatible = can also lead to conflict ₀ex: supervisor more optimistic than you about your work = you're more likely to experience more conflict, become less engaged, and perform poorly -differences in preferences and values can generate increased levels of conflict ₀ex: when group members don't agree about their desired achievement levels = more task conflict ₀ex: when group members don't agree about desired interpersonal closeness levels = more task conflict ₀ex: when group members don't have similar desires for power = more conflict over status -when people differ with regard to their beliefs about conflict (and strategies of managing conflict) = these beliefs shape the types of conflict they perceive and how they react

Stereotype Threat

-the degree to which we are concerned with being judged by or treated negatively based on a certain stereotype -based on whether someone will be judged for a stereotype (that might not be true) -can occur during preemployment rests and assessments, performance evals, everyday workday exchanges

Organizational Identification

-the extent to which employees define themselves by the same characteristics that define one's organization -this forms a basis for which attitudes and behaviors are engendered -organizational identification strongly predicts job attitude formation across all types

The General Dependence Postulate

-the greater B's dependence on A, the more power A has over B -if something is plentiful - possessing it doesn't increase power -more you expand your own options = less power you place in hands of others (explains why orgs develop multiple suppliers rather than give their business to one)

Managing Paradox

-the key paradox in management is that there is no final optimal status for an org -in paradox situation: required to balance tensions across various courses of action = caused by resource scarcity -constant process of finding balancing point (dynamic equilibrium) among shifting priorities over time -environment and members of the org change, different elements take on importance -ex: sometimes company needs to acknowledge past success and learn how it worked but other times looking backwards hinders progress -managers who think holistically and recognize the importance of balancing paradoxical factors are more effective (especially in generating adaptive and creative behaviors in those they are managing) ₀but: leaders who adopt paradoxical approaches may fall into trap of escalation commitment (b/c may be more optimistic that the current state of affairs will swing toward a more desirable one)

Dependence

-the more people rely on/depend upon powerful people (who controls something the others rely on/want) = the more powerful that person becomes -when people have more options/alternatives = rely on themselves or different people (powerful person loses power)

Innovation

-the most innovative companies are often characterized by their open, unconventional, collaborative, vision-driven and accelerating cultures -start-ups often have innovative cultures because they are usually small, agile, and focused on solving problems in order to survive and grow

Impression Management

-the process by which individuals attempt to control the impression others form of them -what we say (not as much how we say it) -like code switching

Relationships

-the social, interpersonal component of relationships with repeated negotiation means that individuals go beyond valuing what is simply good for themselves and instead start to this about what is best for the other party and the relationship as a whole -repeated negotiations: ₀built on foundation of trust = broaden range of options ₀facilitate integrative problem solving (people begin to see their negotiation partners in a more personal way over time and come to share emotional bonds ₀make integrative approaches more workable because a sense of trust and reliability has been built up

Personality

-the sum of ways in which individual reacts to and interacts with the world around them -in terms of the measurable traits a person exhibits

Fundamental Attribution Error

-the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition -explains why we might perceive the wealthy as intelligent, save or innately effective without considering the external factors that precluded their success)

Self-Serving Bias

-the tendency for people to take personal credit for success but blame failure on external factors -people tend to take more personal responsibility for success than for failure

Context

-the time at which we see an object or event can influence our attention

Moods & Emotions in Negotiations

-the way moods and emotions influence negotiations depends on the emotion + the context -anger: induce concessions (negotiator believes no further concessions from angry party are possible) ₀should show anger in negotiations only if you have at least as much power as counterpart (if you have less = ager provokes "hardball" reactions from other side) ₀fake anger (surface acting): not effective ₀real anger (deep acting): effective ₀surprising anger hurts performance b/s it's distracting to the negotiation, but only when anger is integral to negotiation ₀having history of showing anger: induces more concessions b/c other party perceives negotiator as tough ₀using anger to win a negotiation (might be effective) but you might lose in the long run b/c other party is less likely to follow through with the deal + less likely to work with you again ₀effects of anger vary across cultures -anxiety: those who experience more anxiety about a negotiation = use more deceptions in dealing w/ others ₀anxious negotiators also expect lower outcomes, respond to offers faster, exit bargaining process faster = leads to worse outcomes -expressing sadness: elicit more concession (only when other negotiation perceives expresser as lower in power and anticipates future interaction + when relationships is collaborative) ₀parties should display sympathy for counterparts when needed = appeals to perceptions of rationality + fairness -emotional unpredictability: those who are emotionally unpredictable = extract more concessions b/c makes other party feel less in control ₀emotional ambivalence related to more integrative agreements and concession making (ambivalent person perceived as submissive)

Reputation

-the way other people think and talk about you -having a reputation for being trustworthy matters -trust in a negotiation opens the door to many forms of integrative negotiation strategies that benefit both parties -most effective way to build trust: behave in an honest way across repeated interactions -sometimes we either trust or distrust people based on word of mouth about a person's characteristics ₀reputation for integrity (more likely to keep promises = opens many options for negotiator that wouldn't be available to someone who isn't seen as trustworthy) -negotiators have higher reputations are better like + have more friends and allies (have more social resources = power in negotiations)

Self-Determination Theory

-theory of motivation that is concerned with the beneficial effects of intrinsic motivation and the harmful effects of extrinsic motivation

Reinforcement Theory

-theory that behavior is a function of its consequences, that behaviors followed by positive consequences will occur more frequently, and that behaviors followed by negative consequences, or not followed by positive consequences, will occur less frequently

Goal-Setting Theory

-theory that says that specific and difficult goals, with feedback, lead to higher performance

Equity Theory 1

-theory that states that people will be motivated when they perceive that they are being treated fairly

Social Learning Theory

-theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

Culture as Liability

-there are potentially dysfunctional aspects of culture on an org's effectiveness -factors that signal a negative org culture: 1. institutionalization -condition that occurs when an organization takes on a life of its own, apart from any of its members, and acquires immortality -institutionalized orgs often don't go out of business even if the original goals are no longer relevant 2. barriers to change -culture is a liability when shared values are not aligned with those that further the org's effectiveness ₀most likely when an org's environment is undergoing rapid change and its entrenched culture may no longer be appropriate -consistency of employee behavior (asset in stable environment) may burden the org and make it difficult to respond to changes -culture change is possible 3. barriers to diversity -hiring new employees who differ from majority creates paradox: management wants to demonstrate support for differences but newcomers who wish to fit in are usually pressured to accept the org's core culture -because diverse behaviors & unique strengths are likely to finish as people assimilate (strong cultures can become liabilities when they effectively eliminate the advantages of diversity) -barriers to diversity can start at community level -barriers to diversity can (partly) be addressed through cultures and climates of inclusion (by showing org values and enacts an inclusive environment, diversity may flourish within org and employees may be more committed to org) -people from various backgrounds may perceive cultures and climates differently = undermines effect positive cultures and climates may have on org outcomes 4. toxicity and dysfunctions -coherence around negative and dysfunctional values in a corporation can produce downward forces that are equally powerful yet toxic 5. barriers to M&A -historically: when management looked at M&A decisions = key decision factors were potential financial advantage and product synergy -now: cultural compatibility has become the primary concern (whether the acquisition works seems to have much to do with how well the 2 orgs' cultures match up) -when org cultures don't mesh well = org cultures of both become a liability to whole new org -for M&A to be successful: cultural integration is essential, as well as flexibility and complementary in employee skills

Influence Tactics

-things people use to translate power bases into specific action -nine distinct influencing tactics: 1. legitimacy ₀relying on your authority position or saying a request accords with organizational policies or rules 2. rational persuasion ₀presenting logical arguments and factual evidence to demonstrate a request is reasonable 3. inspirational appeals ₀developing emotional commitment by appealing to a target/s values, needs, hopes, and aspirations 4. consultation ₀increasing support by involving target in deciding how to accomplish plan 5. exchange ₀rewarding target with benefits or favors in exchange for agreeing to a request 6. personal appeals ₀asking for compliance based on friendship or loyalty 7. ingratiation ₀using flattery, praise, or friendly behavior prior to making request 8. pressure ₀using warnings, repeated demands, and threats 9. coalitions ₀enlisting the aid or support of others to persuade the target to agree -some tactics are more effective than others -2, 3, and 4 tend to be equally effective in influencing performance at work -2: effective at helping build relationships at work but not as effective as 3 and 4 -8 tends to backfire (typically least effective) -using 7 can improve relational outcomes of influence at work (ex: during job interviews) but perhaps only when the audience doesn't really care about the outcome of the request or if it's routine -ex: most effective way of getting a raise ₀start with rational approach: figure out how your pay compares to that of org peers, land a competing job offer, gather data that testify to your performance, or use salary calculations to compare pay with others in occupation, then share findings with manager -using rational persuasion to make a case to your supervisor about a possible raise or alternative work arrangement may be effective b/c it fosters a mutual sense of respect b/w you and your supervisor -effectiveness of some influence tactics depends (some extent) on direction of influence and on the audience -rational pressure is the only tactic effective at both up and down influencing (stronger when used for down influence attempts) -inspiration appeals = work best as down influencing tactic w/ subordinates -ingratiation = most effective as lateral influence (can also be effective in down influence -also impacting effectiveness of influence: sequencing of tactics, person's skill in using tactic, org culture -more likely to be effective if you begin with "softer" tactics that rely on personal power, such as personal and inspirational appeals, rational persuasion, and consultation -might have to move to "harder" tactics (like exchange and coalitions) which emphasize formal power and incur greater costs and risks -effectiveness of tactics depends on audience: people especially likely to comply with soft influence tactics tend to be more reflective and intrinsically motivated (high self-esteem and greater desire for control) -effectiveness of tactics depends on audience: people especially likely to comply with hard influence tactics are more action-oriented and extrinsically motivated (more focused on getting along with others than on getting their own way) -no difference b/w men and women in the effectiveness of use of influence tactics (both men and women benefit from soft or neutral tactics, as opposed to harder tactics) -pic: preferred influence tactics by influence direction

Every Negotiation Has Two Kinds of Issues

-things that will be formally part of the final agreement = bargaining mix -interests are tangible, why you want what you're asking for -always going back and forth: 1. tangible: the things in the contract: price, delivery, quantity, other terms 2. intangible: the unspoken things: "winning", reputation, being fair, the relationship

Displayed Emotions

-those the organization requires workers to show and considers appropriate in each job -ex: in the US → expected that employees should typically display positive emotions like happiness and excitement, and suppress negative emotions like fear, anger, disgust, and contempt -displaying emotions we don't really feel can be exhausting

How Do People Respond to Organizational Politics?

-those who have modest skills or unwilling to play the game = outcomes tend to be predominantly negative in terms of decreased job satisfaction, increased anxiety + stress, increased turnover, and reduced performance -the more politics play a role in one's environment, org, or team = more negative outcomes experienced -defensive behaviors: when employees see change as a threat = may respond with defensive behaviors (protective behaviors to avoid action, blame, or change)

Change Agents

-those who see a future for the org others haven't identified -able to motivate, invent, and implement this vision -can be managers or non-managers -can be current or new employees (or outside consultants) -some look to transform old industries to meet new capabilities and demands

Promotion Focus

-those who strive for advancement and accomplishment, and approach conditions that move them closer toward desired goals

Prevention Focus

-those who strive to fulfill duties and obligations and avoid conditions that pull them away from desired goals

Third-Party Negotiations

-three basic 3rd party roles: 1. mediator -neutral 3rd party who facilitates a negotiated solution by using reasoning and persuasion, suggesting alternatives, and the like -widely used in labor-management negotiations and in civil court disputes -overall very effective -mediator must be perceived as neutral and noncoercive 2. arbitrator -3rd party with the authority to dictate an agreement -can be voluntary (requested by the parties) or compulsory (forced on parties by law or contract) -always results in a settlement -could be negative depending on how heavy-handed the arbitrator appears 3. conciliator -trusted 3rd party who provides an informal communication link between the negotiator and negotiation partner -agreeable individuals with a concern for others tend to adopt role of conciliator, and they tend to be respected and admired by their peers as a result -also engage in fact finding, interpret messages, and persuade disputants to develop agreements

Consequences of Stress at Work

-three general categories of stress manifestation: 1. physiological symptoms -stress can create changes in metabolism, increase heart and breathing rates and blood pressure, bring on headaches, and induce heart attacks -can also cause backaches, headaches, eye strain, sleep disturbances, dizziness, fatigue, loss of appetite, and gastrointestinal problems -stress also impairs episodic memory (but enhances memory after a stressful event) 2. psychological symptoms -stress causes tension, anxiety, irritability, boredom, and procrastination -stress due to high workloads also related to lower emotional well-being 3. behavioral symptoms -symptoms: reductions in productivity, increases in absences and turnover, and personal changes in eating habits, increased drinking + smoking, rapid speech fidgeting and sleep disorders

Cultural EIP

-to be successful: EIP programs should be tailored to local and national norms

Discrimination

-to discriminate is to note a difference b/w things, which is not necessarily bad -bad = allowing our behavior to be influenced by stereotypes about groups of people -can occur in many ways and effects vary -like stereotype threat, actual discrimination can lead to ↑ negative consequences for employers, including reduced productivity and OCB, more conflict, ↑ turnover, and ↑ risk-taking behavior -one of the primary factors that prevents diversity

Attribution Theory

-tries to explain the ways we judge people differently depending on the meaning we attribute to their behavior -theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition -attributions also try to explain what we do as a result of our attributions -we judge people (including ourselves) differently depending on the meaning we attribute to their behavior ₀evaluate people based on why we think they do what they do ₀we give them motive

Deep Acting

-trying to modify our true feelings based on display rules -deals with felt emotions -positive relationship with job satisfaction, job performance, better customer treatment and tips

How do I Measure Job Satisfaction?

-two approaches are popular: 1. single global rating = response to "all things considered, how satisfied are you with your job?" -circle number b/w 1 and five (highly satisfied = highly dissatisfied) 2. summation of job facets (more sophisticated) -identified key elements in a job (type of work, skills needed, supervision, present pay, promotion opportunities, culture, and relationships w/ coworkers) -rate on a standardized scale → added together to create an overall job satisfaction score

Negotiating Strategies

-two general approaches that differ in their goals and motivation, focus, interests, information sharing, and duration of relationship 1. distributive negotiating -competing -each gets 1/2 of orange = good enough 2. integrative negotiating -ask questions = why do you need orange? = want to figure out (with tangible interests of issues) how we can both get what we want -have to get creative -usually happens with relationships = long lasting

Basic Psychological Needs

-two needs that correspond with the need to feel in control and autonomous at work and the need to feel like we are good at what we do and are proud of it: 1. need for autonomy 2. need for competence

Sexual Harassment

-unwanted activity of a sexual nature that affects an individual's employment or creates a hostile work environemnt -happens when a person encounters "unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature" on the job that disrupts work performance of creates an "intimidating, hostile, or offensive" work environment -35% of women worldwide have experienced physical or sexual violence -power is central to understanding sexual harassment (especially pronounced for employees w/ new power) -more likely to occur when there are larger power differentials -pic: preventing sexual harassment

Ethical Climate Theory

-used to measure the shared perceptions of ethical policies, practices, and procedures -ethical climates are heavily influenced by the values and beliefs leaders hold about ethical behavior as well as the collective sense of identify people forge around shared ethics

Three Ethical Decision Criteria

-utilitarianism, rights, justice 1. U -proposes making decisions solely based on their outcomes (provide the greatest good for all) 2. R -make decisions consistent with fundamental liberties and privileges -means respecting and protecting the basic rights of individuals -criteria that protects whistleblowers 3. J -equitable distribution of benefits and costs -approached from a deonance standpoint (employees feel as if they ought to behave in a certain way, as laid out in rules, laws, norms, or moral principles)

Individual Differences

-variations among people in their thinking, emotion, personality, and behavior -personality -gender -GMA -cultural differences

Expectancy Theory

-victor vroom -theory that people will be motivated to the extent to which they believe that their efforts will lead to good performance, that good performance will be rewarded, and that they will be offered attractive rewards

Behaviorism

-view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes -most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2)

Coaching

-want coach LATER in career -coaches push you to make a decision (teach you to make decisions) -mentors just give advice -coachee has all necessary skills and information coach asks questions to guide coachee's decisions -coaches aren't trainers -effective coaching: ₀ask a lot of questions 1. learn ₀define problem/issue ₀introduce subject in non-threatening way ₀use questions to clarify the problem ₀establish a desire for a solution 2. generate ₀help employee find desired solution ₀seek ideas ₀listen actively ₀offer suggestions ₀build on their ideas 3. assure ₀assure follow-up & accountability ₀provide support ₀set review dates -common coaching model: GROW 1. goal -what would you like to accomplish? 2. Reality -where are you now? -what obstacles are you working through? 3. Options -what strategies have you considered? -what other strategies could we brainstorm? 4. Way Forward• -what strategy have you chosen? Why? -what action do you commit to do first? -when should we follow-up? -how should I hold you accountable? -should leave knowing what to do next (not necessarily with all the answers though)

Mentoring

-want mentor EARLIER in career -mentor: senior employee who sponsors and supports a less-experienced employee (protege) -mentoring relationships serve career + psychosocial functions -mentoring programs benefit mentors + proteges -successful mentors build personal relationships with proteges characterized by mutual trust, instill accountability and build confidence -not all employees are likely to participate in mentoring -employers should establish mentoring programs because they benefit both mentors and proteges -can be organize or assigned -need as many mentors as possible -gains are primarily psychological: ₀enhanced confidence ₀antidote to procrastination and anxiety ₀expansion of network ₀personal fulfillment -two main purposes: 1. personal development -career development, decision-making, personal growth strategies -best provided by someone demographically similar and more experience 2. career growth -not as personal -signaling effect ("worthy" other should be interacting with you) -sponsorship for roles and promotions -best provided by someone in the majority and senior in the org

Contingency Variables

-we can say x leads to y, but only under conditions specified in z (the contingency variable)

Weather

-weather has little affect on mood (for most people)

McClelland's Theory of Needs

-what do people need at work? -suggests that needs are more like motivating factors than strict needs for survival -three primary needs: 1. need for achievement (nAch): the need to excel or achieve to a set of standards (problem solving) -where researchers focused most of their attention -high achievers perform best when they perceive their probability of success at 50% -dislike gambling with high odds b/c get no achievement satisfaction from success that comes by pure chance -can predict some relationships b/w nAch and job performance 2. need for power (nPow): the need to make others behave in a way they would not have otherwise (control) -more familiar to people in broad terms than in relation to original definition 3. need for affiliation (nAff): the need to establish friendly and close interpersonal relationships

Managing Up

-what if you're trying to influence your boss? 1. Identify -identify the preferred communication style of your target; communicate in their preferred style 2. Consider -consider their goals, needs, and blind spots 3. Present -present your message congruent with THEIR goals

Romance of Leadership Scale

-when it comes down to it = quality of leadership is single most important influence on the functioning of an organization -a company is only as good or bad as its leaders -when a company is doing poorly = first place to look is leaders

Politics

-when power is converted into action = engaging in politics -those with good political skills = use bases of power effectively -politics are inevitable (also kind of essential)

Perceiver

-when you look at a target & attempt to interpret what you see, your interpretation is heavily influenced by your personal characteristics -we hear and see what we want to hear and see (not because the truth = conforms to our thinking)

Self-Promotion

-why self promotion is hard: 1. confidence gap -people are going to think it's dumb, what's the point? 2. we assume people already know 3. feels like bragging ₀bragging = obnoxious -what to talk about when self-promoting: 1. your passion/genuine interest ₀be real 2. ways you can help the other person ₀useful 3. things that prompt a relationship ₀continue conversation 4. uncommon skills ₀memorable -how to get better at self promotionL 1. practice ₀with friends 2. watch ₀observe others 3. promote ₀promote other people 4. keep ₀keep your boss informed (no surprises rule) ₀avoids embarrassment for boss 5. be excellent

Telecommuting

-working at home (or anywhere else the employee chooses that is outside of the workplace) at least two days a week on a computer linked to the employer's office -benefits: ↑ performance & job satisfaction, reduces role stress and turnover intentions (lesser degree for 2nd two) -reductions in work-family conflict -also has benefits for society (carbon emissions) -can also ↑ feelings of isolation and reduce hob satisfaction and coworker relationship quality

Goal Setting

-works under the right conditions -SMART goals

Personality Traits in Negotiations

-you can "sort of" predict a negotiation partner's negating tactics if you know something about their personality -people who are ambitious and likable tend to far the best in effective negotiations -agreeableness as been focus of research because agreeable people are cooperative, compliant, kind, and conflict averse ₀might assume that agreeable characteristics make people easy prey in negotiations (especially distributive) ₀may be true if the agreeable negotiator is bargaining with a partner who is low on honesty humility ₀if an agreeable person seeks to preserve relationships at all costs and avoids straining them = person may be more likely to parse worse in a distributive negotiation ₀overall: agreeableness weakly related to negotiation outcomes -important: whether negotiation have similar personalities (even if traits are perceived by most as negative) ₀when similar: tend to reach agreement fast, perceive less conflict, display more positive emotions, and have better impression of the other negotiation partner -when both parties seek to preserve relationships at all cost (agreeableness) = tend to fare much better in integrative negotiation -self-efficacy that consistently seems to relate to negotiation outcomes (people who are more confident stake out stronger claims, are less likely to back down from their positions, and exhibit confidence that intimidates others) -negotiators may benefit from trying to get a boost in confidence before going to the bargaining table ₀don't be too confident though: if you have a supervisor who'll be judging your performance and are expected to do well = would be prudent to try to prevent negative outcomes (because you have more to lose) -EQ and emotion recognition ability = linked to gains in negotiation performance as well as to perceptions of being more cooperative and likable

Characteristics of Spiritual Organization

1. Benevolence 2. Strong sense of purpose 3. Trust and respect 4. Open-mindedness

Reducing Biases and Errors

1. Focus on goals 2. Look for information that contradicts your beliefs 3. Don't try to create meaning out of random events 4. Increase your options.

What Creates Dependence?

1. Importance -if nobody wants what you have = no dependence -many degrees of important: from needing resource for survival to wanting a resource that is in fashion or adds to convenience 2. Scarcity -when supply is low to demand = can negotiate (power) 3. Nonsubstitutability -the fewer viable substitutes for a resource = more power a person controlling that resource has

Approaches to Managing Organizational Change

1. Lewin's classic 3-step model of the change process 2. Kotter's 8-step plan 3. Action research 4. Organizational development

Hofstede's Framework

1. Power Distance -degree to which people in a country accept that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally -high: large inequalities of power and wealth exist and are tolerated in the culture, as in a class or caste system that discourages upward mobility -low: characterizes societies that stress equality and opportunity 2. Individualism v. Collectivism -degree to which people prefer to act as individuals rather than as members of groups and believe in an individual's right above all else -collectivism: emphasizes a tight social framework in which people expect others in groups of which they are part to look after them and protect them 3. Masculinity v. Femininity -masculinity: degree to which the culture favors traditional masculine roles (achievement, power, control) as opposed to viewing men and women as equals -high masculinity: culture has separate roles for men and women (men dominating society) -high femininity: culture sees little differentiation b/w make and female roles and treats women as the equals of men in all respects 4. Uncertainty Avoidance -degree to which people in a country prefer structured over unstructured situations -high: people have ↑ anxiety about uncertainty and ambiguity and use laws and controls to reduce uncertainty -low: more accepting of ambiguity, less rule oriented, take more risks, more readily accept change 5. Long-Term v. Short-Term Orientation -degree of a society's devotion to traditional values -long-term: tend to assume that preparation for the future is needed because the world is constantly changing -short-term: prefer to maintain a link to their past by honoring traditions, fulfilling social obligations, and upholding and protecting their image

Negotiation Process

1. Preparation and planning -most important part of the process -once you've gathered information = develop strategy -determine you and the other side's BATNA (determines lowest value acceptable) -anything you receive higher than BATNA = impasse -should not expect success in negotiation effort unless you're able to make the other side an offer it finds more attractive than its BATNA -solidify your BATNA prior to any interaction (because party with superior alternatives will do better in negotiation) -must be equipped to counter arguments with facts and figures that support your position (exception = go for broke) 2. Definition of ground rules -define (with the other party) the ground rules and procedures of the negotiation itself) -ex: why will do the negotiating? where will it take place? are there time constraints? what issues will negotiation be limited? will you follow a specific procedure if an impasse is reached? -parties exchange their initial proposals or demands 3. Clarification and justification -after exchanging initial positions: you and other party must explain, amplify, clarify, bolster, and justify your original demands -doesn't need to be confrontational -opportunity for educating each other on the issues, why they are important, and how you arrived at your initial demands -other party will be less likely to make concessions if you frame your position as a request rather than an offer 4. Bargaining and problem solving -this is where both parties need to make concessions 5. Closure and implementation -final step -formalizing agreement and developing procedures necessary for implementing and monitoring it -for major negotiations = requires hammering out specifics in a formal contract (could also be as informal as a handshake)

Responding to Influence Options

1. Retribution: Intimidation or coercion -shift dependence to interdependence -confront exploiters directly ₀are you sure you want to do that? (kind of retribution right back at them) ₀is this a threat? ₀I'm sure you aren't trying to threaten me -actively resist 2. Reciprocity: -examine the intent of gift-givers ₀be clear (repeat back) -refuse to bargain with high-pressure tactics 3. Reason: -explain adverse effects of compliance -defend your personal rights/refuse

Influence Options

1. Retribution: Intimidation or coercion -the more of a jerk you are about making people do stuff = decreasing personal power -threat comes more serious w/ critical activities -have to use sometimes (don't use too much) -after using retribution = to keep personal power you have to rebuild trust by saying "sorry I had to do that" -when to use: ₀have complete authority (regarding the ask) ₀commitment and quality are not important (can't scare people into buying in) ₀time is tight (because I said so is super efficient) ₀you are responding to serious violations (you will not, stop or else stop & bye) ₀you have specific, unambiguous requests (direct) 2. Reciprocity: Ingratiation or bargaining -effort = works best (most important) power source -when to use: ₀needs are specific and short term ₀established exchange norms exist ₀there is adequate time to negotiate ₀parties are viewed as trustworthy 3. Reason: Appeal to values or presenting facts -give people just enough data -when to use: ₀there is adequate time for extensive preparation and discussion ₀common goals/values can be identified ₀parties share mutual respect ₀parties have an ongoing relationship

Affect, Emotions, and Moods

1. affect: covers broad range of feelings including emotions and moods -varies by its valence (degree to which feelings are positive or negative) 2. emotions: intense, discrete, and short-lived feeling experiences that are often caused by a specific event 3. moods: longer lived and less intense feelings than emotions and often arise without a specific event acting as a stimulus

Types of Physical Abilities 3 (Other Factors)

1. body coordination 2. balance 3. stamina

Forces for Change

1. changing nature of the workforce -evident across industries -almost every org must adjust to a multicultural environment, demographic changes, immigration, and outsourcing 2. technology -continually changing jobs and organizations -ex: machine learning and AI are revolutionizing many aspects of orgs: how business is conducted, how decisions are made, how information is collected and acted on, how orgs structure themselves 3. economic shocks -leads to job loss, death of orgs, long raids to recovery -serious driver for change in orgs and society at large -difficult to forecast and happen suddenly -culprits: national crisis (COVID), overbuilding, rising inflation, speculative pricing, debt accumulation (and its resulting spending cuts) 4. competition -precipitates change -successful orgs are capable of developing new products rapidly and getting them to market quickly (they're flexible and require an equally flexible and responsive workforce) 5. social trends -do not remain static -orgs must continually adjust product and marketing strategies to be sensitive to changing social trends -80% of consumers are more likely to make a purchase when the experience is personalized to them 6. world politics -affect changes in orgs -not even globalization's strongest proponents could have imagined the change in world politics in recent yrs -ex: BREXIT has led to changes that affect orgs across the world

Impression Management Techniques 1

1. conformity 2. favors 3. excuses

Employability Skills

1. critical thinking: purposeful and goal directed thinking used to define and solve problems and to make decisions or form judgements related to a situation or set of circumstances -involves cognitive, metacognitive, and dispositional components 2. communication: the effective use of oral, written, and nonverbal communication skills for multiple purposes (ex: inform, instruct, motivate, persuade, share ideas); effective listening the use of tech to communicate; and the ability to evaluate the effectiveness of communication efforts 3. collaboration: skill in which individuals can actively work together on a task, constructing meaning and knowledge as a group through dialogue and negotiation that results in a final product reflective of their joint, interdependent actions 4. knowledge application and analysis: ability to learn a concept and then apply that knowledge appropriately in another setting to achieve a higher level of understanding 5. social responsibility: skills related to both business ethics and CSR -business ethics: sets of guiding principles that influence the way individuals and orgs behave within the society that they operate -CSR: form of ethical behavior that requires orgs to understand, identify, and eliminate unethical economic, environmental, and social behaviors

Forms of Discrimination 1

1. discriminatory policies or practices 2. sexual harassment 3. intimidation

Types of Physical Abilities 1 (Strength Factors)

1. dynamic strength 2. trunk strength 3. static strength 4. explosive strength

What Causes Stress

1. environmental factors -environmental uncertainty influences stress levels among employees in orgs -uncertainty = biggest reason people have trouble coping with org changes and why decisions made under stress deteriorate decision quality -economic uncertainty ₀created by changes in the business cycle -political uncertainty ₀don't cause as much stress for employees in America v. employees in countries like Haiti or Venezuela (stability) -technological change ₀because innovations can make an employee's skills and experience obsolete in short time ₀having to keep up with new computer programs, robotics, automation, and similar forms of tech change cause people stress at work 2. organizational factors -factors categorized around task, role, and interpersonal demands 1) task demands: relate to a person's job ₀include the design of the job, the working conditions, and the physical work layout ₀single factor most consistently related to stress in workplace = amount of work that needs to be done (followed by presence of looming deadlines) 2) role demands: relate to pressures placed on a person as a function of the role they play in the org ₀role conflicts create expectations that may be hard to reconcile or satisfy ₀role overload: occurs when employee is expected to take on too much ₀role ambiguity: role expectations aren't clearly understood and the employee is not sure what to do 3) interpersonal demands: pressures created by other employees ₀some pressures are expected ₀negative coworker and supervisor behaviors (including fights, bullying, incivility, racial harassment, and sexual harassment = strongly related to stress at work) 3. personal factors -quality and quantity of sleep an individual gets = adversely affects the amount of strain they experience -family issues: can cause stress that significantly impacts individuals (family issues are often closely related to work-life conflict, and work-life conflict is a major source of strain) -financial issues can be major source of stress (can siphon attention away from work) 4. stressors are additive -stress builds up

Types of Physical Abilities 2 (Flexibility Factors)

1. extent flexibility 2. dynamic flexibility

Causes of Imposter Syndrome

1. external environment -competitive household 2. childhood messages 3. early "easy" achievements 4. DNA/personality

Big 5 Traits and Performance

1. extraversion +assertive, influential in group settings +sociable & likeable -may generate status conflicts 2. agreeableness +likely to build good relationships, cooperate +high emotional competency -may lack ability to make tough calls 3. conscientiousness +organized, good planner, hard working -may lack spontaneity, flexibility, change orientation 4. emotional stability +calm under pressure +able to keep team focused on task even under stress -may not understand or empathize w/ other's emotional reactions 5. openness to experience +eager to entertain alternative points of view, think "big picture" +eager to learn new info, skills, etc. -may be indecisive as a decision maker

Goals-Performance Relationship

1. goal commitment 2. task characteristics 3. national culture

HEXACO Model

1. honesty/humility (and emotionality/emotional stability) 2. extraversion 3. agreeableness 4. conscientiousness 5. openness to experience -addition of H dimension came from cross-cultural studies that suggest that the English-centric early investigations that pronounced the Big 5 essentially "missed" a dimension that began to emerge w/ studies conducted in non-European cultures -H dimension corresponds to people who are sincere, fair, modest, and humble (not interested in social status, wealth, or money) -addition of H has been found to predict ethically relevant outcomes like abstaining from cheating -addition of H implications for OB: important considering that dishonesty and cheating are extremely important for orgs

Sources of Resistance to Change

1. individual sources -habit: cope with life's complexities with habits + programmed responses ₀tendency to respond in our accustomed ways = source of resistance -security: people with high need to for security = likely to resist change (threatens feeling of safety) -economic factors: changes in job task or establish work routines = can cause economic fears (people concerned that they won't be able to perform the new tasks or routines to their previous standard) ₀especially when pay tied to productivity -fear of the unknown: change substitutes ambiguity and uncertainty for the unknown -selective information processing: people to this in order to keep their perceptions intact ₀people hear what they want to hear and ignore information that challenges the world they've created 2. organizational sources -structural inertia: built-in mechanisms to produce stability (like selection processes and formalized regulations) ₀when confronted with change: org's structural inertia acts as counterbalance to sustain stability -limited focus of change: orgs have many interdependent subsystems ₀one can't be changed without affecting others ₀limited changes in subsystems tend to be nullified by larger system -group inertia: even if individuals want to change their behavior = group norms can be a constraint -threat to expertise: changes in organizational patterns may threaten expertise of specialized groups -threat to established power relationships: any redistribution of decision-making authority can threaten long-established power relationships within org

Rewarding Teams v. Individuals

1. individuals -pros: ₀can align individual behavior with group needs ₀strong individual performances "spill over" to rest of team -cons: ₀can increase competition 2. teams -pros: ₀encourages cooperation + trust ₀if there's a superstar on the team = net positive effect -cons: ₀social loafing (expect others to pick up slack) ₀puts pressure on less experienced or talented members

What Causes Job Satisfaction?

1. job conditions -toxic workplace environments lead to dissatisfied employees -managers also play a big role in employees' job satisfaction -job conditions (especially the intrinsic nature of the work itself, social interactions, and supervision) are important predictors of job satisfaction 2. personality -plays an important role -people who have positive core-self evaluations (CSEs - believe in their inner worth and basic competence) are more satisfied with their jobs than people with negative CSEs -collectivist cultures: high CSEs may realize particularly high job satisfaction 3. pay -pay does correlate with job satisfaction and overall happiness for many people (effect becomes smaller once an individual reaches a standard level of comfortable living) -money does MOTIVATE people tho (what motivates us isn't necessarily the same as what makes us :)) 4. CSR -self-regulated actions to benefit society or the environment beyond what is required by law -increasingly affects job satisfaction -ex: charitable giving, sustainability, nonprofit work -good for the planet + for people -triple bottom line -needed, positive trend of accountability and serving

Outcomes of Job Satisfaction

1. job performance -happy workers = productive workers -individuals with higher job satisfaction perform better, and orgs with more satisfied employees tend to be more effective than those with fewer 2. OCB -organizational citizenship behavior -job satisfaction = moderately correlated with OCB -trust = why job satisfaction leads to OCB 3. customer satisfaction -satisfied employees appear to increase customer satisfaction and loyalty 4. life satisfaction -job satisfaction and life satisfaction mutually influence one another -life satisfaction decreases when people become unemployed, and not just b/c of loss of income -work is important part of life → overall happiness depends in no small part on our happiness in our work (job satisfaction)

Three Organizational Attitudes

1. job satisfaction ₀positive feeling about a job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics ₀high: positive feelings about the work ₀low: negative feelings 2. job involvement ₀degree to which people psychologically identify with their jobs and consider their perceived performance levels important to their self-worth ₀high: strongly identify w/ and care about the kind of work they do; tend to be more satisfied with their jobs ₀closely related to psychological empowerment: employees' beliefs regarding the degree to which they influence their work environment, their competencies, the meaningfulness of their job, and perceived autonomy ₀more empowered: more likely to perform well, engage in organizational citizenship behaviors, be creative, and less likely to leave org 3. organizational commitment ₀strong: identifies w/ their org and its goals and wishes to remain a member ₀emotional attachment to an org & belief in its values is the gold standard for employee commitment ₀more committed: less likely to engage in work withdrawn (even when dissatisfied) b/c they have a sense of org loyalty/attachment

Individual Differences in Stress

1. perception 2. job experience 3. social support 4. personality traits 5. cultural differences

Applying Influence Tactics

1. political skill -ability to influence others to enhance their own objectives -politically skilled: most effective users of influence tactics and draw on their knowledge of others' demands, resources, and preferences to do so -more effective when social skills are required to do well in you job (leadership positions, sales consultants, real estate agents, and other relationship-oriented occupations) -politically skilled: can exert their influence w/o others detecting it -political skills lead to several positive individual outcomes for employees ₀build self-efficacy ₀increase job satisfaction ₀commitment to organization ₀experience less stress (small degree) ₀can boost performance and productivity ₀engage in more OCBs ₀career outcomes: being politically skilled can improve reputation and career success as one earns higher income and more prestigious positions + more satisfaied with career

ERGs

1. pros: -place for employees to be heard, valued and engaged -external reflection of company as "good place to work" -help with on-boarding and socialization (ex: involvement fair) -identify gaps in company's talent development and hiring processes -help with leadership development -great for recruiting 2. cons: -challenged by those in the majority who feel excluded -diverse DEI committees can achieve better results (move company further towards inclusion) -presence of ERGs can = sufficient evidence for those in the majority that problems are solved (band-aid) -leadership = unpaid extra work

Types of Conflict

1. relationship conflict -focuses on interpersonal relationships -almost always dysfunctional (b/c friction and interpersonal hostilities inherent in relationship conflict increases interpersonal clashes and decreases mutual understanding) -the most psychologically exhausting to individuals -tends to derail team processes by reducing extent to which people are open toward working with one another to work collaboratively toward solutions while increasing the extent to which they avoid and compete with one another -strongly depletes trust, cohesion, satisfaction, job attitudes, and positive affect (can even lead to a reduction in OCBs paired with an increase in deviant behavior) -only weakly related to how well team's perform -nefarious affects: how it affects people psychologically and how it reduces OCBs + increases deviance 2. task conflict -relates to the content and goals of work -not a lot of agreement about whether task conflict is functional -early research: correlated to higher group performance (newer = unrelated to group performance but does correlate to lower group performance in non management positions and high group performance in decision-making teams) -slightly reduces the extent tot which people collaborate, moderately increases degree to which people compete with one another (in turn = strong negative effect on trust and job attitudes) -leads to reduction in OCBs paired w/ deviant behavior 3. process conflict -about how work gets done -about delegation and roles -conflicts over delegation = revolve around perception that some members are shirking -conflicts over roles = can leave some group members feeling marginalized -often become highly personalized and quickly devolve into relationship conflicts -arguing about how to do something takes time away from doing it -less research has been done on process conflict -has strong negative effect on team member trust and attitudes + weak effect on team performance (like relationship conflict) 4. complicating conflict -also matters whether other types of conflict occur at same time -task and relationship: relationship more likely to have negative effect (task by itself = positive effect) -sone expect relationship & task conflict to o-occur at beginning of relationship (then stabilize) -perception of conflict also important: if task conflict perceived as low = people not engaged or addressing important issues & if task conflict too high = infighting quickly degenerates into relationship conflict (moderate levels of task conflict = optimal) -who perceives conflict also important = incompatibilities b/w work styles or dominating personalities w/ little space for compromise = "too many cooks in the kitchen" (relationship conflict and abusive supervision)

Other Differentiating Characteristics

1. religion -people of different religious faiths often experience conflict w/ one another -faith can be also be an employment issue wherever religious beliefs prohibit or encourage certain behaviors 2. sexual orientation -many LGBT employees do not disclose their status because of perceived discrimination -research suggests that disclosing sexual orientation is good for reducing work-family conflict and improving partner satisfaction, physical and mental well-being, and job satisfaction 3. cultural identity -a link w/ the culture of family ancestry that lasts a lifetime (no matter where an individual may live in the world) -cultural norms influence the workplace -cultural intelligence = CQ -employees and managers can do well to develop their own CQ (ability to function w/ people of various cultural backgrounds = enables employees to work more effectively with one another in orgs)

Class Notes

1. scarcity -people want what they can't have 2. reciprocity -give first (restaurant mint experiment) 3. authority -people follow lead of experts -signal to others what makes you a credible leader -------------------------------------------------------------- -self-promotion (legit) ₀great things I've done -enhancement ₀great things I wish I'd done

Categories of Selection Tools

1. screening tools: narrow down the applicant pool -ex: GPA, major, resumes, cover letters, job applications/weighted application blanks -screen out ppl you don't want to waste resources on 2. evaluative tools: examine remaining applicants to determine who to hire -use some resources -cognitive ability test ₀shows capacity to learn (not IQ tests) -skill/ability/knowledge test ₀presumed w/ Kelley curriculum -personality test -structured interviews ₀everyone gets asked the same questions -integrity test ₀harder to fake than personality tests -job simulation/work sample ₀internships 3. contingent tools: final check before employment -background and drug tests -you have the job as long as you pass

Shortcuts in Judging Others

1. selective perception -we often choose (sometimes unconsciously) the information we take in from the environment, based on our background, motivation, and characteristics 2. halo and horns effects -when we draw a positive impression about an individual based on a single (positive) characteristic, a Halo effect is operating -when we draw a negative impression from a single (negative) characteristic, a horns effect is operating 3. contrast effect -we do not evaluate a person in isolation = reaction is influenced by other people we have recently encountered 4. stereotyping -when we judge someone based on our perception of the group they belong to -can lead to prejudicial decision making that can mar business processes like selection and promotion

Bragging v. Self-Promotion

1. self-promotion -Relevant to the person and context (helpful) -Excitement is genuine (passion) -Information is helpful to the other party (always leave something on the table) -Other people's wins are celebrated too (conversational) 2. bragging -Irrelevant information for person and context -Bombastic (more dramatic than it needs to be) -Self-focused -Practices "one-up"

What We Can Do About Power

1. toxic effects of power depend on the wielder's personality -ex: if you have an anxious personality = power doesn't corrupt because less likely to think that using power benefits yourself 2. corrosive effect of power can be contained by org systems -if accountability for behavior initiated = self-serving behavior stops 3. we have the means to blunt negative effects of power -by simply expressing gratitude toward powerful people = makes them less likely to act aggressively against us 4. those with little power abuse what little power they have -the people most likely to abuse power are those who start low in status and gain power -why: having low status is threatening and the fear this creates = used in negative ways if power given later

Impression Management Techniques 2

4. apologies 5. self-promotion

Forms of Discrimination 2

4. mockery and insults 5. exclusion 6. incivility

The Conflict Process

5 stages: -stages I, II, III can happen super fast 1) potential opposition or incompatibility -"something" value neutral happens -antecedent conditions ₀communication ₀structure ₀personal variables 2) cognition and personalization -"something" gains meaning ₀perceived conflict ₀felt conflict 3) intentions -choices need to be made -conflict-handling intensions: ₀competing ₀collaborating ₀compromise ₀avoiding ₀accommodating 4) behavior -over conflict: ₀party's behavior ₀other's reaction 5) outcomes -increased group performance or -decreased group performance

Dimensions of Intellectual Ability 2

5. deductive reasoning 6. spatial visualization 7. memory

Impression Management Techniques 3

6. enhancement 7. flattery

Impression Management Techniques 4

8. exemplification

Multiteam Systems

-"team of teams" -solves the problem of tipping points (addition of another member does more harm than good) -collections of two+ interdependent teams that share a superordinate goal -ex: NASA wants to send team of astronauts to Mars = need teams of researchers, scientists, professors, engineers, operations employees, ground crews, and psychologists -sometimes perform better when they had "boundary spanners" = people who coordinate efforts with all constituents (reduced need for some team member communication = helpful b/c reduced coordination demands) -another approach = all teams adopt same perspectives or assumptions ("getting on the same page") -conflict b/w teams could come from strong identification to one's own team -multi-team leaders must both facilitate coordination b/w teams and lead them

Group Status

-"us and them" mentality and ensuing polarization -low-status groups (perhaps in response to discrimination) are likely to leverage in-group favoritism to compete for higher status -when high-status groups feel discrimination from low-status = increase bias against outgroups

Negative Norms and Group Outcomes

-CWB (deviant workplace behavior): voluntary behavior that violates significant org norms (threatens well-being or org or its members) -neagtive norms operate to facilitate poor group outcomes and deviant behavior -types: 1. production ₀leaving early ₀intentionally working slowly ₀wasting resources 2. property ₀sabotage ₀lying about hours worked ₀stealing from the org 3. political ₀showing favoritism ₀gossiping and spreading rumors ₀blaming coworkers 4. personal aggression ₀sexual harassment ₀verbal abuse ₀stealing from coworkers -negative norms operate to facilitate poor group outcomes and deviant behavior -absences set the tone for the office -some research suggests that when trying to promote diversity in the workplace, raising awareness for the prevalence of stereotyping can backfire and can actually lead toward more stereotype-consistent behavior -workgroups can become characterized by positive or negative attributes ₀bad apples come from bad barrels -employees can be mistreated by their supervisors, coworkers + customers, can cause them to engage in unethical behaviors as a result ₀mistreatment is important to org retention efforts (nearly half of employees who have suffered this incivility san it has led them to think about changing jobs (12% actually quit)) -when orgs try to do more with less (push employees to work extra hours) = indirectly facilitate deviant behavior

Emotional Intelligence and Leadership

-EI may indicate effective leadership -empathy is core -empathetic leaders can sense others' needs, listen to what followers say (and don't say), and read the reactions of others -leaders who effectively display and manage emotions = find it easier to influence the feelings of followers by expressing genuine sympathy and enthusiasm for good performance by showing irritation when employees fail to perform -connection b/w leaders' self-reported EI and transformational leadership: moderate (made weaker when followers rate their leaders' leadership behaviors) -people with high EI = more likely to emerge as leaders (even after taking cognitive ability and personality into account)

Identities

-identification with workgroups is stronger than with org -within our orgs we can develop identities through: 1. relational identification ₀we connect with others because of our roles 2. collective identification ₀connect with the aggregate characteristics of our groups -have low identification with both work groups and orgs = described satisfaction and engage in fewer OCBs -ex: immigrant workers often experience strained and threatened identities when they don't have inclusive, supportive supervisors or when they don't feel like they're part of the local community (high turnover rates for immigrants and migrants) -use of collective language correlated with increased sales and ROI

Leader-Member Exchange Theory

-LMX -suggests leaders and followers have unique one-on-one relationships that vary with each follower (ex: some are higher quality than others) -leaders create ingroups and outgroups ₀ingroup = strong trust, respect-based relationships (get disproportionate amount of the leader's attention and are more likely to receive special privileges) ₀outgroup = formal, impersonal relationships -LMX theory makes dyadic relationship b.w leaders and follower the focal point of leadership process -for relationship to remain intact = leader and follower must invest in the relationship -competent, conscientious, proactive employees tend to have higher quality relationships with their leaders + more likely to be placed in the ingroup -leaders induce higher quality LMX perceptions by engaging in transformational leadership behaviors, ingratiating their followers, rewarding employees with whom they want a closer linkage, and punishing those with whom they don't -leaders and followers tend to develop high-quality relationships over time when the supervisor has high expectations for the follower, when they see themselves as similar, when they like each other, and when they trust each other -leaders + followers of same gender tend to have closer relationships (higher LMX) -LMX more or less varies in important for leaders and followers (some employees value LMX less than others) -followers with ingroup status receive higher performance ratings, perform better, engage in more OCBs and engage in less deviant behaviors + report greater satisfaction with their superiors -extent to which leaders "play favorites" can create explicit in and outgroups tends to have negative effect on group or team outcomes -quality of exchange between coworkers and colleagues can often substitute for or offset the negative impacts of low LMX in teams -boundary conditions: 1) LMX relationship with perceptions of trust, job satisfaction, and justice as well as w/ OCBs, turnover intentions: depends in part of culture 2) agreement b/w leaders & followers on relationship quality is not strong when there is a disagreement b/w the two = can hurt employee engagement (regardless of who perceives the relationship as stronger) -high-quality LMX changes resulted in: -less employee turnover -more positive performance evaluations -higher frequency of promotions -greater organizational commitment -more desirable work assignments -better job attitudes -more attention and support from the leader -greater participation -faster career progress

Behavioral Theories of Leadership

-Ohio State -focus on leader behaviors -we can determine leadership effectiveness by leader behavior -we can (perhaps) train people to be leaders -personality traits don't matter 1. initiating structure -extent to which leaders define and structure their roles and those of their subordinates in pursuit of goal attainment -includes behavior that attempts to organize work, work relationships, and goals -high: someone who assigns followers tasks, sets definite standards of performance, emphasize deadlines ₀conscientiousness would be important -more strongly related to higher levels of group and organization productivity -related to more positive performance evaluations 2. consideration -extent to which a person's work relationships are characterized by mutual trust, respect for employees' ideas, and regard for their feelings -high: helps employees with personal problems, is friendly + approachable, treats all employees as equals, and expresses appreciation and support (people oriented) -most people want to work for considerate leaders ₀equivalent to the increased satisfaction that comes from more than doubling your household income! -followers of leaders high inconsideration: more satisfied with jobs, more motivated, more respect for leaders 3. cultural differences -there are international differences in preference for initiating structure and consideration -leaders high in consideration (team oriented, participative, humane): succeeded best (are most effective) in countries where cultural values don't favor unilateral decision making (like Brazil) -leaders with high initiating structure: task-oriented, would do well in a place like France (high consideration would backfire) -some cultures: consideration & high initiating culture are both important (effective in Chinese cultures)

Trait Theories of Leadership

-University of Michigan -focus on personal qualities and characteristics (personality, IQ, physical characteristics), including personality traits like those in the Big Five that predict two distinct outcomes: 1. leadership emergence -nobody assigned = someone rises as leader 2. leadership effectiveness -motivating

Belbin's Team Roles

-a team of specialist will always beat a team of well-rounders 1. action oriented roles -shaper (pushes team to focus and improve = the strategy leader, driver) -implementer (plans practical, workable, strategies to achieve goals = efficient, where we plan) -completer/finisher (finishes and quality control team's work, polish-off = the proof reader) 2. people-oriented roles -coordinator (focuses the team around objectives = manage(r)) -team worker (helps the team coordinate with one another/connect = versatile, picks up slack, utility play, supporting, filling in where needed) -resource investigator (considers external applications and connections need for the team's work) 3. thinking-oriented roles -plant (creative solutions/problem solving = dreamers, unconventional) -monitor/evaluator (evaluates team's options = realistic, rests on facts, "get real", w/o emotions) -specialists (unique knowledge input/expertise = goes deep, has full understanding of what team needs in specific area)

Nonsanctioned Leadership

-ability to influence that arises outside the formal structure of the organization -sometimes more important than formal influence

Conformity

-adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard -group pressures for conformity can have impact on individual members' judgement -when people do conform = mostly likely to their reference groups (important groups in which a person is aware of other members, defines themself as a member or would like to be a member, and feels group members are significant) -conformity not always bad (donating)

Norms

-all groups have established norms -acceptable standards of behavior shared by members that express what they ought to do and ought not to do under certain circumstances -established through the social perception of group members ₀like when a group leader says "this is what we should do" and rewards practices when they happen = group unanimously puts the suggestion into practice -norms aren't just leader established = for them to be adopted must be accepted by all -emotions can amplify the power of norms -ex: coworkers may react negatively to someone coming in sick for work and may be angry/uncivil

Team Stages

-along the way, groups develop: 1. roles and norms 2. cohesion and trust 3. potency/identity

Trust

-at the core of cohesion -trust: ₀willingness to rely on someone else (w/o monitoring them) ₀willingness to be vulnerable (show someone my mistakes & trust them with things/info) ₀believe in taking risks with someone you trust -strategies to repair trust: ₀it's super easy to break trust ₀apologize ₀explain the lapse ₀allow monitoring until trust is re-established -why do we start to trust people again? ₀explain what happened and explain what you're going to do in the future so you can be monitored ₀APOLOGIZE AND SHOW REMORSE

Ingroup and Outgroup Status

-based on: -how to get into ingroup: these are the people leader will do to: 1. how well leader and follower work with each other -smart -risk takers -okay with ambiguity -how easy to work with/give assignments 2. how followers expand their role responsibilities with the leader -not in my job description but I'll set up and do it (if asked) 3. whether follower negotiate performing activities beyond their formal job description -actively go in and ask for new assignments + follow through on new assignments

Charismatic Leadership Theory

-charisma = certain quality of an individual personality, by virtue of which the leader is set apart from ordinary people and treated as endowed with supernatural, superhuman, or at least specifically exceptional powers or quality ₀not accessible to the ordinary person and are regarded as of divine origin or as exemplary, and based on them the individual is treated as a leader -theory: followers attribute heroic or extraordinary leadership abilities when they observe certain behaviors and tend to give these leaders power -key characteristics of charismatic leaders: 1) vision and articulation ₀has a vision (expressed as a goal) that proposes a future better than the status qui ₀is able to clarify the importance of the vision in terms that are understandable to others 2) personal risk ₀willing to take on high personal risk, incur high costs, and engage in self-sacrifice to achieve the vision 3) sensitivity to follower needs ₀perceptive of others' abilities and responsive to their needs and feelings 4) unconventional behavior ₀engages in behaviors that are perceived as novel and counter to norms -how charismatic leaders influence followers: positive effect ₀inhale follower task performance and OCB + reduce/reframe follower turnover and stressors ₀by articulating appealing vision: long-term strategy for attaining a goal by linking the present with a better future for the org ₀desirable visions fir the times + circumstances (also reflect uniqueness of the org) ₀followers are inspired not only by passion of leader but also by an appealing message ₀vision needs an accompanying vision statement: formal articulation of an org's vision or mission (these leaders use to imprint on followers an overarching goal and purpose = sets tone of cooperation and mutual support) -stress enhances charismatic leadership (people especially receptive when they sense a crisis) -charismatic leaders who are larger than life don't necessarily act in best interest of orgs ₀lots of narcissist are charismatic

Norms and Culture

-collectivist cultures v. individualist cultures have different norms -collectivist: value harmony and cooperation in interpersonal interactions + will do what they can to compete and save face in professional contexts -norm violators in collectivist cultures are seen as less powerful and evoke more moral outrage than individualistic cultures

Relative Approach: Two Methods

-compare people to each other 1. ranking -works best with low # of staff -rank from best to worst, everyone gets a number -hard to determine the middle 2. forced distribution -not super popular -rank and yank (rank and them fire bottom (10)% -there's a % of employees in each category ₀excellent ₀superior ₀needs improvement -very competitive -pros: ₀clear succession planing (promote the top and fire the bottom) ₀easy to develop and use ₀excellent administrative data (clear, easy, simple) -cons: ₀no absolute standard ₀what if everyone sucks? #1 isn't actually good ₀little developmental feedback ("just do what #1 does") ₀COMPETITION

Role Conflict

-conflict experienced when multiple roles are incompatible -tension caused by competing demands between two or more roles pertaining to different statuses -when compliance with one role requirement makes it difficult to comply with another -extreme: clashing (ex: professors expected to be excellent teachers and research = normally only have enough time for one) -significant source of stress for most employees -during M&A: employees can be torn between their identities as members of their original org and the new parent company ₀multinational mergers can lead to dual identification - employee splitting identification with the local division and with the international org

Diversity

-diversity in the group's membership = degree to which members of the group are alike or different from one another -only a modest link between actual diversity and perceived diversity -members seek to balance a need to belong and a need to be distinctive in group membership (could be due to the fact that people tend to develop perceptions' of their groups diversity and perpetuate the status quo)

Interrole Conflict

-expectations of an individual's different, separate groups are in opposition -ex: many people hold multiple jobs = jobs might inevitably come into conflict and may interfere with the primary job -ex: family/life roles can often conflict with work roles -roles can often conflict within jobs ₀ex: nurses find themselves in a disaster (hurricane, shooting) where they are required to calmly provide aid for someone (their professional role) who is close to them, regulating emotions they are experiencing that stem from their attachment to that person (relational role)

Work Team

-generates positive synergy through coordinated effort -individual efforts result in a level of performance greater than the sum if the individual inputs -teams = more likely to be constantly changing and adapting rather than static -teams = dynamic systems = "teaming" (on the processes or actions involved in engaging as a team) -kind of like a subset of a work group -constructed to be purposeful (symbiotic) in its member interaction

Work Group

-group that interacts primarily to share information and make decisions to help all members perform within their respective areas of responsibility -have no need or opportunity to engage in collective work with joint effort = group's performance is merely the summation of each member's individual contribution (no positive synergy that would create an overall level of performance greater than sum of inputs) -collection of individuals doing their work (with some interaction and/or dependency) -calling a group a team doesn't automatically improve performance

Status and Norms

-high-status individuals may be more likely to deviate from norms when they have low identification (social identity) with the group ₀also eschew pressure from lower-ranking members of other groups ₀also better able to resist conformity pressures than are their lower-status peers -person who is highly valued by a group but doesn't need or care about the group's social rewards in particularly able to disregard conformity norms -bringing high-status members into a group may improve performance, but only up to a point (b/c these members may introduce counterproductive norms ₀don't control everything: gossip can both confer status and damage reputations

(Un)Ethical Leadership

-how leaders serve as ethical role models to follower (thus demonstrate normatively appropriately (or inappropriately) behavior by using their power in (un)ethical ways and by treating others (un)fairly) -how (un)ethical leadership affects employees: 1. (un)ethical leadership has direct influence on how employees think about moral issues 2. ethical leadership tends to improve follower job attitudes, job performance and perception of follower leaders -ethical leadership tends to increase followers' trust in their leader (positive outcomes) 3. ethical leadership sets the example for how employees should treat one another -can lead employees to use less intimidation, fewer justifications, and fewer excuses for their beahvior -can even improve customer service performance

Role Expectations

-how others believe you should act in a given situation -"don't know what I'm supposed to do or you" -can influence the way people perform their work (ex: creative role expectations can lead people to be more creative in their work)

Team Effectiveness Model

1. Context 2. Composition 3. Process

Social Loafing

-important finding concerning group dynamics -tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working collectively than when working individually -appears to have western bias (consistent with individualistic cultures = dominated by self-interest) -ways to prevent: 1. set group goals, so the group has a common purpose to strive toward 2. increase intergroup competition, which focuses on the shared group outcome 3. engage in peer evaluations 4. select members who have high motivation and prefer to work in groups 5. base group rewards in part on each member's unique contributions, and structure work so that each member's contribution can be identified

Status Inequity

-important for group members to believe status hierarchy is equitable -perceived inequity creates disequilibrium = inspires various types of corrective behaviors -hierarchy can lead to negative emotions and resentment among those at lower end of status continuum -large differences in status = poorer individual performance, lower health, higher intentions for lower-status members to leave the group -inequity in power-based forms of status tends to have more negative effects: 1. drive interpersonal conflict ₀other forms promote healthy competition for status advancement

Performance Evaluation

-in perfect world: use same description to hire that we use to asses/evaluate -performance management: what we do --> what we get -performance reviews should never be a suprise

Team Composition

-includes variables that related to how team should be staffed: abilities + personalities of team members, allocations of roles, diversity, cultural differences, size of the team, and members' preferences for teamwork 1. abilities of members -team's performance depends in part on the knowledge, skills, and abilities of individual members -abilities set limits on what members can do and how effectively they will perform on a team -complementary backgrounds (education level, area of expertise, and abilities) also tend to be more strongly related to innovation and creativity in practice -over time: experiences of team members add up to improve performance by enhancing the way problems are solved as members learn to work together -TL;DR: team members learn how to work with one another over time 2. personality of members: -some dimensions identified in big five are particularly relevant to team effectiveness (conscientiousness = people are good at backing up other team members and sensing when their support is truly needed) -teams that are more agreeable also perform better -teams who are less cohesive (when they have disagreeable members) = tend to do worse -teams also have lower productivity when there's a wide span of individual levels of agreeableness -open team members also more willing to share more ideas with each other (teams are more innovative) -teams with high levels of emotional stability = perform better when confronted with conflict (able to handle conflict and leverage it to improve performance) -high mean level of extraversion in a team can also increase the level of helping behaviors, particularly in a team climate of cooperation -proactive team personality also important for team innovation -personality traits of individuals are as important to teams as the overall personality characteristics of the team 3. allocation of roles -team members should be selected to ensure all the various roles are filled -successful work teams select people to play roles based on their skills and preferences -on many teams = individuals play multiple roles -increasing likelihood that team members will work well together = managers must understand the individual strengths each person can bring to a team, select members with their strengths in mind, and allocate work assignments that git with members' preferred styles -potential roles in pic 4. diversity of members -demography: degree to which members of a work unit (group, team, or department) share a common demographic attribute (like age, sex, race, education level, or length of service in the org) ₀demography research: turnover is greater among those with dissimilar experience (communication may be more difficult and conflict more likely) ₀demographic diversity has negative (small) effect on team performance and creativity -many hold the view that diversity should be a good thing (diverse teams should benefit from differing perspectives) but the picture is complicated by several issues (no straight answer to whether diversity is always a good thing) 5. cultural differences -cultural diversity interferes with team processes (in the short term) -different cultural status = teams with more high-cultural-status members than low-cultural-status members realized improved performance (for every member on the team) -not diverse teams should be filled with individuals who have high cultural status in their countries (we should be aware of how people identify with their cultural status even in diverse group settings) -cultural diversity seems to be an asset for tasks that call for a variety of viewpoints (culturally heterogenous teams have more difficulty learning to work with each other and solving problems = good news is that these difficulties seem to dissipate with time) 6. size of teams -many people believe that keeping teams small is key to improving group effectiveness (two-pizza rule = if it takes more than two pizzas to feed the team, team is too big) -bigger teams almost never correlate with great chance of success b/c potential connections b/w people grow exponentially as team size increases (complicates communications and leads to decreased perceptions of support) -using smallest number of people who can do the task is suggested -when teams have excess members: cohesiveness and mutual accountability declines, social loafing increase, people communicate less -members in large teams: trouble coordinating (especially under time constraints) -natural working unit is larger = consider subteams -most effective teams: 5-9 members 7. member preferences -not every employee = team player -many employees will select themselves out of team participation -people who prefer to work alone and are required to team up = direct threat to team's morale and to individual member satisfaction -when selecting team members: managers should consider individual preferences along with abilities, personality, and skills -high performing teams: composed of people who prefer working as part of group

Transformational Leadership

-inspire followers to transcend their self-interests for the good of the org -can have big effect on followers -whether leaders engage in transformational behaviors: depends a lot on culture + industry -reasons transformational leadership is effective: 1. affective or attitudinal mechanism -transformational approaches promote positive employee moods, emotions, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and feelings of well-being 2. motivational mechanism -transformational approaches motivate employees (they become more confident + engaged) 3. identification mechanism -transformational approaches lead employees to personally identify with the leader and the leader's values and identity (+ with team or org) 4. social exchange mechanism -primary reason for why leadership behaviors and style influence outcomes -transformational approaches improves quality of exchange and relationship b/w leaders and followers -follower more likely to perceive that they're supported by leader, team, org 5. justice enhancement mechanism -transformational approaches improve employee fairness perceptions -motivates followers to contribute more and to trust leader, team, org, etc. -characteristics: 1. idealized influence -provides vision and sense of mission, instills pride, gains respect and trust 2. inspirational motivation -communicates high expectations, uses symbols to focus efforts, expresses important purposes in simple ways 3. intellectual stimulation -promotes intelligence, rationality, and careful problem solving 4. individualized consideration -gives personal attention, treats each employee individually, coaches, advises

Dark Triad and Leadership

-not all bad for leadership -normative (mid-range) scores on dark triad (even psychopathy): optimal -low (and high) scores: ineffective leadership -by building self-awareness and self-regulation skills may be helpful for leaders to control the effects of their dark triad traits ₀self-awareness may be difficult for leaders to achieve (especially since narcissists tend to engage in self-enhancement = perceive themselves more positively than others see them) and be selective in feedback they elicit and listen to when it comes to leadership

Groups v. Teams

-not the same thing (even though, functionally, they are often used to refer to the same thing) -group = 2+ individuals (interacting and interdependent) who come together to achieve certain objectives -on both work groups and work teams: 1. behavioral expectations of members 2. collective normalization efforts 3. active group dynamics 4. some level of decision making (even if informal) 5. both generate ideas 6. both pool resources 7. both coordinate logistics (work schedules)

Social Identity Theory

-our tendency to personally invest in the accomplishments of a group -proposes that people have emotional reactions to the failure or success of their group because their self-esteem gets tied to whatever happens to the group -ex: employees feel proud of their org's success -ex: employees feel schadenfreude (pleasure due to another's misfortune) when competitors suffer

Role Perception

-our view of how we're supposed to act in a given situation ₀ex: in a classroom, I should take notes -our view of how we're supposed to act in a given situation -get role perceptions from stimuli all around us (family, office, social media) -even though some role perceptions translate from context to context, others don't

Status and Group Interaction

-people tend to become more assertive when they seek to attain higher status in a group ₀speak out more often, criticize more, state more commands, and interrupt others more often -those who do have higher status tend to conceal it to promote harmony -lower-status people participate less actively in group discussion (becomes problem & reduces group's overall performance when the posses insights that could help the group and these people aren't fully utilized) ₀supervisors can prevent by encouraging ^ to speak up -a group of only high-status might not be preferable though (adding some may be advantageous but group performance suffers when too many high-status people in the mix) -accurate knowledge of status hierarchy leads to better perfjoamcne and results in effective within-group networking

Faultlines

-perceived divisions that split groups into two or more subgroups based on individual differences such as sex, race, age, work experience, and education -splits are generally detrimental to group functioning and performance -subgroups may compete (takes time away from core tasks and harms group performance) -groups w/ subgroups tend to learn more slowly, make more risky decisions, are less creative, and experience higher levels of conflict -may not trust each other: have lower levels of cohesion -satisfaction within subgroups = generally high (but overall group satisfaction when faultlines present) -faultlines could be beneficial: results-driven culture focuses people's attention on what is important to the company rather than on problems arising from subgroups

Absolute: Performance Evaluation Methods

-pros: ₀increases inter-rater reliability ₀provides standardized feedback ₀dives developmental direction (great for developing employees) ₀easy to update -cons: ₀time consuming to develop (requires a lot of consensus - tedious, expensive, requires a lot of time (1&5 easy, 2,3,4 not so much)) ₀requires observation (not always feasible) ₀can provide poor administrative data (everyone scores a 4? possible but can't make promotional decisions -multiple approaches: 1. graphic rating scale -easy (could get more specific) -pic 2. behaviorally anchored rating scale (BARS) -"here's the behavior that goes with this score" -also includes to how one should improve -people like this feedback -ex: workplace safety 5. outstanding -always follows safety rules and is proactive about reporting potential problems 4. excellent -consistently follows safety rules. occasionally reports potential problems 3. average -follows safety rules most of the time. doesn't look for opportunities to go beyond compliance 2. below average -occasionally follows safety rules but often doesn't 1. poor -doesn't know safety rules and routinely violates them

Roles

-role: set of expected behavior patterns that are attributed to occupying a given position in a social unit -all members in a group play a role -a function assumed by someone occupying a given position in a group -we all take on several diverse roles (in and outside of work) -different groups impose different role requirements on individuals ₀many roles are compatible; others create conflicts -ex: offered a job in Arizona but family wanted to stay in Florida = can demands of parent-professional role be reconciled -we draw on role perceptions to frame our ideas of appropriate behaviors and learn the expectations of our groups -also seek to understand the parameters of our roles to minimize role conflict

Leadership Research

-seeks to to identify the personality, social, physical, or intellectual attributes that differentiate leaders from nonleaders -just because someone exhibits the right traits and others consider that person a leader doesn't mean they will be effective or successful at influencing the group to achieve its goals -leader behavior is a function of traits and the situation

Authentic Leaders

-self-aware, anchored by their mission and principles, consider others' opinions and all relevant information before acting, and display their true selves when interacting with employees -people have faith in them -double standard when it comes to authenticity for women: ₀women perceived to be more authentic, especially when they engage in traditional "feminine" hobbies + when they engage in "warm" leadership styles ₀if women engage in more assertive, transactional approaches (initiating structure, directive leadership behaviors) = goes against stereotype + labeled as inauthentic

Cohesiveness

-shared bond driving group members to work together and stay in the group -some workgroups are cohesive b/c members have spent a lot of time together, small size or purpose facilitates high interaction, or external threats have brought members close together -cohesiveness affects group productivity and vice versa -how to encourage group cohesiveness: 1. make group smaller 2. encourage agreement with group goals 3. increase the time members spend together 4. increase group's status and the perceived difficulty of attaining membership 5. stimulate competition with other groups 6. give rewards to the group rather than to individuals 7. physically isolate the group

Groupthink

-situations in which group pressures for conformity deter the group from critically appraising unusual, minority, or unpopular views -attacks many groups and can dramatically hinder performance -occurs most often early in group's tenure, when there is a clear group identity, when members hold a positive image of their group they want to protect, and when the group perceives a collective threat to its positive image -minimizing group think: 1. monitor group size -people grow more intimidated and hesitant as group size increases 2. managers should encourage group leaders to play impartial role 3. managers should appoint one group member to play role of devil's advocate -overtly challenges majority position and offers divergent perspectives 4. use exercises that stimulate active discussion of diverse alternatives without threatening the group or intensifying identity protection -have group members delay discussion of possible gains so they can first talk about dangers or risks inherent in a decision

Status

-socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others -occurs in every society -status is significant motivator and has major behavioral consequences when individuals perceive a disparity b/w what they believe their status is and what others perceive it to be

Status Characteristics Theory

-status tends to derive from one of three sources: 1) the power a person wields over others -b/c they likely control the group's resources, people who control group outcomes tend to be perceived as high status 2) a person's ability to contribute to a group's goals -people whose contributions are critical to the group's success tend to have high status 3) an individual's personal characteristics -someone whose personal characteristics are positively valued by the group (attractive, intelligence, money, friendly) typically has higher status than someone with fewer valued attributes

Alternative Models

-suggest that teams progress through a formation stage, conflict resolution or "storming" and "norming" stages when members agree on roles and make decisions, and a "performing stage where members begin to work collaboratively

Teams

-teams can sometimes achieve feats an individual could never accomplish -more flexible and responsive to changing events than traditional departments can be -can quickly assemble, deploy, refocus and disband -involvement in teams positively shapes the way we think as individuals, introducing a collaborative mindset about even our own personal decision making -teams aren't always effective (b/c team members are human = can be swayed by errors in decision-making processes and dynamics) -use of teams creates the potential for an org to generate greater outputs with no increase in employee headcount -nothing magical = ensures achievement of positive synergy in the creation of teams

Teams are not Always the Answer

-teamwork takes more time -teamwork cost more in resources -benefits of using teams must exceed the costs (not always possible) 1. can the work be done better by more than one person? -indicators: complexity of work and need for different perspectives 2. does work create common purpose or set of goals for the people int he group that is more than the aggregate of individual goals? 3. are the members of the group interdependent?

Tuckman's Stages of Group Development

1. Forming 2. Storming -team skills getting through this stage 3. Norming 4. Performing 5. Adjourning

Punctuated Equilibrium Model

-temporary groups w/ finite deadlines pass through unique sequencing of actions -go through transitions between inertia & activity -at halfway point = experience increase in productivity -does not apply to all groups (suited to the finite quality of temporary task groups working under a time deadline) 1. first meeting sets group's direction -general purpose and direction established -framework emerges of behavioral patterns and assumptions through which the group will approach its project (sometimes in first few second of group's existence) -once set = group's direction solidified and unlikely to be reexamined throughout first half of life 2. first phase of group activity is one of inertia (slower progress) -group tends to stand still or become locked into a fixed course of action (even if gains new insights that challenge initial patterns/assumptions) 3. transition takes place when group has used up half its allotted time -kind of works like an alarm clock = heightens members' awareness that their time is limited and they need to get moving -this transitions marks the end of phase one 4. ^ transition initiates major changes -transition characterized by a concentrated burst of changes, dropping of old patterns, and adoption of new perspectives -sets a review direction for phase 2 5. second phase of inertia follows the transition -phase 2 = new equilibrium or period of inertia in which group executes plans created during transition period 6. group's last meeting is characterized by markedly accelerated activity -final burst of activity to finish work

Should I Hold a Meeting?

-the 5 P's of preparation 1. purpose -why are you meeting? key objectives -when we're done we should have _ (must be concrete) 2. product -what do you want to have produced once the meeting is complete? how will you know you're successful? -when we're done we should have _ (must be concrete) 3. participants -who needs to be involved? what are their perspectives? what are participant's issues, skills, quirks, concerns, and time commitments? -plan for who's going to be in the meeting 4. probable issues -what are concerns that will likely arise? what are the "gotchas" that could prevent use from creating the product and achieving the purpose? 5. process -what steps should we take during the meeting to achieve the purpose, given the product desired, the participants, and the probable issues we will face?

Leadership

-the act of influencing a group toward the achievement of a vision or set of goals

Cohesion

-the emotional attraction among group members -teams with high cohesion ₀share credit ₀have higher participation ₀see increased conformity to team norms ₀are more productive ₀are more prone to groupthink -good: cohesive = satisfied and productive -bad: possible b/c ethically group think is only good to a certain point -cohesion: how much do I like these people? ₀emotionally support? ₀work as a unit when together?

Status and Stigmatization

-the status of people with whom you are affiliated can also affect others' views of you -people who are stigmatized can "infect" others with their stigma -"stigma by association" can result in negative opinions and evaluations of the person affiliated with the stigmatized individual (even if association is brief and purely coincidental)

Hybrid = Behavior/Results: Performance Evaluation Methods

-then nine box matrix -honest -common -can help employees decide whether they want to stay -do I want to keep doing this job? -pic

Transactional Leadership

-transactional leaders guide their followers toward established goals by clarifying role and task requirements, allocating rewards and punishment where needed, and (passively or actively) intervening when the situation calls for it -ex of when transactional leadership is needed: offshore rig employees suggests that leaders who actively intervene when situation calls for it led employees to become more engaged in safety behaviors (especially given high likelihood of accidents) -characteristics: 1) contingent reward -contracts exchange of rewards for effort, promises rewards for good performance, recognizes accomplishments 2) management by exception (active) -watches and searches for deviations from rules and standards, takes corrective action 3) management by exception (passive) -intervenes only if standards are not met 4) laissez-faire -abdicates responsibility, avoids making decisions

Setting Performance Expectations

-two components of job performance: 1. task (job) performance -effectiveness: quality of outcomes -efficiency: resources used to achieve outcomes ₀time = #1 resource to look at -producing good work efficiently? -applies to anything in job description 2. contextual performance -reward OCBs ₀all OCBs aren't in job description ₀ex: alturism, civic viruset, sportsmanship ₀are you an asset to the team? -deter organizational cynicism and counterproductive behavior ₀CWBs always bad = work against org ₀stealing, late, long lunch -applies to things outside of job description

Group

-two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have come together to achieve certain objectives -ex: sales group from a regional office of a large insurance company (responsible for selling insurance to local citizens, each person on team has to come together to sell insurance for their org) -we belong to many groups throughout out lifetime -some more salient at certain times -some group roles can conflict (being a parent and a manager) -can be either formal or informal

Psychological Contract

-unwritten agreement that sets out what management expects from an employee and vice versa -sets metal expectations -can go both ways (employees expected to be unethical)

Performance Evaluation Methods

-use more than one (usually use all three) 1. Absolute -I have in my mind what a perfect employee would do = compare against the standard 2. Results -worried about what you produce (count) 3. Relative -evaluate against other employees -ranking

Types of Power Differences

-we must understand status and power differences -what roles do people take on? 1. member status -achieved: individual achievements ("rags to riches"), why we feel bad when athletes use steroids ₀you've done cool stuff that I admire ₀people like -ascribed: social, family, socio-economic (by family), "they come from a well-off family" ₀people don't like 2. caretaking roles -over-supporting others: giving up some power, medial tasks, puts you into a box (always being pastries = expected to always bring them + that's what people primarily expect/want you to do) -menial tasks 3. coalitions -cliques of friends change power dynamics: awkward, exclusive in-group has power

Interacting Groups

-where most common form of group decision making takes place -members rely on both verbal and nonverbal interactions to communicate -interacting groups often censor themselves and pressure individual members toward conformity of opinion -reducing problems inherent in traditional interacting groups: 1. brainstorming -can overcome the pressures for conformity that dampen creativity -leader states problem in a clear manner so all group members understand -members then freewheel as many alternatives as they can in a given length of time -no criticism is allowed = encourage members to think the unusual -doesn't actually generate ideas EFFICIENTLY ₀individuals working alone generate more ideas than a group brainstorming session ₀b/c of production blowing: when more people are generating ideas in group, many are talking at once, which blocks individuals' through processes and eventually impedes the sharing of ideas 2. nominal group technique -decision-making method that begins and ends by having group members quietly write down and evaluate ideas to be shared with the group 1. before any discussion takes place = each member independently writes own ideas about the problem 2. after silent period = each member presents one idea to group -no discussion takes place until all ideas have been presented and recorded 3. group discusses for clarity and evaluates them 4. each group member silently and independently rank-orders the ideas -idea with highest aggregate ranking determines final decision

Types of OCBs

1. Altruism -helping other people or the org -beyond job description -being helpful -make coffee, road closure email, fill printer with paper 2. Civic Virtue -involvement in political life of org (attend meetings, answering emails, etc.) -show up 3. Sportsmanship -putting up with less than ideal situations -take one for the team -be a good sport -positive affect (positivity)

Contemporary Theories of Leadership

1. Leader-Member Exchange Theory 2. Charismatic Leadership Theory 3. Transactional Leadership 4. Transformational Leadership

How to Cultivate "Equality" in Teams

1. focus on employees' social needs -people like being acknowledged and listened to 2. set superordinate goals -what are we here to do? -everyone feels important if everyone has a role going towards group goal 3. reward both collective and individual effort -need people to feel like they're part of group but that they also matter as individuals 4. avoid downside of conformity by valuing dissent -say we value dissent -there are ways to voice concern that aren't "y'all are problematic"

Turning Individuals into Team Players

1. Selection: Need employees who have the interpersonal as well as technical skills 2. Training: Workshops on problem-solving, communications, negotiation, conflict-management, and coaching skills -team training is effective at improving team member attitudes, team processes, and cognitive aspects like developing shared mental models; and that these findings generalize to particularly important industries (medical services) -effective teams don't develop overnight = takes time 3. Rewards: Encourage cooperative efforts rather than individual ones -promotions, pay raises, and other forms of recognition should be given to individuals who work effectively as team members by training new colleagues, sharing information, helping resolve team conflicts, and mastering needed new skills -team based rewards = shown to positively influence team performance, especially when they are distributed based on individual's level of contribution (rather than equally distributed) -individual contributions shouldn't be ignored = balanced with selfless contributions to the team -intrinsic rewards are also important (camaraderie received from teamwork)

Steps to Team Transformation (Inherited Team)

1. asses team -through your own lens (perspective) -must go through all steps = need info gained throughout a. understand project's needs b.evaluate current members ₀evaluate track records ₀survey stakeholders c. meet 1-1 with everyone ₀critical d. share you're perspective 2. reshape team -to extent necessary -set high expectations ₀clarify purpose/goals -readjust roles as necessary -groom high potentials 3. accelerate team development a. use early wins to build confidence b. set up norms/processes to keep everything moving c. schedule declines and check-ins ₀importnat ₀punctuated EQ (we like to push things off)

Cog's Ladder

1. espirit phase 2. cooperating phase 3. power phase 4. "why are we here" phase -team skills getting through this stage 5. polite phase

Big Five and Leadership

1. extraversion -consistently important for several leadership outcomes -strongest predictor of leader emergence -predicts several leadership behaviors/styles -extraverted leaders are more likely to use transformational leadership styles and consideration behaviors -extraverted individuals are more likely to be considered more effective leaders -it's the agent, bold, assertive aspects of extraversion that account for effective leadership (not necessarily the warm, sociable, affiliative aspects -relationship b/w extraversion and leadership may be due to unique facets of the trait -being "too bold" or "too warm" can also hurt chances of emerging as a leader 2. agreeableness -important to some aspects of leadership -predicts follower satisfaction with the leader 3. emotional stability -important to some aspects of leadership -predicts follower satisfaction with the leader 4. conscientiousness -important for several leadership behaviors and outcomes -predicts initiating structure behaviors as well as consideration behaviors -moderate predictor of leader effectiveness and the strongest leader trait predictor of group performance

Formal v. Informal Groups

1. formal group: defined by the org's structure -has designated work assignments & established tasks -behaviors members should engage in = stipulated by and directed toward org goals -ex: six members of an airline flight crew 2. informal: neither formally structured nor organizationally determined -often meets to fulfills social needs or to bind employees with common interests -ex: three employees from different departments who regularly have lunch or coffee together -interactions deeply affect their behavior and performance

What Makes an Excellent Performance Management System

1. good administrative data -key -do I have everything I need to make good HR decisions? -who is better than who? -who to fire? who to promote? 2. strategic congruence -rewarding employees for doing things that push org again -ex: Walmart (looks for efficiency) 3. developmental information for employee -give employee concrete items to do to improve -behavioral, actionable 4. validity -taken from selection -measuring the right stuff -applicable to the job 5. reliability -taken from selection -am I measuring correctly? -do I trust the score? -did every supervisor who saw give the same score? -calibration 6. acceptability/usability -taken from selection -where things might fall apart -can we actually do this? -will people do it? will managers take the time?

Impact of Status Differences

1. high status members -talk more ₀talk b/c they have status --> people listen --> talk more -receive more attention from other group members -talk more about topics important to the group ₀because they're more informed -tend to be more satisfied with group membership ₀because people are listening to them 2. low status members -communicate about non-important matters more often -more likely to be ignored -speak to individual members more than to entire group

Building Trust and Cohesion

1. make outcomes visible -don't just say "working on it" -show that you're working on it 2. celebrate milestones 3. use shared working space 4. incorporate ongoing feedback 5. create opportunities to showcase competence

Performance Management Process

1. set performance expectations -choose the right person for the job -job description provides standards for both selection and performance management 2. asses performance and provide feedback 3. construct reward systems to ensure behavior continues

Types of Group Diversity

1. surface-level diversity -gender, race -increases group conflict (especially in the early stages of a group's tenure = lowers group moral and raises dropout rates) 2. deep-level diversity -groups in which members' values or opinions differ tend to experience more conflict, but leaders who can group to focus on task at hand and encourage group learning are able to reduce these conflicts and enhance discussion of group issues -diversity in propensity to trust can cause downward trust spirals, which fuels conflict and further erodes trust over time 3. functional diversity -differences in skills, abilities, or other characteristics needed for the job -may improve team performance and innovation (contingent on several factors) ₀can influence team creativity by facilitating knowledge sharing ₀leadership plays substantial role: great leaders bring disparate skills together to do great work

General: Personality Traits and Leadership

1. traits can predict leadership 2. traits do a better job in predicting the emergence of leaders and the appearance of leadership than in distinguishing b/w effective and ineffective leaders

Standard Team Norms

1. treat each other with dignity and respect 2. be present during meetings (no phones, side conversations, etc.) 3. be genuine about ideas, challenges, and feelings 4. listen to understand 5. assume good intent -before you get defensive 6. share information/use shared workspace 7. be in regular communication/respond ASAP 8. expect editing and revision -make it a norm! -go in expecting that your work won't necessarily be the final product -put ego aside